The Competitive

Advantage
Of
Small and Medium Sized
Enterprises:

The Case of Jordan’s Natural Stone

Industry

Suhail Sami Sultan

ISBN 978 90 5278 642 1

Copyright ©Suhail S. Sultan, Maastricht 2007

Production: Datawyse /Universitaire Pers Maastricht
 The Competitive Advantage
Of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises:
The Case of Jordan’s Natural Stone Industry

PROEFSCHRIFT

ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor

aan de Universiteit Maastricht,
op gezag van de Rector Magnificus, Prof. mr. G.P.M.F. Mols,
volgens het besluit van het College van Decanen
in het openbaar te verdedigen op donderdag 27 september 2007

door

Suhail Sami Sultan

UM
P

UNIVERSITAIRE
PERS MAASTRICHT
Promotor:

Prof. dr. Luc L.G. Soete

Co-promotor:

Prof. dr. Dragan Nikolik (Maastricht School of Management)

Beoordelingscommissie:

Prof. dr. C. de Neubourg (voorzitter)

Prof. dr. Ilan Bijaoui (College of Ashqelon, Bar Ilan University)
Prof. dr. P. Mohnen
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

page
LIST OF FIGURES v

LIST OF TABLES vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENT vii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Natural Stone and Jordan 4
1.1.1. Historical Background 4
1.1.2. Current Situation 7
1.2. Competitive Advantage as a Conceptual Framework 13
1.3. Research Problem, Objective, Questions, Hypotheses, Methodology 20
and Overview of the Dissertation
1.3.1. Research Problem 20
1.3.2. Research Objective 22
1.3.3. Research Questions 23
1.3.4. Research Hypotheses 24
1.3.5. Research Methodology 26
1.3.6. Overview of the Dissertation 29
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 32
2.1. Competitive Advantage 32
2.1.1. Definitions of Competitive Advantage 33
2.1.2. Balanced Scored Card 35
2.1.3. Porter’s Diamond 37
2.1.4. From Diamond to Clusters 41
2.1.5. Porter’s Five Forces Model 43
2.1.6. Obstacles to Business Growth 45
2.2. Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs) 47
2.2.1. Definitions of the SMEs 47
2.2.2. Theory of Small Firm Growth 49
2.2.3. The SMEs’ Strategies 53
2.2.3.1. Porter’s Generic Strategies 53
2.2.3.2. Innovation Strategy 54
2.2.3.3. Network and Cluster Strategy 56
2.2.3.4. Flexibility Strategy 57
2.3. Information and Communications Technology (ICT) 58
2.3.1. Challenges of the ICT 58
2.3.2. Applications of the ICT and the SMEs 61
2.3.3. Competitive Elements and the ICT 64
2.4. Summary 67

i
CHAPTER THREE THE AGENDA OF JORDAN, TURKEY AND 69
ITALY
3.1. The Economy of Jordan, Turkey and Italy 69
3.1.1. The Economy of Jordan 71
3.1.2. The Economy of Turkey 78
3.1.3. The Economy of Italy 84
3.2. The Natural Stone Sector 88
3.2.1. The Jordanian Natural Stone Sector 94
3.2.2. The Turkish Natural Stone Sector 96
3.2.3. The Italian Natural Stone Sector 97
3.3. Summary 100
CHAPTER FOUR RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 102
4.1. Sample Demographic 103
4.2. Quantitative Research Method 108
4.2.1. Structured Interviews 108
4.2.2. Pre-test Phase 109
4.2.3. Analyzing Quantitative Data 110
4.2.4. Reliability and Validity 111
4.3. Qualitative Research Method 113
4.4. Non-Response and Tendency to Respond Differently 115
4.5. Summary 118
CHAPTER FIVE FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 119
5.1. Competitive Factors Confronting SMEs Working in Processing the 123
Natural Stone Sector (Jordan, Turkey and Italy)
5.1.1. Factor Conditions 124
5.1.2. Demand Conditions 127
5.1.3. Related and Supporting Industries 129
5.1.4. Porter’s Five Forces Model (Jordan, Turkey and Italy) 130
5.1.5. Balanced Scored Card 134
5.2. SMEs’ Legal Form in Jordan 138
5.3. Generic Strategies 144
5.4. The ICT and the Natural Stone Sector (Jordan, Turkey and Italy) 149
5.5. The SWOT Analysis of the Jordanian SMEs 154
5.5.1. Opportunities 155
5.5.2. Strengths 159
5.5.3. Threats 160
5.5.4. Weaknesses 161
5.6. Labor Productivity 164
5.7. Incomparability of Measurement 172
5.8. Policy Options 175
5.8.1. Updating and Simplifying the Laws and Regulations 175
5.8.2. Upgrading the Advanced and Specialized Infrastructure 175
5.8.3. Promoting the Entrepreneurship and Upgrading Personnel 176
5.8.4. Establishing Credit Institutions to Support the SMEs 177
5.8.5. Promoting E-Business in the Natural Stone Industry 178
5.8.6. Building a Dynamic Natural Stone Cluster 181

ii
 5.9. Three-Level Approaches 184
5.9.1. The SME-Level 184
5.9.2. Related and Supporting Industry-Level 185
5.9.2.1. Board of the Natural Stone Cluster 186
5.9.2.2. Management of the Cluster 190
5.9.2.3. Centers 191
5.9.2.4. Network of the Cluster 193
5.9.2.5. New Start-Ups 194
5.9.3. Government-Level 195
5.10. Economic Development of the Natural Stone Industry in Jordan 198
5.11. Summary 200
CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH 203
6.1. Main results 203
6.1.1. Research Hypotheses 205
6.1.2. Significance of the Research 209
6.1.2.1. Academic Significance of the Research 208
6.1.2.2. Empirical Significance of the Research 209
6.2. Limitations and Obstacles 212
6.3. Recommendations for Future Research 213

APPENDICES
A-1 Questionnaire (English) 215
A-2 Questionnaire (Arabic) 220
A-3 Questionnaire (Italian) 225
A-4 Questionnaire (Turkish) 230
B-1 Testing Normality 235
B-2 Testing Homogeneity of Variance 238
B-3 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) 241
B-4 The Profile of the Ten Jordanian SMEs 243
B-5 Semi-Structured Interview Protocol - SMEs 245
B-6 Semi-Structured Interview - Institutes 247
C General Information (Jordan, Turkey and Italy) 248
D-1 Mean Rank – Jordan, Turkey and Italy 251
D-2 Mann-Whytney Test – Jordan and Turkey 258
D-3 Mann-Whytney Test – Jordan 2003 and Jordan 2006 262
E Tukey HSD – Generic Strategies and Competitive Advantage 271
F Test Statistics 272
F-1 Test Statistic One Way Analysis of Variance (One-Way ANOVA) 273
F-2 Test Statistic - The Kruskal-Wallis Test 275
F-3 Test Statistic - The Mann-Whitney Test 276
G Descriptive Statistics 277
G-1 Descriptive Statistics – Factor Conditions 278
G-2 Descriptive Statistics – Demand Conditions 279
G-3 Descriptive Statistics – Related and Supporting Industries 280
G-4 Descriptive Statistics – Five Forces 281
G-5 Descriptive Statistics – Balanced Scored Card 282

iii
G-6 Descriptive Statistics – The ICT Impact 287
H Regression Analysis 288
I-1 Incomparability of Measurement in Survey Research within Countries 289
(Jordan, Turkey, and Italy)
I-2 Incomparability of Measurement in Survey Research between Countries 292
(Jordan, Turkey, and Italy)
I-3 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test 297
I-4 Runs Test 301

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 304

GLOSSARY 321

NEDERLANDSE SAMENVATTING (SUMMARY IN DUTCH) 330

CURRICULUM VITAE 333

iv
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure page
1.1. Photo of Petra, Jordan 5
1.2. Photo of the Roman Theater – Amman, Jordan 5
1.3. Photo of Jerash, Jordan 6
1.4. Natural Stone Gross Output - Jordan 7
1.5. Exports and Imports - Jordan 9
1.6. Distribution of Jordan’s Imports 10
1.7. Distribution of Jordanian Exports (area) 10
1.8. Cost Structure (2000) 11
1.9. Competitive Advantage as a Conceptual Framework 14
2.1. The Determinants of National Advantage 40
2.2. The Five Competitive Forces 45
2.3. The SMEs’ Competitiveness Model (Man and Chan) 51
2.4. Framework for the Competitive Advantage in Small Firms 52
2.5. Linking SME Classification through the MIT90s Model 60
2.6. Five-Levels of IT-induced Reconfiguration 61
3.1. The Natural Stone Industry Chain 93
4.1. Population Fraction 103
4.2. Sample Fraction 106
5.1. Porter’s Model of Five Forces 130
5.2. The Industry Structure of the Natural stone SMEs in Jordan 133
5.3. The SMEs Output - Jordan 164
5.4. The SMEs' Output Gap - Jordan 165
5.5. The SMEs' Output - Turkey 165
5.6. The SMEs' Output Gap - Turkey 166
5.7. The SMEs' Output - Italy 166
5.8. The SMEs' Output Gap - Italy 167
5.9. Regression Line - Jordan 168
5.10. Regression Line - Turkey 169
5.11. Regression Line - Italy 170
5.12. Regression Lines – Jordan, Turkey and Italy 171
5.13. Current Natural Stone Cluster 180
5.14. The Natural Stone Cluster Model (NSCM) 186

v
 LIST OF TABLES
Table page
1.1. Structure of Marble Manufacturers- Jordan 12
2.1. Four Competitive Scenarios for SMEs and ICT 59
3.1. Growth and Business Competitiveness Indices of Jordan, Turkey and Italy 70
3.2. Major Economic Indicators - Jordan 72
3.3. The Main Economic Indicators for the Turkish Economy 79
3.4. Manufacturing Enterprises in Turkey 80
3.5. SME Definitions Used in Turkey and the European Union 81
3.6. The Main Economic Indicators of the Italian Economy 84
3.7. List of Countries in ICT Intensity Groups 87
3.8. World Stone Production with Respect to Colors (2002) 89
3.9. World Consumption Distribution 90
3.10. World Import and Export of the Year 2000 90
3.11. Countries in the World Natural Stone Exports (2003) 91
3.12. Major Importing Countries (2002) 91
3.13. Area of Use of Natural Stone 91
3.14. Expected World Growth of Natural Stone Trade 92
3.15. Jordan-Production of Natural Stone 95
3.16. Italian Production of Natural Stone (1997-2001) in Metric Tons 99
4.1. Sampling Frame for Jordan, Turkey and Italy 104
4.2. Sampling Size 105
4.3. The Link Between the Variables and the Questionnaire 109
4.4. Reliability (Cronbach Alpha) 111
4.5. List of Institutions Visited 114
5.1. Kruskal-Wallis Test- Factor Conditions 124
5.2. Kruskal-Wallis Test- Demand Conditions 127
5.3. Kruskal-Wallis Test- Related and Supporting Industries 130
5.4. Kruskal-Wallis Test- Five Competitive Forces 131
5.5. Kruskal-Wallis Test- Balanced Scored Card 135
5.6. Legal Form of SMEs in Jordan 138
5.7. One-Way ANOVA -Companies and Relationship Preferences 139
5.8. Doing Business (Jordan, Turkey and Italy) 142
5.9. Generic Strategies - Scenarios 144
5.10. Generic Strategies - Summary 145
5.11. Generic Strategies versus Countries 146
5.12. Kruskal-Wallis Test – Generic Strategies and Competitive Advantage 147
5.13. Generic Strategies and Competitive Advantage - Mean 148
5.14. Kruskal-Wallis Test – Impact of the ICT 150
5.15. Customer Tariff to US 156
5.16. Customer Tariff on US Products 156
5.17. Customer Tariff to EU 157
5.18. Matrix of the SWOT 163
5.19. Regression Coefficient - Jordan 167
5.20. Regression Coefficient - Turkey 168
5.21 Regression Coefficient - Italy 169

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The completion of this dissertation is the result of the efforts of many people. My
sincere thanks are extended to my supervisors, Prof. Dr. Luc Soete, and Prof. Dr. Dragan
Nikolik. They spared neither time nor effort to help this work come into being. They
read the entire work to offer their comments in the true spirit of friendly and constructive
criticism. Such criticism is so valuable that I felt both privileged and blessed to receive it.
Their enthusiasm and support have been illuminating even through periods of outright
panic.

I also wish to extend my deep thanks to Prof. Dr. Tuninga and Prof. Dr. Daoud Zatari for
their support. I would like to extend my thanks to all teachers and employees at
Maastricht School of Management, and I would like to send special thanks to Mr.
Meinhard Gans and Mr. Patrick Martens who have been extremely generous in financial
help.

I gratefully acknowledge the help and the encouragement of my colleagues and my

faithful friends Dr. Ilan Bijaoui, Mr. Kaldoun Zughair, Mr. Bassam Banat and Dr. Adnan
Shehada for their technical support.

I am also grateful to my mother, brothers and sisters for their support and encouragement.
My deepest and unending thanks go to my wife for her enthusiasm and support that
cheered me up when my spirit lagged, eyes blurred, and typing fingers grew numb.

vii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

There has been a belief among economists and others that natural resources are a blessing
which means that countries richly endowed with natural resources have an advantage
over countries that are not. Natural resources endowments have helped many countries to
grow and diversify, in part by providing a basis for developing associated technologies
and capital goods industries (Gaitan and Roe 2005; Ding and Field 2004). That is why
people moved to where natural resources were abundant1 - for example to Australia and
to oil-rich countries in the Middle East.

Since the end of World War II, the picture has been changed. Natural resources are less
often a blessing. Many countries including Iraq, Nigeria, and many other mineral wealthy
countries have not translated into economic and social well-being for the majority of the
population (Sachs and Warner 2001). The Dutch disease2 is perhaps the most well-known
effect of natural resource rents on the real economy. Another problem, of resource-rich
economies is volatility, with cycles of boom and bust. Unless a resource-rich economy
has a large non-resource based tradable sector to begin with, the uncertainty associated
with cycles of boom and bust can reinforce a downward cycle (Gylfason and Zoega
2001).

1
There are many ways to define natural resource abundance- for example as the share of natural resources
in the gross domestic product (GDP) or exports.
2
High exports of natural resources cause an appreciation of a country's real exchange rate, which moves its
productive resources away from tradable such as manufactured goods.

