GALGOTIAS COLLEGE OF ENGG.

& TECHNOLOGY

A
SEMINAR REPORT
ON
TOUCH SCREEN
TECHNOLOGY

PRESENTED
BY:
 SEEMA
SINGH
080971008
6
CS-B

INDEX
1. Introduction
2. Information about DNA
3. DNA manipulations
4. Aldeman’s Experiment
5. DNA computers
6. Advantages
7. Hurdles
8. Present and future scenario
9. Conclusion
10. References
1. INTRODUCTION

DNA Computer can store billions of times more information then your
PC hard
drive and solve complex problems in a less time.We know that
computer chip
manufacturers are racing to make the next microprocessor that will
more faster.
Microprocessors made of silicon will eventually reach their limits of
speed and
miniaturization. Chips makers need a new material to produce faster
computing speeds.

To understand DNA computing lets first examine how the conventional

computer process information. A conventional computer performs
mathematical
operations by using electrical impulses to manipulate zeroes and ones
on silicon chips. A DNA computer is based on the fact the information
is “encoded” within
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as as patterns of molecules known as
nucleotides. By manipulating the how the nucleotides combine with
each other the DNA computer can be made to process data. The
branch of computers dealing with DNA computers is called DNA
Computing.

The concept of DNA computing was born in 1993, when Professor

Leonard
Adleman, a mathematician specializing in computer science and
cryptography
accidentally stumbled upon the similarities between conventional
computers and DNA while reading a book by James Watson. A little
more than a year after this, In 1994, Leonard M. Adleman, a professor
at the University of Southern California, created a storm of excitement
in the computing world when he announced that he had solved a
famous computation problem. This computer solved the traveling
salesman problem also known as the “Hamiltonian path"
problem,which is explained later. DNA was shown to have massively
parallel processing capabilities that might allow a DNA based computer
to solve hard computational problems in a reasonable amount of time.

2. INFORMATION ABOUT DNA

“ Deoxyribonucleic acid”. The molecules inside cells that carry genetic

information and pass it from one generation to the next. See mitosis,
chromosomes.We have heard the term DNA a million times. You know
that DNA issomething inside cells .We know that each and every one
looks different and this isbecause of they are having different DNA.
Have you ever wondered how the DNA in ONE egg cell and ONE sperm cell
can produce a whole human being different from any other? How does
DNA direct acell's activities? Why do mutations in DNA cause such
trouble (or have a positiveeffect)? How does a cell in your kidney
"know" that it's a kidney cell as opposed to abrain cell or a skin cell or a
cell in your eye? How can all the information needed toregulate the
cell's activities be stuffed into a tiny nucleus?
A basic tenet is that all organisms on this planet, however complex
they may
Be erceived to be,are made of the same type of genetic blueprint.The
mode by wich that prints coded is the factor that decides our physical
makeup-from color of our eyes what ever we are human.
Genes are made up of DNA ,which is shaped like a twisted ladder with
rungs
made up of molecules called nucleotide bases linked together in
specific pairs.The arangement of these bases along the DNA provides
the cell with instructions on making poteins. DNA is tightly coiled into
rod-shaped structures called chromosomes, which are stored the
nucleus of the cell. There are 22 pairs of chromosomes in each body
cell pus two sex chromosomes.

3. DNA MANIPULATIONS
While a number of equivalent formalizations exist, we follow the
descriptions.
Note that the types of operations available are result of the capability
of molecular biology rather than the wishes of algorithms designers.
Also note that this algorithms are performed in constant time on
testtubes which, for the sake of this discussion, may be of arbitrary
size this operations are :
1) MERGE :
This is the simple operations of combining the contents of two test
tubes in a
third tube.
2) ANNEAL :
This is the process by which complementary strands of DNA are paired
to
form the famous double-helix structure of Watson and crick. Annealing
is achieved by cooling a DNA solution, which encourages pairing.
Adleman uses this in step 1 to generate all legal paths through the
graph.
3) MELT :
Melting is inverse operation of annealing. By heating the contents of a
tube,
double-stranded DNA sequences are denatured, or separated into its
two single-stranded parts.
4) SAPERATION BY LENTH:
The contents of test tube can be separated by increasing length. This
is
achieved by hel electrophoresis, whereby longer strands travel more
slowly through the gel. This operation was used by Adleman in step 3
of his solution to HP.
5) SAPERATION BY LENTH:
This operation allows one to remove from solution all the DNA strands
that
contain a desired sequence. This is performed by generating the
strands whose
complement is the desired sequence. This newly generated strand is
attached to magnetic substance which is used to extract the
sequences after annealing. This operation crux of Alderman’s step 4 .
6) COPYING/AMPLIFICATION:
Copies are made of DNA strands in a test tube. The strands to be
copied must
have known sequences at both the beginning and end in order for this
operation to be performed.
7) APPEND :
This process makes a DNA strand longer by adding a character or
strand to
the end of each sequence.
8) DETECT :
It is also possible to analyze test tube in order to determine whether or
not it
contains atleast one strand of DNA.