1
In the Middle East, most of the research studies that discuss the relationship between the
natural resources and the economic growth focus on the oil and gas and ignoring other
natural resources such as the natural stone. The production and trade in natural stone
began to spread from Europe to other countries at the beginning of the 19th century. In
1926, 1.5 million tons of stone were produced in a total of 42 countries (Stone 2003). In
2003, the annual global production of natural stone blocks has risen to 75 million tones.
Almost (50%) of this consists of marble and other colored stones, (40%) of granite and
other hard stones and (10%) of travertine and onyxes (Stone 2003).

Jordan is rich with the mineral resources such as phosphate, potash and natural stone.
Unfortunately, the history of the Jordanian stone industry in recent years is not well
documented (UNIDO 2004). The Little historical data are available about the importance
of the industry to the development of the country, since its independence in 1946. The
Jordanian firms did not export significant amounts of their local stones until the year
2001 (UNIDO 2004). Jordanian marbles are of particular interest for the export markets
with golden color tones, beige and pink and beige and gray or darker gray colored tones.
All of these good qualities are good-natured to good polish. In addition, there is a specific
variety of light beige limestone. In addition to the unique types, the red stone is found in
the central region of Jordan (JMOP 2003).

Most natural stone processing companies in Jordan started business since 1960s and
1970s by importing marble and granite from Palestine, Italy, Spain and Portugal,
processing them locally and selling them in the domestic and regional markets
(JOSTONE 2003). The main reason for not extracting natural stone before 1990s is that
the majority of the natural stone stock in Jordan is located in the western part of the
country and most of these areas were considered closed military zones before the peace
agreement between Israel and Jordan has been signed in 1994; it was very difficult to get
a license to start up a quarry especially where dynamites were used to extract stones
(JMOP 2003).

2
The question raises is why there is a difference in performance across resource-rich
countries. Successful management of a natural resource calls for a combination of
policies and institutions. On the economic policy side, counter-cyclical stabilization
policies have a critical role to play, as do policies that maintain the competitiveness. On
the institutional front, institutions such as transparency, and checks and balances on the
use of rents, that increase the costs of nonproductive activities can help countries to move
away from rent-seeking equilibrium to more dynamic, diversified and growing
economies (Toman 2003).

In this introductory chapter, the natural stone sector in Jordan is presented. Furthermore,
the competitive advantage as a conceptual framework is discussed. Additionally, the
research problem, objective, questions and hypotheses are described with an overview to
the contents of the chapters discussed in the dissertation.

3
1. 1. Natural Stone and Jordan

This section presents the historical background and the current status of the natural stone
sector in Jordan. The question that comes to the mind after reading this section is whether
the stone industry can assist in building the economy in the Hashemite Kingdom of
Jordan as it did in ancient Jordan or not?.

1.1.1. Historical Background

The land of Jordan is a geographic-prize area which changed hands many times
throughout antiquity. Parts of Jordan were included in the dominions of ancient Iraq,
including the Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, Assyrian and Mesopotamian Empires.
From the west, Pharaonic Egypt extended its power and culture into Jordan, while the
nomadic Nabateans built their empire in Jordan after migrating from the south of the
Arabian Peninsula. Jordan, as well, was incorporated into the classical civilizations of
Greece, Rome and Persia. Since the mid-seventh century CE, the land of Jordan has
remained almost continuously in the hands of various Arab and Islamic dynasties (JTB
2005).

Although Petra (figure 1.1) was inhabited by the Edomites before the arrival of the
Nabateans, the latter carved grandiose buildings, temples and tombs out of solid
sandstone rock. Petra is about 3-4 hours driving south of modern Amman on the edges of
the mountainous desert of Wadi Araba. The city is surrounded by towering hills of rust-
colored sandstone, which gave the city some natural protection against invaders. The site
allowed the Nabataeans to carve their temples and tombs easily into the rocks (JTB
2005).

4
 Figure 1.1. Photo of Petra, Jordan

Source: JTB 2005

Amman, ancient Philadelphia, was built approximately 7000 BC (JTB 2005). It is one of
the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. There are many Biblical references
to the city, which by about 1200 BC had become the Ammonite capital of Rabbath-
Ammon. The Roman Theater (figure 1.2) is the most impressive historical object of
ancient Philadelphia. The theater, which was built during the control of Antonius Pius
(138-161 BC), is cut into the northern side of a hill that once served as a graveyard. It is
very similar in design to the amphitheater at Jerash, and can accommodate 6000
spectators. The theater is still used periodically for cultural events (JMOTA 2005).

Figure1.2. Photo of the Roman Theater-Amman,

Source: JTB 2005

5
Jerash, which was established in the first century AD, is one of the most attractive sites in
Jordan (JTB 2005). This city (figure 1.3) is located to the north of Amman in a fertile and
well-watered valley. Theaters and temples were continuously added during the
occupation of the Roman Empire. The South Theater, the biggest of Jerash's three
amphitheaters, is used for activities of international music and dance groups at Jerash
annual summer festivals (JMOTA 2005).

Figure 1.3. Photo of Jerash, Jordan

Source: JTB 2005

Ajloun Castle, more formally known as Qualm er-Rabad, is the major ancient site within
the Ajloun forests region. It towers above the green hills and can be seen from many
miles away, betraying its strategic purpose as a military watch post that protected the
trade routes in the 12th-15th centuries. Inside, the castle is a labyrinth of vaulted
passages, winding staircases, long ramps, enormous rooms that served as dining halls,
dormitories, and stables, a total of 11 water cisterns, and the private quarters of the Lord
of the Castle (complete with a small stone bathtub and rectangular windows that convert
into arrow-slits for defensive purposes) (JTB 2005).

6
1.1.2. Current Situation

Jordan’s mining industry is one of the main contributors to economic growth and a
principal generator of national income. The government of Jordan paid special attention
to this sector and gave the Natural Resources Authority (NRA) the responsibility of
supervising the exploring, prospecting and mining activities in Jordan. Investment in the
mining sector in 2000 was 1.12 billion US dollar. The extractive industries share of this
investment is (67.8%), while the remaining (32.2%) are investments in manufacturing
industries, which depend on mining products. The contribution of exports of the mining
sector to national export for the years (1995-2001) ranges from 37-45% (NRA 2003).
Large-scale industries in Jordan consist mainly of phosphate and potash mining. Exports
of phosphate, potash and cement represented 90% of the mining sector’s export in 1999
(JIB 2003).

Today the Jordanian stone industry experienced a significant growth due to the recent
trade agreements with the US and the EU. Since then, the stone industry has received a
lot of attention, and is expanding. Figure (1.4) shows the continuous growth of the natural
stone from 1997 till 2003. Large investments, using the state of the art technology, are
being deployed to achieve such goals (JMOP 2003). The processing equipment utilized
by the Jordanian companies had a positive trend over the past 10 years with a (250%)
increase during the years 2000-2002 (JMOP 2003).

Figure 1.4 Natural Stone Gross Output - Jordan

50
40

USD 30
(million) 20

10
0
97 98 99 00 01 02 03

Source: JMOIT 2005

7
In addition to the openness of the Jordanian economy, the internal political stability under
the Hashemite leadership represented by His Majesty King Abdullah II promotes long
term investments in Jordan. Furthermore, many Palestinians and Iraqis moved to live and
invest in Jordan due to the unstable situation in their countries. As well, the less tighten
procedures for issuing permits to start up quarries and the availability of the infrastructure
which supports the natural stone firms in their extractive activities assists the growth of
the industry (for example, in 2001 about 60 quarry permits were issued (JMOP 2003)).

Figure (1.5) shows that the volume of imports is higher than the volume of exports during
years (1997-2002), but the situation is completely changes in the years 2003 and 2004.
The volume of exports increases in an unexpected way. The reasons that may explain the
increase in the volume of exports are: the increase in the gross output of the natural stone;
the opening up of the economy; and the increase in the demand of the Jordanian natural
stone in the international markets. However, still there are stones in Jordan that have to
be developed into marketable stone material (JMOIT 2005). The decrease in the volume
of imported material could be explained by different reasons: the greater part of the
natural stone sector in Jordan is covered by the local products due to its relatively low
price, high quality, and short delivery time. In addition, the imports from Italy decreased
due to the high prices of the Italian marble as well the import from Palestine has also
decreased due to the Israeli restrictions on the borders3.

3
Almost 77% of Jordan's imports are from Italy and Palestine. Jordan imports blocks from Palestine,
processing these blocks in Jordan and selling the final products in Jordan or abroad. While the high-class
Jordanians import the Italian marble for the luxury uses. Recently, the Jordanians started to import marble
and granite from Egypt, China, and India but still in small quantities.

8
 Figure 1.5. Exports and Imports - Jordan

40
35
30
25
20 Import
Export
15
10
5
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Source: MIT 2005

Figure (1.6) shows the distribution of Jordan’s natural stone imports in 2000. The bulk
imports mainly from Italy, which represent (65%), Palestine (12%), other Arab countries
(5%) and others (18%). The Jordanians import the colored marble especially the green
one from Italy for the luxury uses. This imported quantity has decreased as shown in
figure (1.5). However, the incidence of intra-industry trade is generally associated with
good growth performance (Edwards 1998; Rodrik and Rodriguez 2000; and Wacziarg
and Welch 2002).

The extensive production in Jordan is focused on three kinds of natural stones: limestone,
granite and marble. The limestone is distributed in Ma’an area, 210 km South of Amman,
Azraq area, 90 km East of Amman, El-Ala area, 15 km South of Amman and Ajlun area,
50 km North of Amman. The granite is distributed in Aqaba area. While marble, is
thermo-metamorphosed fully re-crystallized limestone, consists of semi-crystallized
green, brown, dark violet and black (JMOP 2003).

9
 Figure 1.6. Distribution of Jordan’s Imports (2000)

Italy

Palestine

Other Arab
Countries
Others

Source: JMOP 2003

Figure (1.7) presents the distribution of the Jordanian exports. Jordan exports almost 15-
20% of its total marble production; (82%) of these exports are directed to the following
five markets: Israel, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, the USA, and Singapore. It is noticed that
the Saudi Arabia and the USA markets are the highest potential markets for the Jordanian
high value added products (JMOP 2003). The USA imports of the different Jordanian
marble products increased by (42%) during (1999-2002). However, Turkey and Israel are
the leaders in the region in exporting marble to the US market (JMOP 2003).

Figure 1.7. Distribution of Jordanian Exports (area)

Israel
Lebanon
S.A.
USA
Singapore
Others

Source: JMOP 2003

10
The raw material constitutes almost of (66%) of the final product’s total cost structure in
Jordan (JMOP 2003) as shown in figure (1.8). The high cost of the raw material is mainly
due to the high demand on quarries that leads to the increase in the prices of lands in
Jordan. Furthermore, the low level of skilled labor increases inefficiency and thereby
increases cost. Additionally, the problems of extending electricity cables forced some
producers to have their own generators. Some producers are forced to obtain water in
tanks due to water insufficiency. Besides, the old machinery leads to high maintenance
costs, and limits the flexibility in the existing processes. Also, the high impurities in local
materials, that require product treatment to be undergone, increase the cost of production.

Figure 1.8. Cost Structure (2000)

Raw Material

Labor

Utilities

Other
Expenditures
Indirect Taxes

Maintenance

Source: JMOP 2003

In Jordan, there are more than 600 firms working in the natural stone field employing
around 4200 people. Out of these firms, there are 244 firms4 (40% of the firms working
in the natural stone sector) working in processing the natural stone sector and employing
around 2135 workers (50% of the people who are working in the natural stone sector in

4
The percent of the SMEs working in processing the natural stone sector represents 1% of the SMEs
working in Jordan

11
Jordan). As shown in table (1.1) the industry is dominated by small-sized enterprises that
constitute 92% of the sector, employing about (52%) of the total industry workforce
(JMOIT 2005).

Table 1.1. Structure of Marble Manufacturers – Jordan

Small Scale Medium Scale Large Scale
Number of firms 225 15 4
Number of employees 1115 670 350
Investment scale Less than $352,000 ($352,000 – More than
$1,400,000) $1,400,000
Source: JMOIT 2005

As a conclusion, the abovementioned data shows that there is a big opportunity that the
stone industry can assist in building the economy of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan as
it did in ancient Jordan.

12
1.2. Competitive Advantage as a Conceptual Framework

Competitiveness, as explained by Porter (1990), can be defined at three levels: firm,

industry and nation. Measures of the competitiveness at the firm level include firm's
profitability, firm's exports, and market share (JMOP 2003). Measures of the
competitiveness at the industry level include the firms' profitability, the industry's trade
balance, and the balance of outbound and inbound foreign direct investment (JMOP
2003). While at the national level, competitiveness means the citizens’ ability to achieve
a high and constantly rising standard of living. A high and rising standard of living for all
nationals can be sustained by the continuous improvement of productivity (Porter 1990).

This research discusses the competitiveness of the firms that are working in processing
the natural stone sector in Jordan for two reasons. First, the researcher believes that the
competitiveness at the firm's level is the cornerstone of the competitiveness at the
industry and national levels. Second, the researcher did not find sufficient data at the
industry or national level in Jordan. Quarries are not included in the study since most of
them are randomly located and not officially registered.

In his book "The Competitive Advantage of Nations", Porter (1990) developed the
diamond model. Porter discusses four elements in this model: factor conditions, demand
conditions, related and supporting industries, and firm's strategy, structure and rivalry. As
well, Porter's five forces model (1979) and Porter's value and supply chains are still used
for the analysis of industry and firm and in order to measure the competitiveness at the
firm's level, the concept of the Balanced Scored Card (Kaplan and Norton 1992) is used.
The four measures of the Balanced Scored Card are: financial performance, customer's
satisfaction, internal business, and ability to innovate.

By the emergence of the new economy, the impact of information and communications
technology (ICT) can not be disregarded. That is why the impact of the ICT on the level
of competitiveness by analyzing the impact of the ICT on different competitive elements
such as time, cost, and flexibility. Figure (1.9) presents the framework of the competitive
advantage that is used in this study. It consists of macroenvironment context,

13
microeconomic context (Porter's diamond), Porter's five forces, value chain, strategy,
competitive advantage, and the ICT.

Figure 1.9. Competitive Advantage as a Conceptual Framework

Macro-
Environment

First Hypothesis
Microeconomic
Environment

Third Five Forces

Hypothesis

Competitive
Advantage

Strategy

ICT

Firm Second
Fourth (Value Chain) Hypothesis
Hypothesis

14
Macro environment Context

Environmental scanning and analysis are necessary that a firm can respond to
environmental changes and acts on social, economic, legal, political and ethical
constraints on its activities as follows:

√ Social factors that must be understood include buyer behavior characteristics

such as access to the Internet and perceptions about it as a purchasing tool.
√ Ethical issues include the need to safeguard consumer privacy and security of
details. Privacy issues include collection and dissemination of customer
information, cookies, and the use of direct e-mail.
√ Legal factors to be considered by e-commerce managers include domain name
registration, copyright and data protection.
√ Political factors involve the role of governments in promoting the ICT.
√ Economic factors involve the regional differences in the use of the ICT for
trade.

Porter (1990) argues that macroenvironment are necessary for productivity and
productivity growth but not sufficient. The long-term determinants of productivity are
rooted in the microeconomic conditions such as human capital, research and
development, and physical infrastructure. The focus of this study is on the
microeconomic conditions.

Porter’s Diamond

In his diamond (1990), Porter stresses that competitiveness involves more than just
macroeconomic issues such as deficit, interest rate, and political stability. While
macroeconomic issues are necessary though not sufficient, the long-term determinants of
productivity are rooted in the microeconomic conditions in the economy such as human
capital, research and development capacity, physical infrastructure, and innovation
capacity. The determinants of the national competitive advantage are grouped in four
categories (Porter 1990). The categories are factor conditions, demand conditions, related
and supporting industries, and firm's strategy, structure and rivalry.

15
Porter (1990) shows that nations gain competitive advantage in industries where the
demanding buyers put pressure on companies to innovate in order to achieve competitive
advantage. A nation’s success depends largely on the types of education its people choose
and the type of work. Moreover, the presence of domestic rivalry is an essential incentive
for the creation and the sustainability of competitive advantage. The related and
supporting industries provide close working relationships whereby suppliers and users are
located in proximity of each other that take an advantage of short lines of
communication, quick and constant flow of information, and ongoing exchange of ideas
and innovations. However, clusters are becoming increasingly popular as a policy tool for
competitiveness. Porter (1990) defines clusters as “geographic concentrations of
interconnected companies and institutions in a particular field. Clusters encompass an
array of linked industries and other entities important to competition.”

Moreover, the factor conditions refer to the nation’s circumstances in the factors of
production, such as skilled labor, land, natural resources, infrastructure, and capital
necessary to compete within a given industry. These factors can be classified into basic
factors and advanced factors, and as generalized and specialized factors. However, the
role of governments in the competitive development of an industry is an important but
indirect one, mainly through influencing the four major determinants of the competitive
advantage.

Porter’s Five Forces

Porter (1979, 1980, 1985) explains the existence of the above-normal profit as an
indicator of the firm’s competitive advantage. His starting point was the “Structure-
Conduct-Performance (SCP)” paradigm (Van Gils 2000). In this paradigm, the industry-
structure determines the firm’s conduct (e.g. pricing, advertising), which in turn
determines the economic performance. Porter interpreted this line of thought by
substituting conduct with strategy, and argued that the firm performance is dependent on
the industry structure. Porter (1985) explains that the industry structure is relatively
stable, but can change over the time as an industry evolves and the strength of the five
competitive forces varies from one industry to another. The five forces determine the

16
industry profitability because they influence the price, cost, and the required investment
of the firms in an industry. These competitive forces are the entry of new competitors, the
threat of substitutes, the bargaining power of buyers, the bargaining power of suppliers,
and the rivalry among the existing competitors (Porter 1979).

Generic Strategies

Porter (1979, 1980) determines three generic strategies firms can posses: the cost
leadership, differentiation and focus. Sources of cost advantage, likely to be rare, include
learning-curve economies, differential low-cost access to factors of production, and
technology. Firms can differentiate their products in different ways: product features,
linkages between functions, timing, location, product mix, links with other firms, product
customization, product complexity, consumer marketing, distribution channels, service
and support, and reputation. Firms focus on a particular market niche, and company
resources are devoted to maintain market leadership in that niche.

The extent of the ICT threats will be dependent on the particular market a firm operates
in. Generally the threats seem to be greatest for firms currently sell through retail
distributors and have products that can be readily delivered to customers across the
Internet or via parcel courier (Chaffey 2002).

Value Chain

The value chain describes the full range of activities which are required to bring a
product or service from conception, through the different phases of production, delivery
to final consumer, and final disposal after use (Porter 1985). Competitive advantage
grows out of the way as firms organize and perform discrete activities. The performed
activities, when competing within a particular industry, can be grouped into categories, as
these activities can be divided broadly into primary activities and support activities.
Primary activities are those involved in the ongoing production, marketing, delivery, and
servicing of the product whereas support activities are those that provide purchased
inputs, technology, human resources or the overall infrastructure functions supporting the
other activities (Porter 1985).

17
Some of the strengths of value chain analysis are:

√ Benchmarking the strengths and weaknesses of the SMEs.

√ Highlighting the systemic interconnectedness of individual enterprises and linking
in the chain. The SMEs can be interconnected in two main ways, either
horizontally (with other SMEs, producing similar products) or vertically in value
chains.
√ Throwing light on the manner in which producers are connected to global
markets. This is particularly the problem for the SMEs, since by their size, they
are required to sell through intermediaries.

The SMEs in developing countries often find themselves in a double bind through
participating in global value chains. These SMEs suffer from a real technology deficit in
the broad sense. Developing economy SMEs often simply do not have access to the
necessary resources, equipment, materials and professional management skills. Thus, the
impact of globalization on the SMEs in developing countries is thus ambiguous. It opens
up opportunities to benefit from integrating into global value chains. On the other hand, it
raises the barriers to entry into the global value chains.

The ICT enables value networks to be created that enable the value chain to be
dynamically updated in response to marketplace variables. As well, the value chain can
be revised by disaggregation or re-aggregation. Disaggregation may involve outsourcing
inside activities to external parties.

Balanced Scored Card

In this study, the Balanced Scored Card technique (Kaplan and Norton 1992) has been
used to measure the competitiveness of the firms working in processing the natural stone
industry. Kaplan and Norton (1992) explain that the traditional financial measures should
be supplemented with operational measures concerning customer satisfaction, internal
processes and the ability to innovate. These three measures would assure future financial
results, and drive the organization towards its strategic goals while keeping all four
perspectives in balance. Each measure has an impact on other measures (Funk 2003).

18
Financial performance indicators are always lagging indicators. Some of these indicators
are return on investment, profitability, revenue growth, cost reduction and exportation.
The customer perspectives typically include several common outcomes measures. These
are customer satisfaction, customer retention, customer acquisition and market share in
targeted segments. Beyond just retaining customers, many companies wish to measure
the customer’s loyalty by the growth of business with those customers. The internal
process perspective is unique for reach organization. It measures employees’ satisfaction,
employees’ keep on and employees’ productivity. The innovation perspective includes
percentage of new products of total turnover and time necessary to develop new
generation of products (Kaplan and Norton 1992).

Information and Communications Technologies (ICT)

The ICT provides opportunities for firms of all sizes to innovate, increase efficiency and
gain access to new market at home and abroad. Governments should foster appropriate
business environment for the ICT uptake and target programs to overcome market
failures. Policies that affect the adoption and use of the ICT include those designed to
expand and improve the quality of network infrastructure and legal and regulatory
environment, foster technological diffusion and create a favorable business environment.
In addition to the ICT awareness programs, business consultation and training services to
enhance the ICT and managerial skills. However, there is no one-size fits all approach
and policies depend on national circumstances.

Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs) in developing countries need to be able to
figure out how, when, and where to use the ICT techniques to reap the above gains. There
are many obstacles of using the ICT in the developing countries. Some of these obstacles
are: higher costs to access the Internet, language barrier, and the lack of understanding of
e-commerce techniques and the technology needed to use it. Furthermore, the SMEs in
the developing countries are facing more challenges when trying to gain from e-
commerce than businesses in the developed countries. Some of these challenges are
relating to technical infrastructure, laws and regulations, and limited logistics systems
(OECD 2000g).

19
1.3. Research Problem, Objective, Questions, Hypotheses, Methodology and
Overview of the Dissertation

This section discusses the research problem, objective, questions, hypotheses,

methodology and the overview of the contents of the chapters. Details on the research
methodology are presented in chapter three.

1.3.1. Research Problem

Natural resources are an important source of national wealth around the world. Many of
the countries have used their natural resources as a launch pad to accelerate economic
development and to increase their competitiveness. However, experience shows that
natural riches are neither necessary nor sufficient for economic prosperity and progress.
The long-term benefits come not from the presence of natural resources themselves but
rather from the value-added products and services developed around them. Alongside,
copying or adopting policies that have been effective elsewhere rarely succeed.

However, the emergence of information and communications technologies (ICT) has

changed the dynamism of many industries (E-Economy Conference 2001, OECD 2000g).
The emergence of the ICT brings opportunities and threats to firms and could lead to dis-
intermediate or re-intermediate the whole supply chain and thus changing the cluster
opportunities of the sector. The Internet will boost efficiency and enhance market
integration domestically and internationally, particularly in developing countries that are
most disadvantaged by poor access to information. Although the Internet should enhance
global growth, it also brings increased danger to countries that can not access it
effectively.

All of the aforementioned analysis will be applied on the small and medium sized
enterprises (SMEs), that are working in the natural stone sector in different competitive
environments (Italy, Turkey and Jordan) which all are rich with natural stone, have
different competitive positions and located in different economic stages.

20
The Jordanians realize that there are several types of stone similar to those in demand in
the world markets. Thus, they started to pay more attention to this industry but still they
are in the process of developing their policies at the micro and macro levels taking into
consideration that most of the businesses in Jordan are family-owned enterprises5. As any
other family businesses, they are facing the task of balancing the business issues with
family members' interests, failing to optimize their growth opportunities and avoiding
debt out of misguided fear or because they resist unwanted accountability (Storey 1994).

Italy, as a super model, is considered the world center of excellence in the natural stone
industry. This gave the country the competitive advantage to act as the world center in the
international marketing of the stone and marble products and to dominate the industry
worldwide. As well, Italy exhibits many of the characteristics of a developing economy:
corruption, weak government, relatively poor infrastructure (Porter 1990). Another
reason is that many Italian clusters are entrepreneurial and even family-owned where
skills are passed on to the next generation of workers.

Turkey as an emerging Mediterranean and non-EU country was selected as another

country to look at more closely. Turkey is in the 7th place among the natural stone
producers and the 12th among the exporting countries. The growth of the natural stone
industry in Turkey almost doubles the (8%) growth of the world natural stone industry
(TUMMER 2004). Turkey has a (5%) share in global production a (2%) share in the
global market. Turkey, with an important place in terms of the world’s marble reserves,
has a very high market opportunity with its variety of marble. It has about 400 different
color and texture qualities. It is estimated that (40%) of the world’s marble reserves are
found in Turkey (TUMMER 2004).

5
A family business is any business in which a majority of the ownership or control lies within a family, and
in which two or more family members are directly involved (Story 1994).

21
1.3.2. Research Objective

The main objective of the research is to discuss the factors of competitive advantage of
the SMEs working in processing the natural stone sector in Jordan and determine the
factors that need improvements in order to improve the level of competitiveness of these
SMEs. These factors are determined from Porter’s diamond (1990), and Porter’s five
competitive forces (1979, 1980, 1985). Additionally, the research is discussing the impact
of the ICT on the competitiveness of these SMEs.

Based on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis, six
conclusions are developed in order to improve the competitive advantage of the SMEs
working in the natural stone sector in Jordan. These conclusions are: upgrading and
simplifying the laws and regulations, upgrading the advanced and specialized
infrastructure, promoting the entrepreneurship and upgrading the personnel, establishing
credit institutions to support the SMEs, promoting e-business in the natural stone
industry, and building a dynamic natural stone cluster. These conclusions could be
realized at three levels: SMEs-level, government-level, and related and supporting
industry-level.

As well, a proposed natural stone cluster model (NSCM) is developed. The board of the
model is led by the related ministries and authorities in a consensus framework with
involved organizations (professional associations, educational-training, technical and
financial support organizations and related ministries). It is essential that the management
of the natural stone cluster should be independent.

22
1.3.3. Research Questions

Nations can be seen as differing in the stage of competitive development. Each stage
involves different industries and industry segments as well as different company
strategies. The stages also differ in the appropriate array of government policies toward
industry. The process of moving through the stages can take many paths, and there is no
single progression.

The natural stone industry in Jordan is located in the factor-driven stage (JMOP 2003).
Resting on this stage advantage, then, does not provide a solid foundation for sustained
productivity growth or for expanding the range of internationally successful industry.
Few nations with truly abundant natural resources have achieved sustained prosperity in
this knowledge-based economy. Some of the most telling conditions necessary for a
nation to progress to more advanced stages are: factor creation mechanisms, domestic
rivalry, demand upgrading, and capacity for new business formation. Thus, the main
question of the study is:

(RQ): How can the SMEs working in processing the natural stone in Jordan move from
the factor-driven stage to the innovation-driven stage?

In order to answer this main question, the study aims to discuss the following sub-
questions:

(RQ1): How developed are the factor conditions, demand conditions and industry
structure in Jordan, in comparison with Turkey and Italy, and what can be done in
order to improve them?

(RQ2): How efficient is the natural stone cluster in Jordan, in comparison with Turkey
and Italy, and what can be done in order to improve it?

23
(RQ3): How efficient are the rules and regulations for doing a business in Jordan in
comparison with Turkey and Italy?

(RQ4): How can the Jordanian SMEs working in processing the natural stone benefit
from the ICT in order improve their competitive advantage?

1.3.4. Research Hypotheses

In view of the aforementioned questions, the research examines the following

hypotheses:

In order to maintain competitive advantage, the SMEs that are working in processing the
natural stone sector should understand the context of their work. Therefore, there is a
need to analyze the industry structure (Porter's five competitive forces) and
microeconomic environment (Porter's diamond) in addition to the macro environment
(such as deficit, exchange rate…). Due to the fact that the macroenvironment has a total
effect on all of the industries it was excluded.