4.ALDEMAN’S EXPERIMENT
There is no better way to understand how something works than by
going
through an example step by step. So let’s solve our own directed
Hamiltonian Path problem, using the DNA methods demonstrated by
Adleman. The concepts are the same but the example has been
simplified to make it easier to follow and present. Suppose that I live in
Boston, and need to visit four cities: Atlanta, San Diego ,St.Louis, and
NY, with NY being my final destination. The airline I’m taking has a
specific set of connecting flights that restrict which routes I can take
(i.e. there is a flight from Boston. to San Diego, but no flight from
St.Louis to San Diego). What should my itinerary be if I want to visit
each city only once?
5.DNA COMPUTERS
A Fledgling Technology :

DNA computers can't be found at your local electronics store yet. The
technology is still in development, and didn't even exist as a concept a
decade ago. In 1994, Leonard Adleman introduced the idea of using
DNA to solve complex mathematical problems. Adleman, a computer
scientist at the University of Southern California, came to the
conclusion that DNA had computational potential after reading the
book "Molecular Biology of the Gene," written by James Watson, who
co-discovered the structure of DNA in 1953. In fact, DNA is very similar
to a computer hard drive in how it stores permanent information about
your genes.

Adleman is often called the inventor of DNA computers. His article in a

1994
issue of the journal Science outlined how to use DNA to solve a well-
known
mathematical problem, called the directed Hamilton Path problem, also
known as the "traveling salesman" problem. The goal of the problem is
to find the shortest route between a number of cities, going through
each city only once. As you add more cities to the problem, the
problem becomes more difficult. Adleman chose to find the shortest
route between seven cities.

You could probably draw this problem out on paper and come to a
solution
faster than Adleman did using his DNA test-tube computer. Here are
the steps taken in the Adleman DNA computer experiment:
Strands of DNA represent the seven cities. In genes, genetic coding is
represented by the letters A, T, C and G. Some sequence of these four
letters represented each city and possible flight path.
These molecules are then mixed in a test tube, with some of these
DNA strands
sticking together. A chain of these strands represents a possible
answer.

Within a few seconds, all of the possible combinations of DNA strands,

which
represent answers, are created in the test tube.
6.ADVANTAGES
1) PREDICTABILITY :
DNA’s chemical bases-adenine, thymine,cystosine, and
guanine—hook up in a predictable manner:adenine always links with
thymine and cytosine with guanine. Because of regularity of pattern
Adleman hypothesized that he could use molecules to process data the
same way PCs use microprocessors.
2) DNA DIRECTIONS:
First, DNA is incredibly enery-efficinet.Take ligase, a molecule whose
job is
to stick strands of DNA together. With just one joule of energy – the
amount of energy a human expends to lift one kilogram one meter,
ligase molecules can perform 20x10 the 18th operations, Adleman says.
Thats a million times 20 operations. Such efficiency push computing to
new levels since electronics are limited by the amount of power—and
the heat it gives off—needed to run increasingly sophisticated
operations.
3) INCREDIBLY CHEAP :
DNA is also a wonderful way to store information. One gram of genetic
material, which would occupy about one cubic centimeter, can hold as
much information as 1 trillion CDs, according to Adleman. It’s also
incredibly cheap: Commercial labs sell a molecule of SNA for about
one-thousand trillionth of a cent. The cost is about $30. for a DNA
sequence big enough to compute on. Intel sells its latest P4 chiop for
more than $500. “DNA has been storing the blueprint of life for several
billion years,” says Adleman. “Its powers are untapped legacy for the
21st century.
4) HALF-HOUR TEST :
Researchers developed a process that synthesizes 10,000 different
DNA strands that are known to bond with genes related to specific
diseases such as cancer. The strand are numbered and mixed with
fluid containing genes extracted from the patient. The fluid is than
tested to determine which genes are functioning in the patient’s cells
by reading the number of DNA strands that appear after a series of
biochemical reactions. Researchers can complete a single test in
about 3 hours, about one-half to one-third time taken by conventional
biological
methods.
5) AMAZING TOOL TEST :
Thus, as the complexity of problems increases, the manual labour
require for
DNA computing would outweight the benefits of super fast
computation.
DNA computers have the potential to take computing to new levels,
picking
up where Moore’s law leaves off. There are several advantages of
using DNA instead of silicon:
1) As long as there are cellular organisms, there will always be a
supply of
DNA.
2) The large supply of DNA makes a cheap resource.
3) Unlike the toxic materials use to make traditional microprocessors,
DNA
biochips can be made cleanly.
4) DNA computers are many times smaller than today’s computer.
7.HURDLES