The first hypothesis testifies the competitive factors that are confronting the SMEs
working in processing the natural stone sector in Jordan, Turkey and Italy. These
competitive factors are determined by the five competitive forces, factor conditions,
demand conditions, and related and supporting industries. By understanding these
competitive factors, the researcher shall be able to analyze the business environment and
compare the status of each competitive factor in Jordan in comparison with Turkey and
Italy in order to identify the factors that need improvements. The Kruskal-Wallis test was
used to testify this hypothesis (please see appendix F-2).

24
The null hypothesis ( H 0 ):

There are no significant differences in the competitive factors confronting the SMEs
working in processing the natural stone sector between Jordan, Turkey and Italy.

The second hypothesis discusses the legal form of the SMEs working in the natural stone
sector in Jordan. The statistics drawn from the chambers of commerce and the Ministry
of Industry and Trade, show that there are a limited number of companies in Jordan
(Owners of the firms prefer to work individually or in partnership rather than to register
as a company). The literature shows that the family ties and individual relationship
preferences might be the reason. This hypothesis testifies whether the individual
relationship preferences are the reason behind that or not. The one-way analysis of
variance was used to testify this hypothesis (please see appendix F-1).

The null hypothesis ( H 0 ):

Jordanians are not creating companies in the natural stone sector because of the
individual relationship preferences.

( H 0 ): µ =µ
1 2
= ... = µ 9

Where µ is the mean of the individual relationship preferences.

The third hypothesis testifies whether there is a significant difference on the impact of the
generic strategies on the competitive advantage of the SMEs or not. The Kruskal-Wallis
test was used to testify this hypothesis (please see appendix F-2).

25
The null hypothesis ( H 0 ):

There are no significant differences in the influence of the different scenarios of the
generic strategies on the competitive advantage of the SMEs working in processing the
natural stone sector in Jordan, Turkey and Italy.

The ICT may have a positive or a negative impact on the performance of the firms and
business environment. The fourth hypothesis testifies whether or not there is any
significant difference on the impact of the ICT on different competitive elements such as
delivery time, cost, innovation, and flexibility between Jordan, Turkey and Italy. The
Kruskal-Wallis test was used to testify this hypothesis (please see appendix F-2).

The null hypothesis ( H 0 ):

There are no significant differences on the impact of the ICT on the competitive elements
of the SMEs working in processing the natural stone sector between Jordan, Turkey and
Italy.

1.3.5. Research Methodology

An academic and business literature and other appropriate literature sources search were
conducted. As part of the work, books, journal articles, tertiary literature such as indexes
and catalogues, company minutes, government surveys, CD-ROM in university libraries,
Internet sites, chambers of commerce surveys and professional association surveys have
been used. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods is used in the research.
Employing both qualitative and quantitative data offers an opportunity not only to test the
hypotheses but also to probe deeply into the issues raised by the research questions.

26
Although questionnaires may be used as the only data collection method, it is usually
better to link them with other methods in a multi-method approach (Saunders et al. 2000).

The area random sampling is used. The population has been divided into three strata
based on the geographical distribution. A random sample is then drawn from each of the
strata. The total population is the sum of all the SMEs working in processing the natural
stone sector in Jordan, Turkey and Italy. The total number is 2864 firms; 240 firms in
Jordan, 784 firms in Turkey and around 1840 firms in Italy. The total sample size is 652
SMEs; 140 firms from Jordan, 213 firms from Turkey and 299 firms from Italy.

The purpose of the survey is descriptive-exploratory with some explanatory analysis.

Surveys are frequently conducted for the purpose of making descriptive assertions about
the population that is discovering the distribution of certain traits or attributes (Babbie
1990). The questionnaire was developed in four languages: English, Arabic, Turkish and
Italian. Hence, a careful translation method was used. The questionnaire consists of four
parts. Part one covers the different elements of Porter’s diamond and Porter’s five forces.
Part two covers the different scenarios of the generic strategies. Part three covers the e-
business side and part four cover the SMEs’ profile. The scale items were tested on the
reliability and validity of the final test to examine the consistency of the constructs and
related the items.

A pre-test study of 5 firms from Jordan in conformity with the present criteria for small
and medium sized enterprises was conducted. The purpose of the pre-test was to refine
the questionnaire so that respondents have no problems in answering the questions and
there are no problems in reporting and recording the data (Saunders et al. 2000; Babbie
1990). In addition, it enabled the researcher to obtain some assessment of the question’s
validity6 of the data that has been collected. The non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis Test7
was used to testify the first and fourth hypotheses while the one-way ANOVA8 was used

6
Validity is the extent to which a question or scale is measuring the concept, or property it says it is
(Saunders et al. 2000).
7
The Kruskal-Wallis Test is the non-parametric alternative to a one-way analysis of variance. It is used to
testify the significant differences between the three countries.
8
ANOVA is a contraction of Analysis Variance. It is a method for comparing the means of more than two
populations.

27
to testify the second and third hypotheses. In addition, the non-parametric Mann-Whiney
Test9 was used in order to testify the significant differences between Jordan and Turkey
and to testify the significant differences between the first survey (2003) and second
survey (2006) in Jordan.

The interviewees were asked about the Balanced Scored Card (innovation, customer's
satisfaction, internal business and financial performance) of their firms as an indication of
their competitiveness (Kaplan and Norton 1992). It was measured on a five-point scale
(very negative to very positive). The respondents were asked about the generic strategies
(cost leadership, differentiation and focus). These generic strategies were adopted from
Porter’s work (1979, 1980, 1985). The respondents were asked to select the type of
generic strategy that is most closely to their firms. Also, the respondents were asked
whether they use the computer and the Internet and the purposes of using the Internet on
a yes / no basis. The expected benefits of using the Internet was measured on a five-point
scale10 where 1= less important and 5= more important. Furthermore, the respondents
were asked to evaluate the different elements of Porter’s diamond (1990) and Porter’s
five forces (1985). These elements were also measured on a five-point scale (1 = very
negative and 5 = very positive).

In the semi-structured interviews, a list of themes and questions has been covered. Face-
to-face one-hour to two-hour meeting with the interviewee was carried out. The
researcher personally administered all the interviews and the data was covered by note
taking. A list with all of the ministries, authorities and companies that have been
interviewed is presented in chapter three.

9
The Mann-Whiney Test is the non-parametric alternative to t-test. It is used to testify the significant
difference between Jordan and Turkey, and also between the first and the second survey in Jordan.
10
Often the scale is used as a semantic differential. Five-point Likert scales are perhaps most commonly
used but may cause problems due to lack of statistical normality conditions.

28
1.3.6. Overview of the Dissertation

The dissertation consists of seven chapters. Chapter one presents the introductory part of
the research where the past and current status of the natural stone in Jordan is presented.
Jordan has a unique historical architectural heritage. The rose-red city of Petra,
Philadelphia and Jerash are the most impressive historical objects of ancient Jordan. The
question rises: whether the natural stone industry can assist in building the economy in
the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan as it did in ancient Jordan or not?. In addition, the
research problem, objective, questions, hypotheses and methodology are described.

Chapter two presents the literature review of different competitive models for the SMEs,
and the challenges of using the ICT by these firms. From an entrepreneurial perspective,
a competitive firm needs to survive in the market, at present and tomorrow, and to
achieve market share and profitability. In this study the concept of Porter's diamond, the
forces and the Balanced Scored Card (BSC) have been used. The BSC, as an indicator of
the firm’s competitive advantage, has four perspectives: financial, customer's satisfaction,
internal business, and innovation.

The literature review shows that the SMEs tend to move into the electronic business in
stages: using the Internet as a tool for communicating and obtaining information, buying
and selling, and conducting banking and financial transactions. On the other hand, the
reasons for the relatively low level of Internet usage are: low level of technological
expertise, uncertainty about benefits, low commitment of owner/manager, poor
understanding of the dynamics of the electronic marketplace. In addition to that, the fear
of too low use of the e-commerce by customers and suppliers with the uncertainty about
the legal, regulatory and tax environment play as major obstacles of using the Internet by
the SMEs.

Chapter three discusses the economic background, information and communications

technology sector, natural stone sector and the SMEs in Italy, Turkey and Jordan. In
Jordan, the government has liberalized the trade regime sufficiently to secure Jordan's
membership in the WTO (2000); a free trade accord with the US was signed in (2000),

29
and held an association agreement with the EU (2001). Turkey has a strong and rapidly
growing private sector, yet the state still plays a major role in the basic industry, banking,
transport, and communication. In recent years the economic situation has been marked by
erratic economic growth and serious imbalances. In Italy, the capitalistic economy
remains divided into a developed industrial north, dominated by private companies, and a
less developed, welfare-dependent agricultural south.

Chapter four discusses the research methodology in detail where both the quantitative and
qualitative strategies have been used. A pre-test was conducted in order to test validity of
the developed constructs. After revising the questionnaire, data was collected in Jordan,
Turkey and Italy for the analysis of the given hypotheses. The questionnaire was
developed in four languages: English, Arabic, Turkish and Italian. In addition to the
survey method, semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten SMEs working in the
natural stone in Jordan and other related and supporting organizations and ministries in
Jordan, Turkey and Italy.

Chapter five presents the empirical research study and discusses the research hypotheses.
The data shows that there are significant differences in the competitive forces confronting
the SMEs working in the natural stone industry between Jordan, Turkey and Italy.
Furthermore, the analysis of data shows that the individual relationship preferences are
not the reason of not creating companies by these SMEs. Other reasons such as starting
and closing a business, enforcing contracts, protecting investors, getting credit,
registering property, and hiring and firing workers should be taken into considerations.
Additionally, the analysis of the data shows that the e-commerce has a limited influence
on the natural stone industry and there are significant differences in the impact of the ICT
on the competitive elements between the three countries.

As well this chapter discusses strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT)
of the SMEs working in processing the natural stone in Jordan. Based on the (SWOT)
analysis, six policy options are developed: updating and simplifying the laws and
regulations, upgrading the advanced and specialized infrastructure, promoting the
entrepreneurship and upgrading personnel, establishing credit institutions to support the

30
SMEs, promoting e-business in the natural stone sector, and building a dynamic natural
stone cluster. These policy options could be realized at three levels: the SMEs-level,
government-level, and related and supporting industry-level.

Finally, chapter six shows the main results of the study and summarizes the
recommended policies that have been developed to be achieved at the SME-level, cluster-
level and government-level. Also, it discusses the limitations and obstacles of the study
and the recommendations for future research.

31
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter covers the theoretical background of the main areas of the research. Section
2.1 discusses the theory of competitive advantage, while section 2.2 presents the different
categorizations of small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs). Section 2.3 discusses the
role of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) on the SMEs’ competitive
advantage. A summary of the literature review is presented in section 2.4.

2.1. Competitive Advantage

Although there are many economists who used the concept of competitive advantage
before Porter, Porter's work11 (1979, 1980, 1985, and 1990) is still the starting point for
any discussion of competitive advantage (Jones 2003). Straub and Klein (2001) and
Barney (2002) argue that the term of competitive advantage did not appear in Porter’s
work until the year 1985, whereas Caves (1984), Day (1984), Spence (1984) and Barney
(1986) used the term around the same times as Porter while Penrose (1959) and Ansoff
(1965) used the concept of competitive advantage before that time.

11
M. Porter is a specialist in industrial economics and business strategy and he is a professor of Business
Administration at the Harvard Business School.

32
2.1.1. Definitions of Competitive Advantage

Competitiveness of a firm is its capacity to achieve its targets. These targets are likely to
be expressed in a variety of terms depending on the context (Barney 2002). Within a
macroeconomic perspective, a competitive firm develops and sustains a level of
performance that contributes to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employment
opportunities, and the wealth of the people. From an entrepreneurial perspective, a
competitive firm needs to survive in the market and to achieve market share and
profitability. The success of a competitive firm can be measured by both objective and
subjective criteria. Objective criteria include return on investment, market share, profit
and sales revenue, while subjective criteria include enhanced reputation with customers,
suppliers, and competitors, and improve quality of delivered services (Barney 2002).

Barney (2002) discusses four approaches to measure the firm’s competitiveness. These
measurements are firm's survival, stakeholder approach, simple accounting measures, and
adjusted accounting measures. Feurer and Chaharbaghi (1994) measure competitiveness
quantitatively by profit, ability to raise capital and cash flow in terms of liquidity status.
Soliman (1998) adds cost, quality, delivery dependability, flexibility and innovation as
factors formulating such a competitive position. M. Porter (1985) indicates that a firm
experiences a competitive advantage when "its actions in an industry create economic
value and when few competing firms are engaging in similar actions." De Wit and Meyer
(1999), Buffam (2000), and Christensen (2001) indicate that a firm has a competitive
advantage when it has the means to edge out rivals when competing for the favor of
customers.

Barney (2002) explains that a firm experiences a competitive parity when the firm’s
action creates economic value applied in several other firms engaging in a similar action.
An important goal of a business enterprise is to optimize shareholders returns. However,
optimizing short-term profitability does not necessarily ensure optimal shareholders
returns since shareholder value represents the net present value of expected future
earnings. One of the techniques that reflect the shareholders return is the concept of the
Balanced Scored Card (BSC) as an indicator for the firm’s competitive advantage.

33
Resource-based theories of strategy have become increasingly influential in the recent
years and most writers take their inspiration from the work of Penrose (Foss 1997;
Rangone 1999). Whereas Porter (1980) intended to see the competitiveness of the firm as
a result of its market position, resource-based theorists do claim that if firms within an
industry are doing well, the reason for this is their core competencies. Core competencies
are the collective learning in the organization, especially how to coordinate diverse
production skills and integrate multiple streams of technologies as explained by Prahalad
and Hamel (1990).

Prahalad and Hamel (1990) focus on the resources, capabilities and competences of the
organization as the source of competitive advantage rather than the environment, as in the
traditional approach. Edith Penrose, in her work ‘The Theory of the Growth of the Firm
(1959) is often credited with the idea of the resource-based view. Also the work of Philip
Selznick (1957) stressed the role of distinctive competences and Alfred Chandler (1962)
demonstrated the importance of organizational structure in the utilization of a firm’s
resources. Wernerfelt (1984), and Rumelt (1997) adopt the resource-based view. Senge
(1990) and Argyris (1994) stress the acquisition of competences through internal
mechanisms of individual and collective learning, while Hamel and Prahalad emphasize
strategic tools like alliances, licensing, mergers and acquisitions.

A study of the SMEs in the Netherlands adopted a resource-based approach to identify

the source of competitive advantage in a sample of 63 firms representing manufacturing
and service sectors (Tilley and Tonge 2003). According to this study, “front runners”
were distinguished from “back members” by the way in which they combined three sets
of competencies: market, technological and organizational. Wickham (2001) also apply
the resource-based theory in their analysis of competitive advantage in entrepreneurial
firms.

The resource-based theory becomes more and more subject of critique under the pressure
of globalization. Some of these critiques are:

34

The most important problem to the resource-based view is the lack of a clear
and coherent treatment of dynamics; it does not theorize the mechanisms
underlying the creation of new resources (Barney 2002).

The theory may be criticized for being tautological. This approach is one-sided
and thus in danger of neglecting the environment which is still critical to the
organizations’ survival (Van Gils 2000).

The application of the resource-based approach to the strategic management of
the small firms has been limited. Rangone (1999) argues that the application of
the resource-based approach to small firms has to take account of small-firm
characteristics.

Using the value chain as the conceptual framework, Bretherton and Chaston (2005) show
how small and medium-sized wineries use their resources and how they access other
resources by using strategic alliances. The wineries have engaged in strategic alliances,
rather than structural ties, at various stages of the value chain, to gain access to scarce
resources and capabilities. There is clear evidence that the over-performers have had
access to adequate resources, which has led to sustainable competitive advantage and
superior performance.

2.1.2. Balanced Scored Card

In the past, the financial aspects were not usually left out. In addition to that, traditional
performance measurement is focused on short-term goals. Long term aspects such as
employee's attitude are neglected or seen as optional or informal. Focusing solely on
financial performance measures does not only lead to a limited, narrow perspective which
leads to an unbalanced assessment of the current business, but it also restricts the power
of continuous improvement, since the non-financial aspects are the drivers of the future
performance.

R. Kaplan and D. Norton (1992) have developed the method of the Balanced Scored
Card. They explained that the traditional financial measures should be supplemented with

35
operational measures concerning the customer's satisfaction, internal processes and the
ability to innovate. These three measures would assure future financial results, and drive
the organization towards its strategic goals while keeping all four perspectives in balance.
Each measure has an impact on other measures. When managers understand the linkages
between the four perspectives they realize how advances in one can lead to lower
performance in another measure. Firms that actively manage and respond to a wide range
of sustainability indicators are better able to create value for all stakeholders over the
long term (Funk 2003). The four perspectives of the BSC are:

Financial Perspective

The performance measures in the financial perspective provide an answer to the question:
How attractive is the organization for shareholders and other providers of capital (Kaplan
and Norton 1992). It could be measured by different financial performance indicators
such as profit and return on investment. In addition, the financial perspective can include
newer financial performance indicators. As well, the reliability of cash flow and profit
predictions can be useful to investors who intend to minimize their risk of return.

Customer Perspective

The customer perspective focuses on the question: How do customers perceive the
organization (Kaplan and Norton 1992). It could be measured by different performance
indicators such as time, quality, and service.

Internal Business perspective

The internal business perspective contains measures that relate to the question: What
organizational processes result in competitive advantage (Kaplan and Norton 1992). It
could be measured by different performance indicators such as cycle time, waste levels,
costs of certain activities, delivery speed and reliability, employees' productivity, and
employees' loyalty.

36
Innovation and Learning Perspective

The innovation and learning perspective is concerned with the continuation of the
organizational success over time which consists of measures that relate to the question:
Can the organization continue to improve and create value (Kaplan and Norton 1992). It
could be measured by different performance indicators such as revenue from new
products as a percentage of total revenue, the extent to which planned introductions of
new products are realized, and number of improvements suggestions by employees.

2.1.3. Porter’s Diamond

Porter (1990) identifies four stages of national industrial development: the factor-driven
stage12, the investment-driven stage13, the innovation-driven stage14, and lastly the
wealth-driven stage. He argues that the correct policy for industry and government
depends on the nation's developmental stage. As well, Porter (1990) provides a useful
concept that can help firms to explore improvements for productivity. The key principles
of the competitiveness paradigm can be summarized as follows:

Firms need a healthy home base to assist them in developing and sustaining the
capacity to innovate. But firms, not nations, are on the leading edge of
international competition

Competitive advantage results from an effective combination of appropriate
firms' strategies and its environment.

Competitive advantage is sustained through continuous innovation and
upgrading of the productive capacities of the firms.

12
Factor-driven stage is characterized either by natural-resource-based activities (primary extraction) or by
labor-intensive manufacturing.
13
Investment-driven stage is associated with the manufacturing of intermediate and capital goods and
infrastructural building.
14
Innovation-driven stage arrives when a country is human-capital abundant and active in research and
development.

37
However, Porter's theory of national competitive advantage (1990) becomes more and
more subject of critique under the impression of the digitalization, globalization and
deregulation. All of these critiques are acceptable. Some of these critiques are:

Although Porter makes a contribution to the theory of international trade and

strategic management, none of the four determinants offered by Porter is new
(Barney 2002). It means that Porter's work lacks the originality.

The lack of formal analytic modeling (Oz 1999). It means that the diamond is an
explanatory framework rather than a deterministic theory. Porter has gained all his
information from case studies of different industries in different nations. He does
not offer any empirical or statistical evidence to support his theories. Although
this criticism is mainly true, it should be stated that by using such a qualitative
framework, Porter introduces several interesting points like the advanced and
specific factor creation mechanisms and sophistication of demand conditions,
which would have been very difficult to capture if he had just focused on
quantitative method and formal modeling.

In his model of five forces (1979), Porter states that high local rivalry is a threat.
His diamond (1990) states the opposites: intensive rivalry motivates companies to
innovate.

Porter focuses on intensive local rivalry and might underestimate the influence of
international rivalry. Foreign-owned multinational enterprises have been excluded
in Porter’s model unless they become part of the host country diamond (O’Malley
and Van Egeraat 2000).

Porter’s model is not always convincing that it can bring really advantages for a
firm in the future. As well, it is doubtful whether this general model can really be
used as a tool to examine any country without further specifications.

Porter’s ideas became more subject of critique under the impact of the ICT.

Porter’s single national model needs to be reformulated as a double diamond or
multiple diamond model for the purpose of application to smaller peripheral
economies (O’Malley and Van Egeraat 2000).

38

Porter is criticized about his treatment of macroeconomic policy. He
underestimates price competitiveness and plays down macroeconomic policies
that affect the relative costs of producing similar products in different countries.
According to him, macroeconomic factors like the value of currency and interest
rates play a role by affecting the export performance in the short run and not
preferable and sustainable sources of competitive advantage in the long run.

Porter pays very little attention to the national culture on the competitive
advantage of a country. According to him, the influence of culture on competitive
advantage is an indirect one since it acts through the determinants, rather than on
its own.

It is questionable whether the variables of the determinant "firm strategy,
structure and rivalry" can form a coherent group or if they are just a rest of
category.

According to Porter, domestic demand conditions of an industry are amongst the
important determinants of the international competitiveness of this industry. The
relationship between international competitiveness and the size of home demand
is one of the issues that is open to dispute since there are two conflicting
arguments concerning this relationship. According to the first argument, if home
demand is large, firms may feel secure to invest in industries where there are
economies of scale, and given that there is intensive domestic rivalry and local
buyers parallel foreign demand, this may encourage international competitiveness.
According to the second one, however, if home market is large enough, firms may
not bother trying to export and may prefer to concentrate solely on the home
market.

The determinants of the national competitive advantage are grouped in four categories
(figure 2.1). The categories are factor conditions, demand conditions, related and
supporting industries, and firm strategy, structure and rivalry (1990).

39
 Figure 2.1 The Determinants of National Advantage

FIRM STRATEGY,
Chance STRUCTURE, AND
RIVALRY

FACTOR DEMAND
CONDITIONS CONDITIONS

RELATED AND
SUPPORTING
Govern.
INDUSTRIES

Source: Porter 1990

After analyzing the competitive industries, Porter extends his theory to the national
economy as a whole. Porter thinks that it is possible to classify the economic
development process into four broad stages: the factor-driven, investment-driven,
innovation-driven and wealth-driven stages. In the factor-driven stage, the competitive
advantage of industries emerges from basic and generalized factors of production such as
an abundant natural resources and low cost labor. In the investment-driven stage,
willingness and ability to invest is the key for competitive advantage. The investments
concentrate on new production facilities and on factor creation mechanisms. At this stage,
advantages are no longer entirely dependent on factor conditions. Although, to a limited
extent, home demand as well as firm strategy, structure and rivalry also play a role,
whereas the related and supporting industries are still largely undeveloped.

40
In the investment-driven stage, clusters of competitive industries deepen both vertically
and horizontally and services in the competitiveness of a nation become more important.
In contrast to aforementioned stages, the wealth-driven stage signals a decline. The
economy is mainly driven by past success and wealth, innovation and sustaining
competitive advantage lose their importance.

2.1.4. From Diamond to Clusters

The goal of the economic development is to achieve prosperity for all citizens.
Productivity and productivity growth determine the economic growth. Whereas,
innovation is a key driver of productivity growth, and clustering supports both
productivity and innovation (Porter 1990). Once a cluster15 is formed, the whole group of
industries becomes mutually supportive. Thus, clusters can affect competition by
increasing the companies' productivity, deriving the direction and pace of innovation
(Porter 1998). Furthermore, being part of a cluster allows companies to operate more
productively in sourcing inputs, accessing information, technology and needed
institutions, coordinated with related companies, and motivating improvement (Fisher
and Rueber 2000).

Porter (1998b) makes a convincing case drawing on lessons from experience “ . . .

government, working with the private sector, should reinforce and build on established
and emerging clusters rather than attempt to create entirely new ones. New industries and
new clusters emerge best from established ones". Clusters are a driving force in
increasing exports and attracting foreign investments. For example, Business Network
Program in Australia noted that the rate of increase in exports is four times higher in
cluster networks than in non-cluster environments (Singh 2001). Singh (2001) discusses
some of the common qualitative and quantitative performance measures to determine a
cluster's success in creating and sustaining competitive advantage:

15
Clusters include an array of linked industries and other entities important to competition and they
promote both competition and cooperation (Porter 1998).

41

The presence of upstream and downstream industries

The level of competitive inputs such as services, machinery and equipment

The level of employment in all business activities related to the cluster

The rate of increase in value-added products and services

The rate of increase in exports of value-added goods and services

Inter-firm cooperation and the quality of the linkages and interactions

New start-ups

Porter (1998b) presents different examples related to the natural resource-based clusters.
Some of these examples are: mining equipment and services in Finland, ceramic tile
services and equipment in Northern Italy, drilling equipment in Kimberly, Australia,
machinery and equipment related to dairy and livestock in Denmark, the Netherlands and
the United States, and transport and logistics management in the Netherlands related to
the flower cluster.

The development of natural resources laid the foundation for subsequent infrastructure,
i.e., railways, electric power, highways, ports, etc. In the new economy, competitive
advantage can be created around natural resources and clustering provides the
methodology to accomplish this. It will be demonstrated that many of today's less
developed countries have generated the enhanced productivity out of their rich natural
resource base. These countries have used their natural resource industries as a
springboard to accelerate economic development and to expand their economic base.

On the other hand, the accounting for the actual value of natural resources shows that net
savings per person are negative in the world's most poor countries (Sachs and Warner
2001). Furthermore, current indicators used to guide development decisions ignore
depletion of resources and damage to the environment. Among developing countries,
natural resources are relatively more prevalent. But there are examples of countries that
are genuinely rich in terms of natural resources but still have not been able to sustain
economic growth. Many resource-rich developing countries have experimented with oil
funds or stabilization programs-with disappointed results.

42
2.1.5. Porter's Five Forces Model

One of the basic areas of concern in industrial economics is the interaction between firm
and the characteristics of the market forces. Economists, belonging to this school of
thought, perceive the significance of the link between environment and strategies
employed by the firm. They use the structure–conduct-performance diagram. Such a
paradigm assumes basic conditions of supply (input, technology, etc.) and demand
(growth of demand, price elasticity, etc...). Market structure is then put into perspective in
terms of number of market players (buyers and sellers), barriers to entry, cost structure
and product differentiation in relation to conduct that is illustrated in the pricing, product
strategy, research and innovation (Porter 1985). The interaction would follow through
and lead to the enterprise’s performance represented by its production efficiency,
employment of resources and degree of progress. In this respect, the market structure
comprises the environment within which the firm operates. Within such a paradigm,
market structure, strategy and performance would comprise the variables that influence
the firm’s competitiveness (Kazem 2004).

Porter (1980) attempts to explain the existence of the above-normal profits, as an

expression of the firm’s market power, and his starting point was the “Structure-Conduct-
Performance (SCP)” paradigm (Van Gils 2000). In this paradigm, the industry-structure
determines the firm conduct (e.g. pricing, advertising), which in turn determines the
economic performance. Porter (1980) interpreted this line of thought by substituting
conduct with strategy, and arguing that the firm performance is dependent on industry
structure. Therefore, the level of analysis is the industry rather than the individual firm.
Industry attractiveness depends on the level of the opportunity and the threat in an
industry. The average performance of firms in the economically very attracted industries
will be greater than the average performance of firms in the economically unattractive
industries as explained by Barney (2002).

Chaffey (2002) supports Porter’s classic model of the five main competitive forces and
he says that it still provides a valid framework for reviewing threats arising in the e-
business era. The value of Porter's model enables managers to think about the current

43
situation of their industry in a structured, easy-to-understand way as a starting point for
further analysis.

Some of the critiques on Porter's theory of the five forces are:

Traditional Porter’s thinking was largely limited to achieve a better competitive

position against other players. Now it is more important to form co-operations for
mutual benefits. With this focus, it dos not really take into consideration strategies
like strategic alliances, electronic linking of information systems of all companies
along a value chain, virtual enterprise-networks or others. However, Porter (2001)
says that the Internet has a powerful impact on the supply of information to
customers and relationship between firms and their suppliers and there is no need
to change the theory of strategy to deal with the Internet.

Porter's theories based on the economic situation in the eighties. This model might
not explain today’s dynamic changes. Porter's five forces model may have some
major limitations in today’s market environment. It does not reflect the
inevitability of certain dis-intermediation effects and new partnering realities such
as brokers.

In the economic sense, the model assumes a classic perfect market. The more an
industry is regulated, the less meaningful insights the model can deliver.

The model is best applicable for the analysis of the simple market structures. A
comprehensive description and analysis of all five forces gets very difficult in
complex industries with multiple interrelations, product groups, by-products and
segments.