1) Occasionally Slow:
The speed of each process in DNA Computing is still an open issue until
now.
Adleman asserts that the time required for an entire computation
should grow linearly with the size of the graph. This is true as long as
the creation of each edge does not require a separate process.

2) Hydrolysis:
The DNA molecules can fracture. Over the six months you're
computing, your
DNA system is gradually turning to water. DNA molecules can break –
meaning a DNA molecule, which was part of your computer, is fracture
by time. DNA can deteriorate. As time goes by, your DNA computer
may start to dissolve. DNA can get damaged as it waits around in
solutions and the manipulations of DNA are prone to error.

3) Information Untransmittable
The model of the DNA computer is concerned as a highly parallel
computer,
with each DNA molecule acting as a separate process. In a standard
multiprocessor connection-buses transmit information from one
processor to the next. But the problem of transmitting information
from one molecule to another in a DNA computer has not yet to be
solved.

4) Reliability Problems:
Errors in DNA Computers happen due to many factors. There are a
variety of
errors that can come along with experimentation. Typical errors are
annealing errors, errors in PCR, errors during affinity separation
(Purification).

8. PRESENT AND FUTURE SCENARIO

In 2000, Gardner and his colleagues James Collins and Charles Cantor,
both
also of Boston University, built a memory device in E. coli out of two
inverters for
which the output protein of one is the input protein of the other, and
vice versa. In the year, Michael Elowitz and Stanislas Leibler of
Rockefeller University in New
York City made an oscillator in which three inverters are connected in a
loop so that the output protein of each inverter is the input protein of
the next inverter. In one test of their system, a fluorescent protein
became active whenever one of the proteins was in its low state. The
result was a population of gently twinkling cells like flashing holiday
lights, Elowitz says. "It was very beautiful," he says.
Are there enough repressor proteins available to create useful
computational
machinery? Note that interference between logic gates is not the only
potential
problem; the repressor molecules taking part in the computation must
also be distinct from those involved in the normal metabolism of the
cell. Otherwise, a physiological upset could lead to a wrong answer; or,
conversely, a computation might well poison the cell in which it is
running. A toxic instruction might actually be useful—any multitasking
computer must occasionally “kill” a process—but unintended events of
this kind would be a debugging nightmare. You can’t just reboot a
dead bacterium. Nature faces the same problem: A multitude of
metabolic pathways have to be kept under control without unwanted
cross talk. As a result, cells have evolved thousands of distinct
regulatory proteins. Moreover, the Biocomputing engineer will be able
to mix and match among molecules and binding sites that may never
occur together in the natural world. The aim of the RRL design rules is
to identify a set of genes and proteins that can be encapsulated as
black-box components, to be plugged in as needed without any
thought about conflicts.

9.CONCLUSION
This is becoming one of the most exciting fields. I’ll conclude this paper
by just
sharing a vision for the future in which a single drop of water holds a
veritable army of living robots; in which people download software
updates not for their computers, but for their bacteria; and in which
specially programmed cells course through a person's arteries,
monitoring blood sugar concentrations and keeping an eye out for
cholesterol buildups. These scenarios still belong to the realm of
science fiction—but implanting computer programs into living
creatures may not be far away. In the past few years, scientists have
taken the first steps towards creating a host of cellular robots that are
programmed to carry out tasks such as detecting and cleaning up
environmental pollutants, tracking down cancer cells in a body, and
manufacturing antibiotics or molecular-scale electronic components.
These researchers have imported notions of electrical engineering—
digital logic, memory, and oscillators—into the realm of biology.

12 REFERENCES

Web sites:-

http://www.dna.htm/
www.howstuffsworks.com

www.iit.edu

www.dna.com

www.gene.com

Magazine:-

Information Technology