According to Porter (1985), the rules of competition are represented in “five competitive
forces” as shown in figure (2.2). These competitive forces are entry to the new
competitors, threat of substitutes, bargaining power of buyers, bargaining power of
suppliers, and rivalry among the existing competitors. Porter (1985) explains that the
industry structure is relatively stable, but can change over the time as an industry evolves,
and the strength of the five competitive forces varies from one industry to another. The
five forces determine the industry’s profitability because they influence the price, cost,

44
and the required investment of the firms in an industry. The buyer’s power influences the
price that a firm can charge and influence cost and investment. The bargaining power of
suppliers determines the costs of raw materials and other inputs. The intensity of rivalry
influences prices as well as the costs of competing. The threat of entry places a limit on
prices, and shapes the investment required to deter entrants.

Figure 2.2. The Five Competitive Forces

THREAT OF NEW
ENTRANTS

BARGAINING POWER
BARGAINING
OF SUPPLIERS RIVALARY AMONG POWER OF BUYERS
EXISTING
COMPETITORS

THREAT OF SUBSTITUTE
PRODUCTS OR SERVICES

Source: Porter 1985

2.1.6. Obstacles to Business Growth

The World Bank applies four dimensions to measure starting a business (IBRD 2005).
These dimensions are: number of procedures, time, cost, and the minimum capital that
the entrepreneur must deposit in a bank before registration starts. In each case, a higher
number indicates that opening a business becomes more difficult and that fewer
entrepreneurs will do so. The employment regulations are designed to protect workers
from arbitrary, unfair, and discriminatory actions by their employers. These regulations
are: minimum wage, overtime work, grounds for dismissal, and severance pay. The

45
dimensions of this indicator are: difficulty of hiring, rigid work hours, difficulty of firing,
and cost of firing.

The report of the World Bank on regulations of doing business in 2005 reported that:

√ Businesses in poor countries, for example, face much larger regulatory burdens
than those in rich countries; they face three times the administrative costs, and
nearly twice as many bureaucratic procedures and delays associated with them
and they have fewer than half the protections of property rights of rich countries.
√ Heavy regulations and weak property rights exclude the poor from doing
business. In poor countries a high percentage of the economy is random; women,
young and low-skilled workers are hurt the most.

For many SMEs, the unpredictability of doing business and the complexity of procedures
and regulations in many developing countries are perceived as major barriers.
Furthermore, access to finance, new technology and good reliable infrastructure,
especially for communications and logistics, are all special problems for growth-oriented
SMEs (OECD 2000e). De Soto (2000) answers the question why are the poor in third
world countries rich in assets but they remain poor in capital?. He claims that the poor do
not really own the property they work, because they are not registered as owning it, and
because of this, they can not turn it to capital. De Soto (2000) shows that it is legal title to
property that transforms labor into capital and without title there can be no contracts with
strangers. Thus, the market is restricted and the growth of wealth retarded. Furthermore,
De Soto (2000) explains that it is not culture or religion that holds back enterprise in the
third world, but law. Also, he shows that capital is a potential to realize “surplus value”
rather than a stock of stored up labor or money. Different factors can measure the
appropriateness of the business environment such as: the are: starting and closing a
business, enforcing contracts, protecting investors, getting credit, registering property,
and hiring and firing workers (Doing Business 2005).

46
2.2. Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs)

This section discusses the SMEs’ definitions, theory of small firm growth, the potential
economic and social benefits of the SMEs and the SMEs’ strategies.

2.2.1. Definitions of the SMEs

Peterson et al. (1986) explain that both quantitative and qualitative measures are used in
defining the SMEs. These definitions vary according to the geographic area and the
purpose of the study. Quantitative measures are the most popular tools to define the
SMEs such as the number of employees and the annual turnover. The most frequent
upper limit is 250 employees as in the European Union. However, in the United States
the SMEs include firms with less than 500 employees. In general, small firms are those
with fewer than 50 employees, while micro-enterprises have at most ten and in some
cases five workers (OECD 2000c). Financial assets are also used to define the SMEs.
Gunasekaran et al. (2000) suggest that the SMEs need to be defined within the context of
the country in which they operate, as typically, the concept varies by the change of
country.

Tolento (2000) summarizes some of the potential economic and social benefits of the
SMEs to their capacity as follows: (a) create jobs at low cost of capital; (b) contribute
positively to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP); (c) provide an opportunity to expand
the entrepreneurial base; (d) provide the required flexibility to adapt to market changes;
(e) provide support to large scale enterprises; (f) enter into market niches which are not
profitable for larger enterprises; and (g) contribute to development policies that are more
oriented towards decentralization and rural development. Nevertheless, all the above may
never be fully realized without an adequate regulatory system and an encouraging
environment.

Story (1994) defines the SMEs as follows: (a) enterprises with a relatively small share of
their market; (b) managed by owners or part-owners in a personalized way, and not

47
through the medium of a formalized management structure; and (c) acting as separate
entities, in the sense of not forming part of large enterprise or group. While it is
acknowledged that using the number of employees as a measure of firm size may create a
number of anomalies.

Storey (1994) discusses the general differences between large and small firms in terms of
centrality of owner-manager, the structure, resources and number, and variety of products
and range of markets served. In smaller firms, owner-managers are less able to influence
competitive environment than larger firms. Besides, smaller firms' organization structures
are likely to be organic and loosely structured rather than mechanistic and highly
formalized (Jennings and Beaver 1997). In smaller firms, all the roles will either be
performed by one manager or by a very narrow range of managers who may have been
appointed because they are family members or friends rather than on the basis of ability
or education. However, small firms generally have little commitment to research and
development (R&D) and are highly dependent on external knowledge sources (Vossen
1998).

The size of the SMEs in the developed countries is interlinked with the size of the
international niche markets where they compete, while the size of the SMEs in the
developing countries is mostly determined by the domestic markets where they operate.
Moreover, the SMEs in developed countries are more likely to be highly specialized
compared to those in the developing countries. Most of the SMEs in the developing
countries are one-person businesses, and the largest single employment category is
working proprietors (Fisher and Reuber 2000). This group and its family represent the
majority of the workforce in most developing countries. The informal relationships of the
family dominate formal, explicit relationships when trust, loyalty and family ties are
important to advancing the businesses (Habbershon and Williams 1999).

48
2.2.2. Theory of Small Firm Growth

In order to improve the competitiveness of small firms is not only about understanding
problems confronting businesses but also about better understanding of how to overcome
these barriers. Although many factors are hypothesized to impact on business outcome,
there is no consistent pattern to the characteristics, which contribute to business
competitiveness, success and growth (Gibb 1996; Audretch 2001). Employment
generation may be an appropriate growth function (Smallbone and Wyer 2000).
However, not all small firms are growth-oriented, and the majority of owner-manager
focuses on day-to-day survival. As pointed out by Storey (1994), the numerically
dominant group of small businesses is those that they are small, and even if they survive
they are always likely to remain small-scale operations. Jennings and Beaver (1997)
show that in smaller firms all the roles will be either being performed by one person or by
a very narrow range of managers who may have been appointed because they are family
members or friends rather than on the basis of capability or education.

A family business is "Any business in which a majority of the ownership or control lies
within a family, and in which two or more family members are directly involved."
(Bowman-Upton 1991). Family members involved in the business are part of a task
system and part of the family system that causes an overlap and this is where a conflict
may occur because each system has its own regulations, roles and requirements. One way
to align family and business goals is through business and family strategic planning
(Bowman-Upton 1991). The elements in the mission statement for the business should
complement the elements in the mission statement for the family.

Kotey (2005) shows that small family firms are less likely to pursue growth compared
with similar non-family firms. Although medium family proprietors desired growth, their
actual growth was lower than similar non-family firms. Kotey (2005) shows that
management practices are less formal in family firms, and the gap between family and
non-family firms in this area widened with growth. As well, exports are low for both
firms at the small level. However, medium family firms are less likely than similar non-
family firms to export.

49
Personality-based approach is a model for understanding small firms’ growth. It looks at
the entrepreneur as fundamental to the growth process that links the success of the firm to
its owner-manager’s competences and characteristics (Kets de Vries 1977; Mintzberg and
Waters 1985). It also consists of a number of variations such as these that seek to link the
personal characteristics of an entrepreneur with planning and the performance of the firm
(McClelland and Winter 1969; Carsrud and Johnson 1989), while others like Brochhaus
and Horwitz (1986) have researched personality types.

Another approach is based on business management, where growth is seen as a function

of the marketplace and focuses on the financial performance as well as diversification,
profitability and product/ market development (Penrose 1959; Ansoff 1965). Storey
(1994) and Smallbone and Wyer (2000) suggest that consideration of the growing small
firm should be based on a categorization of three components. These include the starting
resources of the entrepreneur (e.g. motivation, age, education, management experience,
family history and training); the firm (e.g. age, sector, location, size and ownership) and
the strategy of the firm (e.g. training, market positioning, planning, and external equity).

Wickhman (2001), on the contrary, shows that there is a very little evidence to suggest
that any particular trait leads to successful entrepreneurship. Storey (1994) points out
that, other than education, none of the factors appears to be consistently verified in major
empirical studies. Rothwell (1989) believes that the innovative advantage of small firms
is derived from their flexible managerial structures that are more responsive to changes in
the marketplace. Jennings and Beaver (1997) note that independence may be a more
important measure of success for owner-managers of businesses than financial criteria
such as growth in sales, profits and cash flow.

Zairi (1996) presented a model to achieve competitiveness for small business through
continuous process improvement. Zairi’s model is a two-staged model that provides push
and pull-forces. The first set defines the business environment that identifies the demand
side of the equation that includes: customer, global markets, shareholders, environment,
technology and time. The second stage of the model draws upon the firms’
responsiveness to the above pushes factors- their strengths and core competences. Along

50
the same lines, core competencies are the essence of the formulation of an organization’s
competitiveness. The responsiveness criteria include teamwork, streamlined process,
technology, measurement and a culture of continuous improvement.

Roper (1999) sheds light on factors determining an enterprise’s business strategy and the
impact such a choice holds on the firm’s performance consequently. Roper sets three
categories to measure strategic choices: Products and Markets, Systems and Management
and Control. Performance seems to be strongly dependent on strategy choice. The one
strategy choice that shows a positive correlation with both growth and profitability was
the developing new exports markets, which comes as a component of products and
market strategic choice. Furthermore, strategic choices are strongly tied to the firm’s
environment. Such a result is significantly relevant to this research. In order to develop a
conceptual model of the SMEs' competitiveness, Man and Chan (2002) argue that the
entrepreneurial competencies include the process dimension and the entrepreneur should
scan the external factors and focus on the firm's internal capabilities (figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3. The SMEs’ Competitiveness Model (Man and Chan)

Potential Competitive Scope

dimension-
External
Task 1

Entrepreneurial competencies
Opportunity competencies
Relationship competencies
Conceptual competencies Task 3
Organizing competencies Firm
Strategic competencies Performance
Commitment competencies

Task 2
Potential (Performance
dimension- Organizational Capabilities dimension)
Internal

Source: Man and Chan 2002

51
Competitiveness is the mean by which entrepreneurs can improve their firm’s
performance, and which can be measured according to a number of dimensions including
market share, profit, growth, and duration. At the same time Man and Chan (2002) stress
the importance of links between competitiveness and performance as having a long term
rather than a short-term orientation. They conclude that their theoretical framework is
complex and therefore difficult to be operationalized.

Jones (2003) develops a conceptual framework for the competitive advantage in small
firms (figure 2.4). To be effective, Jones shows that the starting point for the SME must
begin with the owner-manager establishing a broad strategic framework for the firm. He
also ensures that organizational flexibility is the key source of competitive advantage for
most SMEs. Jones (2003) argues that the best measure of competitive advantage for the
SMEs is value-added rather than profit, return on investment or market share.

Figure 2.4. Framework for the Competitive Advantage in Small Firms

Strategic
Framework

Change
External Agent Internal
Networks Networks
Organizational
Flexibility

Innovation

Competitive
Advantage

Source: Jones 2003

52
2.2.3. The SMEs’ Strategies

There are different definitions for the firm's strategy. All these definitions are sharing in
defining the strategy as an action to be taken in the future. Mintzberg and Waters (1985)
consider corporate strategy as a political process, which is socially constructed rather
than an unproblematic aid to the rational decision-making. Porter (1996) defines strategy
as “The creation of a unique and variable position, involving a different set of activities.”
He states that the essence of strategy is choosing to perform activities differently from
rivals do and those firms must consider strategic positioning and strategic fit when
crafting strategies. Barney (2002) defines the strategy as “A firm’s theory about how to
compete successfully.” The principle strategies that the SMEs have pursued to create and
sustain competitiveness have been discussed in ‘Bologna 2000 SME Conference.’

2.2.3.1. Porter’s Generic Strategies

Porter (1980) determines three generic strategies firms can posses: the cost leadership,
differentiation and focus. Sources of cost advantage are likely to be rare including
learning-curve economies, differential low-cost access to factors of production, and
technology. Firms can differentiate their products in different ways: product features,
linkages between functions, timing, location, product mix, links with other firms, product
customization, product complexity, consumer marketing, distribution channels, service
and support, and reputation. Firms focus on a particular market niche and company
resources are devoted to maintain market leadership in that niche.

By concentrating on the industrial level, Porter (1979, 1980, 1985) underestimated the
importance of the unique resources within the firm. Moreover, his work has been
criticized for becoming too eclectic (Van Gils 2000). Furthermore, recent work
contradicts Porter’s assertion about being “stuck in the middle.” This work suggests that
the firms that are successful in both cost leadership and product differentiation can often
expect to gain sustained competitive advantage (Barney 2002). Firms that are able to
differentiate successfully their products and services are likely increasing their volume of
sales. An increased volume of sales can lead to economies of scale, learning curve, and

53
other forms of cost reduction. In 2001, Porter indicates that a firm can obtain profits more
than the average actor by operating at a lower cost, or by charging a premium price, or by
doing both (Porter 2001).

Differentiation is more attractive to small companies, particularly when linked with

focus. In a survey to the 1500 smaller companies across Europe, the 3i European
Enterprise Center (1994) found that the companies that achieved growth in sales and/ or
profits were implementing the differentiation strategy. In 1993, 3i carried out a survey to
the 3500 UK super league companies. It concluded that most of these high-growth
companies served niche markets following a strategy of differentiation. Providing higher
quality products when compared to competitors and being innovative are the key
elements of the differentiated strategy (Jones and Tilley 2003). Besides that, marketing,
development of alliances and the focus on the ethical issues comprise important
components of the differentiated strategy (Kazem 2004).

The generic strategies rely on a static picture of competition, and thus understate the role
of innovation (Stalk et al. 1992). As well, they overemphasize the importance of industry
structure (Rumelt 1991) and the wider environment, while they de-emphasize the
significance of individual company differences in the procession of resources,
capabilities and competence (Prahalad and Hamel 1990). O’Gorman (2001) notes that
‘success strategies’ are characterized as high growth businesses. High growth businesses
in turn are competitive on product quality, price and new product offering. Firms
competing on the basis of innovation would essentially be oriented towards continuously
offering a product that would take a high rank on the ‘state-of-the-art’ scale in the market.

2.2.3.2. Innovation Strategy

Innovation is a broad term that encompasses any new development in firms (OECD
2000d). It can involve creating or reengineering products or services to meet new market
demand, introducing new processes to improve productivity, developing or applying new
marketing techniques to expand sales opportunities, and incorporate new forms of

54
management systems and techniques to improve operational efficiency (Porter and Stern
2001). The most important impediments to innovation in the SMEs (OECD 2000d) are:

Limited resources within many SMEs for carrying out research and
development. Investing in new knowledge is a risky activity that most
SMEs cannot justify.

Access to new technologies and know-how

Ineffective rules, procedures, education and training programs

In his research paper "Innovation: Location Matters" Porter (2001) showed that
innovation is a process rather than a single event and the internal factors that drive
innovation are undeniable, but the external environment for innovation, at least, has the
same importance. One of the most systematic examinations of innovation in the SMEs
utilizes resources-based theory, which stresses the way in which internal factors including
knowledge, skills, patents and brands are combined in unique ways by means of
managerial capabilities (Grant 1998). This combination of resources and capabilities
leads to the creation of core competences, which help establish the firm's competitive
advantage (Prahalad and Hamel 1990).

Hoffman et al. (1997) identify positive relations between the SME’s innovation and
profitability. Vossen (1998) provides a brief summary of small firm's innovation
strengths and weaknesses. Also, the relationship between competitive advantage and the
SMEs’ capabilities is the subject of Yu's (2001) literature review. Tidd et al. (2001)
discuss a range of mechanisms for measuring both innovation output and organizational
performance, which are relevant to smaller firms. Barnett and Storey (2000) reported on
detailed interviews with owner-managers concerning innovation in the SMEs. Freel
(1999, 2000) used data from a postal questionnaire to investigate the barriers to
innovation in 238 manufacturing SMEs based in the West Midlands. Freel (2000)
suggests that there are four constraints on the ability of SMEs to innovate. These
constraints are: finance, management and marketing, labor, and information. A
questionnaire survey of CEOs in 445 Quebec-based SMEs was used to investigate links
between innovativeness and competitiveness (Lefebvre and Lefebvre 1993).

55
Bagch-Sen (2001) carried out a questionnaire survey of 54 SMEs in the Niagara region of
Canada. The research was designed to investigate the relationship between innovation
and competitive advantage. The SMEs were classified as either high or low innovators
according to the number of new or revised products they had introduced in the previous
five-year period. It was found that innovators performed higher in terms of sales and
exports. Also, there were direct links between increased R&D expenditure and
innovativeness in terms of the introduction of new products and in higher levels of export
intensity. Furthermore, quality, specialization, speed of delivery and after sales services
were regarded as much more important in terms of improved competitiveness by
innovators in comparison to non-innovators who tended to concentrate on low-cost
leadership strategies. Also, high innovators placed more emphasis on a wide range of
network linkages to access services such as market research, advertising, legal, banking,
insurance and technical support. However, Scozzi et al. (2005) present the problems
facing the SMEs in innovation processes and the possible support offered by business
modeling techniques. Though methods and models alone do not assure the success in the
innovation development process, they are enabling factors and can support the creation of
strategies, reasoning, insights and communication.

2.2.3.3. Network and Cluster Strategy

The SMEs belong to clusters and networks are often more competitive and innovative
than those operating in isolation (OECD 2000f). Some clusters are structured and formal
while others are informal. Some clusters are shared at general information, while others
deal with more specific objectives. Networking allows the SMEs to combine the
advantages of smaller scale and greater flexibility with economies of scale and scope in
larger markets – regionally, nationally and globally. A large number of firms result in
greater competition for new ideas and facilitates (Porter 1990). Competitiveness of small
firms is strongly influenced by the level of the inter-firms collaboration. The links take
different shapes in which different firms join together to co-produce, co-market, or co-
purchase, cooperate in new product development, or share of information.

56
While networking is viewed as an important requirement in enterprises of all sizes, these
learning opportunities are argued to be of particular importance to small firms in order to
offset the vulnerability of size acting as the key determinant of organizational success.
Pecas and Henriques (2006) argue that the collaboration between universities and the
SME companies should be based on a small-projects base. These projects must be
focused in localized and specific problematic areas in the industrial companies. Ramsden
and Bennett (2005) provide a better understanding of the form of intangible benefits that
businesses receive from advice.

2.2.3.4. Flexibility Strategy

The SMEs have the ability to change the direction quickly at low cost. Small businesses
offer some of the best options for making meaningful productivity gained in the global
marketplace based on their flexibility and speed in adapting to market dynamism.
According to Jones and Tilley (2003), organizational flexibility is the key source of
competitive advantage for most SMEs. Rothwell (1989) believes that the innovative
advantages of small firms are derived from their flexible managerial structures, which are
more responsive to changes in the marketplace (Vossen 1998). However, smaller firms
have little commitment to the R&D and are information-constrained which make them
highly dependent on external knowledge sources. Halberg (2000) has noted that the
SMEs are often viewed as being more innovative than larger firms. The SMEs adopt high
quality, flexibility, and responsiveness to customer needs as means of competing with
large-scale mass producers. However, accounting for their relatively limited base of
resources the contribution of innovations to productivity often takes time that is longer
than in larger firms.

57
2.3. Information and Communications Technology (ICT)

The emergence of the ICT especially the Internet challenges the traditional business
logic. The new economics of information therefore creates opportunities and threats to
the firms. Thus, the shifts will occur at different speeds with varying intensities for all
industries open to deconstruction. (Evan and Wurster 2000).

2.3.1. Challenges of the ICT

Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) include technologies such as

desktop and computers, software, peripherals and connections to the Internet that are
intended to fulfill information processing and communications functions. Porter (2001)
defines the Internet as “An enabling technology- a powerful set of tools that can be used,
wisely or unwisely, in almost any industry and as part of almost any strategy.” The
introduction of the Internet and the World Wide Web is leading to fundamental changes
in operating models employed by businesses (Kleindle 2001). Thus, firms must consider
new business models that take advantage of existing and emerging internet-based
technologies in order to stay competitive.

Venkatraman and Henderson (1999) show that the new economics of information
challenge traditional business logic, and thus the appropriateness of the current business
model rooted in the industrial economy is questionable. Porter (2001), on the other hand,
exhorts business leaders to “return to fundamentals” and stop thoughts of “new business
models” or ‘e-business strategies” that he encourages managers “to view their Internet
operations in isolation from the rest of the business.” Porter indicates that many of the
companies that succeed will be ones that use the Internet as a complement to traditional
ways of competing, not those to set their Internet initiatives a part from established
operations.

Many organizations view investment in information not as means to cost reduction but as
a way of adding value. To achieve that, they need an information systems strategy that is

58
an integral part of their business strategy (Galliers 1987). Levy and Powell (1997)
identify two dimensions for the strategic context that create four competitive scenarios.
These two dimensions are customer dominance and strategic focus. The four competitive
scenarios are efficiency, coordination, collaboration and innovation (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1. Four Competitive Scenarios for SMEs and ICT

Low Coordination Innovation
Word processing Word processing
Accounting Accounting
Customer databases Customer databases
Customer Dominance

E-mail, Internet E-mail, Internet

MRP
EDI
CIM
LANs
High Efficiency Collaboration
Word processing Word processing
Accounting Accounting
E-mail, Internet MRP
EDI
E-mail, Internet
Performance Measurement
Cost Focus Value Added
Strategic Focus
Source: Levy and Powell 1997

The focus of the ICT use in the efficiency quadrant is for control of the business,
primarily financial control, and there is no integration with business strategy. In the
coordination quadrant, the systems are required to keep costs down and the main
additional use of the ICT is in improving customer care due to the larger customer base.
There is only a limited integration of the ICT with business strategy, and the ICT are
viewed as a cost to the business. In the collaboration quadrant, there is an increase in the
sophistication of the technology used, while in the innovation quadrant there is an
integration of the ICT with business strategy.

59
Levy et al. (1999) link their analytical model combining customer dominance and
strategic focus and the four competitive scenarios for the SMEs to the MIT90s
framework (Scott Morton 1991) as shown in figure (2.5).

Figure 2.5 Linking SME Classification through the MIT90s Model

Coordination
Structure

Collaboration

Strategy Management Efficiency

process
Technology

Individual
Skills/ Roles

Source: Levy et al. 1999

One way of looking at the role of Information Systems (IS) within an enterprise is the
five-era view. The five-era of Information Systems as (Applegate et al. 1996) suggest are:
Data Processing, Management Information Systems, Strategic Information Systems,
Business Process Reengineering, and e-Business. While, Venkatraman (1999) develops
five levels of IT- induced reconfiguration as shown in figure (2.6). These levels are
localized exploitation, internal integration, business process redesign, business network
redesign, and business scope re-definition. These levels are not conceptualized as a stage
of evolution model but as distinct levels of business reconfigurations within an explicit
focus on the role of Information Technology.

60
Figure 2.6. Five-levels of IT-Induced Reconfiguration
High
Business
Scope
Degree of Business Transformation

Redefinition
Four:
Business
Network
Redesign
Three:
Business Revolutionary
Process Levels
Redesign
Two: Evolutionary
Internal Levels
Integration
One:
Localized
Exploitation
Low
Low High
Range of Potential Benefits
Source: Venkatraman 1999

2.3.2. Applications of the ICT and the SMEs

The SMEs tend to move into electronic business (e-business) in stages. The first step
involves using the Internet as a tool for communicating and obtaining information. In a
second phase, the SMEs consider basic electronic commerce activities such as buying
and selling. Finally, the SMEs start conducting banking and financial transactions
(OECD 1998, 2000f). Wainwright et al (2005) provide a review and critique of the
benchmarking literature with respect to information and communications technology
(ICT) adoption and usage within small firms. Their work is used as the basis for
developing a competence based model contingency framework to be used for comparing
practice and performance with respect to the ICT within small firms.

61
Lucchetti, and Sterlacchini (2004) carry out an econometric analysis on the adoption and
effective use of the ICT among a sample of the Italian SMEs. In order to understand the
main factors that drive the SMEs to the adoption of the ICT, they divide the available
technologies according to a taxonomy based on their typical function. Iffour (2004)
discusses interoperability concerns of the SME when it comes to the use of the ICT
products and services. Locke (2004) discusses the impact of adopting the ICT on the
growth of small businesses in New Zealand. Cuadrado-Roura and Garcia-Tabuenca
(2004) show that the usage of the ICT in business is not some thing that takes place
homogeneously or in the same speed particularly in the case of the SMEs.

Kleindl (2001) and Buhalis and Deimezi (2003) argue that the traditional economies have
experienced a slower uptake of e-commerce. This is attributed to the difficulties in
enhancing the usage of personal computers and in increasing the utilization of the
Internet and the ICT throughout their production mechanisms. Duan et al. (2002) focus
on the ICT skill challenges in the SME in Great Britain, Poland and Portugal. They show
that the SMEs play a pivotal role in sustaining employment and creating income and
prosperity.

Shiels, Mclvor and O’Reilly (2003) show the phenomenon of the Internet has forced
organizations to examine their existing business practices and adopt new methods of
working, both for existing and potential customers. Their paper presents an analysis of a
pilot study of 24 SMEs, which seeks to bring out the various determinants of employing
the ICT and the level of sophistication of use. The findings highlight that characteristics
of the firm and industry sector are contributory factors to the extent of adoption and
exploitation of the ICT by the SMEs, to support business processes.

Blili and Raymond (1993) argue that the introduction of the Internet into the SMEs tends
to be fragmented and based around operational support and transactions processing. Levy
and Powell (1997) conclude that the tendency in manufacturing the SME is to view
investment in the ICT as a cost. A report by the organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD) shows that the ICT sector is not a prerequisite for economic
growth. Countries with a strong information technology sector, such as Japan, have

62
recorded slow overall growth while, on the other hand, countries like Australia have
shown strong growth without the benefit of a large ICT sector (Singh 2001). Moreover,
only a few countries have the necessary competitive advantage to succeed in the ICT
output, especially among developing countries.

Eid, Trueman and Ahmed (2006) found that the use of the Internet affects business-to-
business international internet marketing (B2B IIM) efficiency, not directly but
indirectly, through B2B marketing and customer relations activities, international
marketing targeting activities and marketing performance. This means that the
competitive advantage of marketing efficiency is not automatically achieved with the
adoption of the internet.

Julien and Raymond (1994) find that management information systems provide no
benefits to the SMEs in terms of performance. They argue that a firm with more
sophisticated information systems tending to perform worse than those with more limited
systems. They maintain that this is primarily due to the SMEs’ limited information
systems knowledge and skills which precludes them taking advantage of strategic
information. Hashmi and Cuddy (1990) point out that one of the problems for the SMEs
is their propensity to invest incrementally in information systems rather than in a planned
fashion. Hagmann and McCahon (1993) find few SMEs plan for the systems they
purchase and most planning is done for transaction processing systems.

Some of the reasons for the relative low level of e-commerce use include (OECD 2000g):

The low level of technological expertise, uncertainty about benefits, low

commitment of the owner/manager, and poor understanding of the
dynamics of the electronic marketplace.

The fear of too low use of e-commerce by customers and suppliers (i.e. the
lack of a critical mass of users) with the uncertainty about the legal,
regulatory and tax environment.

Ensuring the security of payments and privacy of personal data may also be
a serious concern of the SMEs. Many SMEs do not know profitably how to

63
 develop their e–commerce activities or how to cope with the complex rules
governing this area.

The dominance of English on the World Wide Web limits the Internet’s
usefulness for reaching potential customers in non-English speaking
countries.

Piscitello and Sgobbi (2003) investigate the SMEs' responses to the challenges posed by
the new economy, i.e. the joint action of the increasing globalization and the diffusion of
the ICT. While on the one hand the new economy may weaken the traditional obstacles to
the transformation of the SMEs into global players. It may also confront the SMEs with
new obstacles and threats. The paper of Piscitello and Sgobbi provides empirical
evidence on these issues by analyzing the behavior of 277 SMEs located in two of the
largest Italian industrial districts. The empirical findings show the existence of the
differentiated behavioral patterns in approaching the ICT and e-business applications and
suggest that, at the firm level, the attitude towards the ICT and e-business reflects the
company strategy in facing global competition. Tang et al. (2003) show that many SMEs
have little understanding of, and cannot comprehend, future technological developments.

2.3.3. Competitive Elements and the ICT

Lord (2000) shows that few companies are running a full-blown e-business and most of
the firms are offering varying levels of e-commerce. Some of the benefits of the
electronic commerce (OECD 2000f) are:

Electronic commerce technologies allow automation of common processes, such

as distribution, sales, after-sales service and inventory management. This
automation support the SMEs to reduce transaction costs, improve product
quality/customer service, and reach new customers and suppliers in existing
markets and expanding in new markets.

E-commerce could be used as a defensive reaction to competitors engaging in e–
commerce, and it is also a requirement by large businesses.

64

Internet-based applications can be used in product design (shortening the design
process, and leading to a higher level of product customization and
standardization of parts), and in production and logistics (lower inventory costs,
faster production, and lower supply costs).

Electronic commerce technologies help the SMEs actively to create new products,
adopt new business practices and change their way of interacting in the
marketplace, (i.e. their relations with customers, suppliers, intermediaries and
competitors). Engaging in business-to-business or business-to-consumer e-
commerce induces small firms to improve controlling of their business process
organization. Business procedures that were conducted informally are rationalized
and institutionalized.

Electronic commerce applications push firms to reexamine the cost structure of
the value chain and their competitive strategies by redefining functions and skills.

The networking and sharing of functions enable firms to amplify the gains of
electronic commerce. New opportunities for the SMEs stem from the integration
of supply and demand chains through horizontal inter-firm linkages between
suppliers and customers and from the creation of production clusters. They can
contribute to solving the SMEs’ problem of lack resources and access to
technology by promoting transfer of knowledge through the use of integrated
processes.

Smallbone et al. (2003) are concerned with the nature and extent of product and process
innovation and adoption of the ICT in the SMEs. Their paper is based on extensive postal
surveys conducted in southeast (SE) England, Northern Ireland (NI), and the Republic of
Ireland (RoI). Data collected from all three surveys show that sales growth, employment
growth, and profit margins were higher for innovators than growth, for non-innovators.
With regard to the nature and extent of the use of the ICT and e-business, the survey
found a higher level of adoption of nearly all ICT facilities in SE England compared with
the levels in NI and the RoI. Tetteh (1999) and O’Toole (2003) describe a framework for
the analysis of online infrastructure of the SMEs based on the concepts of business
networks and virtual organization. Tetteh (1999) explains that the extended business

65
scope enhances the firm’s strategic opportunities and can contribute to its competitive
performance.

Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs) in developing countries need to be able to
figure out how, when, and where to use the e-commerce techniques to reap the above
gains. The main obstacles of using the e-commerce in the developing countries are higher
costs to access the Internet and language barrier in addition to the lack of understanding
of e-commerce techniques and the technology needed to use it. The usage of e-commerce
for growing SMEs in developing countries is becoming a prerequisite for competing well
in markets, and for dealing with other business partners and customers. Furthermore, the
SMEs in the developing countries are facing more challenges when trying to gain from e-
commerce than businesses in the developed countries. Some of these challenges are
relating to technical infrastructure, laws and regulations, and limited logistics systems
(OECD 2000g).

66
2.4. Summary

This chapter presents the theoretical background of the three major areas of the research:
small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs), competitive advantage, and the role of
information and communications technologies (ICT) on the competitive advantage of the
SMEs. As well, the chapter discusses different models for the small businesses' growth.

Competitiveness of a firm can be expressed in a variety of terms depending on the

context. Within a macroeconomic perspective, a competitive firm develops and sustains a
level of performance that contributes to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employment
opportunities, and the wealth of people. From an entrepreneurial perspective, a
competitive firm needs to survive in the market, at present and the days to come, and to
achieve market share and profitability. Competitive success can be measured by both
objective and subjective criteria. Objective criteria include return on investment, market
share, profit and sales revenue, while subjective criteria include enhanced reputation with
customers, suppliers, and competitors, and improve quality of delivered services.

Some of the potential economic and social benefits of the SMEs are: create jobs at low
cost of capital; provide an opportunity to expand the entrepreneurial base; provide the
required flexibility to adapt to market changes; provide support to large scale enterprises;
and enter into market niches which are not profitable for larger enterprises. In order to
improve the competitiveness of small firms is not only about understanding problems
confronting businesses but also about better understanding of how to overcome these
barriers. This study discusses different competitive models such as: personality-based
approach; Zairi (1996) model of continuous process improvement; Roper (1999) model
that focuses on enterprise’s business strategy; Man and Chan (2002) model that include
the external factors and the firm's internal capabilities; and Jones (2003) framework that
relies on the owner-manager to establish a broad strategic framework for the firm.

In this study the concept of the Balanced Scored Card (BSC) has been used as an
indicator of the firm’s competitive advantage. The BSC has four perspectives: financial,
customer satisfaction, internal business, and innovation. Financial performance indicators

67
are always lagging indicators. Some of these indicators are return on investment,
profitability, revenue growth, cost reduction and exportation. The customer perspectives
typically include several common outcomes measures. These are customer’s satisfaction,
customer’s retention, customer’s acquisition and market share in targeted segments.
Beyond just retaining customers, many companies wish to measure customer’s loyalty by
the growth of business with those customers. The internal process perspective is unique
for each organization. It measures employees’ satisfaction, employees’ keep on and
employees’ productivity. The innovation perspective includes percentage of new
products of total turnover and time necessary to develop new generation of products.

The Information and Communications Technology (ICT) allows automation of common

processes, shortening the design process, leading to a higher level of product
customization and standardization of parts, lowering inventory costs, and reexamining the
cost structure of the value chain and their competitive strategies by redefining functions
and skills. Furthermore, the ICT can contribute to solving the SMEs’ problem in terms of
the lack of resources and access to technology by promoting transfer of knowledge
through the use of integrated processes.

Several surveys point to the fact that the SMEs tend to move into the electronic business
world in stages. The first step involves using the Internet as a tool for communicating and
obtaining information. In a second phase, the SMEs consider basic electronic commerce
activities such as buying and selling. Finally, the SMEs start conducting banking and
financial transactions. On the other hand, there are reasons for the relative low level of
Internet usage such as low level of technological expertise, uncertainty about benefits,
low commitment of owner/manager, poor understanding of the dynamics of the electronic
marketplace. In addition to that, the fear of too low use of e-commerce by customers and
suppliers with the uncertainty about the legal, regulatory and tax environment play as
major obstacles of using the Internet by the SMEs.

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 CHAPTER THREE

THE AGENDA OF JORDAN, TURKEY AND ITALY

This chapter presents the profile of Jordan, Turkey and Italy. Section 3.1 discusses the
economy of Jordan, Turkey and Italy. Section 3.2 presents the natural stone sector in
these countries. A summary of the chapter is presented in section 3.3. Appendix C
presents general information about Jordan, Turkey and Italy.

3.1. The Economy of Jordan, Turkey and Italy

The World Economic Forum (WEF) has been trying to shed light on the question of why
some countries are able to grow on a sustained basis while others remain stagnant. The
WEF discusses: the Growth Competitiveness Index (GCI) and the Business
Competitiveness Index (BCI). The Growth Competitiveness Index (GCI) is composed of
three components: the quality of the macroeconomic environment, the state of country’s
public institutions, and a country’s technological readiness. While the Business
Competitiveness Index (BCI) evaluates the microeconomic conditions and defines the
current sustainable level of productivity in each country. The BCI evaluates two specific
areas: the sophistication of the operating practices and the strategies of companies, and
the quality of the microeconomic business environment in which a nation’s companies
compete (WEF 2005).

69
Economists often focus on helping poor countries become richer by improving primary
education and infrastructure such as roads and telephones. Unfortunately, it is only a
small part of the problem. Economists who have pulled apart the statistics, or studied
unusual data have found that education, infrastructure, and factories only explain the gap
between rich and poor countries. More important, why can’t the poor country seem to do
anything about it? Couldn’t improve its schools, factories, license technology, and seek
foreign partners? The problem of twisted rules and institutions explains part of the gap
while the corruption destroys every effort to improve the infrastructure, attract
investment, and raise educational standards (De Soto 2000).

Table (3.1) summarizes the GCI and BCI for Jordan, Turkey and Italy. Italy has the
highest rank in the Business Competitiveness Index (BCI) in comparison with Turkey
and Jordan. Italy's rank in 2003 was (34) out of (103) countries. This means that the
educational system in Italy is competitive at the international level especially in the
engineering and design. As well, Italy enjoys a quality of infrastructure, an easy access to
capital and information, and a dynamic networking and clustering.

Table 3.1. Growth and Business Competitiveness Indices of Jordan, Turkey and
Italy
Jordan Turkey Italy
Growth Competitiveness Index (GCI)
GCI (2004 Rank) 35/104 66/104 47/104
GCI (2004 Score) 4.58 3.82 4.27
GCI (2003 Rank) 34/103 65/103 41/103
Technology Index (Rank) 51 52 50
Technology Index (Score) 4.02 4.01 4.08
Institutions Index (Rank) 29 62 48
Institutions Index (Score) 5.43 4.22 4.64
Macroeconomic Environment Index (Rank) 36 84 38
Macroeconomic Environment Index (Score) 4.29 3.22 4.27
Business Competitiveness Index (BCI)
BCI (Ranking) 43/103 52/103 34/103
Company Operations and Strategy (Ranking) 54 44 26
Quality of the National Business Environment 40 55 43
(Ranking)
Source: The Global Competitiveness Report, WEF 2005

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Jordan has a higher rank in the Growth Competitiveness Index (GCI) in comparison with
Turkey and Italy. Jordan’s GCI rank in 2004 was (35) out of (104) countries, while in
2003 the rank was (34) out of (103) countries. Jordan has an advantage over Turkey and
Italy in the quality of the macroeconomic environment, and the state of the country's
public institutions. On the other hand, the rank of Jordan’s Business Competitiveness
Index (BCI) in 2003 was (43/103) and it has an advantage over Turkey. The main
strengths of the Jordanian economy lie in the quality of the educational system, quality of
infrastructure, judicial independence, efficiency of legal framework, protection minority
of shareholder interests, and intellectual property protection. In addition, the export of
Information Technology rose by around 300% in the last three years, the annual exports
exceed US$40 million, and the employment increased by (33%) from 2001 and 2002
employing about 8000 people (WEF 2005).

In Turkey, however, the macroeconomic instability continued with irregular growth and
high and variable inflation rates, along with political instability and numerous changes in
governments giving rise to frequent unexpected policy changes and slow implementation
of structural reforms. These have badly hurt the attractiveness of Turkey as a place to
invest. In addition to the economic and political instability, the weaknesses in the
regulatory environment for business seem to play a role as an impediment to foreign
direct investment (FDI) in Turkey. As well, administrative procedures, gaps in regulation,
inconsistent application of laws, extensive red tape, and unpredictable and lengthy
judicial enforcement are lengthy and unpredictable.

3.1.1 The Economy of Jordan

Table (3.2) summarizes the main indicators of the Jordanian economy during the years
(1999– 2004). In 2004, Jordan's real GDP growth rate reaches (7.5%), the unemployment
rate and the inflation rate reach to (12.5%) and (3.4%) respectively (CBJ 2005).
Furthermore, the table shows that there is a deficit in the trade balance by USD 4.18

71
billion, and the average change in imports is much higher than the average change in total
exports.

Jordan suffers inadequate supplies of water and other natural resources such as oil and
coal. During the 1970s and early 1980s Jordan benefited from the Arab aid during the oil
boom, when its annual real GNP growth averaged more than (10%). The Persian Gulf
crisis in 1990 slowed real economic growth to an average of roughly (2%) per year
(Oxford Business Group 2003). Jordan's economy is mainly service-oriented that
contributes (71%) to GDP and employs two-third of the labor force. The remaining 29%
is contributed by the agricultural and industrial sectors (JMOIT 2003).

Table 3.2. Major Economic Indicators – Jordan

Indicator 2004
GDP at Market Prices (US$ bn) 11.19
Real GDP Growth Rate (%) 7.5
GDP per Capita at Current Prices (US$) 2103
Inflation (%) 3.4
Unemployment Rate (%) 12.5
Total Exports (US$ bn) 3.95
Average Change (%) 28.2
Domestic Exports (US$ bn) 3.29
Average Change (%) 39.3
Imports (US$ bn) 8.13
Average Change (%) 41.5
Trade Balance (US $ bn) -4.18
Exports from QIZ (US$ mn) 1121.2
Average Change (%) 48.1
As a % of Domestic Exports (%) 34.1
Source: JMOP 2005; CBJ 2005

Unemployment, debt and poverty remain Jordan's biggest on-going problems (Turner
2001). Jordan's labor force is roughly 1.19 million, around (25.8%) of the population
(CIA 2005). While great efforts have been made towards solving Jordan's unemployment
problem, the rate remains high at an officially estimated (15.7%) in 2002, (14.5%) in
2003 and (12.5%) in 2004, but the unofficial figures are much higher (CIA 2005).
Jordan’s growth has not equally benefited all population groups, where the fruits of

72
growth are concentrated more in the hands of few people. The average of women’s
participation in the labor force was (11.2%) in 2003. The workforce is average in skill
and the education and English-speaking population accounts for a large number of the
workforce. However, the Gulf countries, by offering better salaries, attracted many
Jordanian professionals. Other professionals head to Europe and the US. The Jordanian
workforce is highly competitive in terms of salaries and wages. Jordan's manufacturing
labor cost is equivalent to 5% of Japan's, (7.4%) of that of the United States, and close to
that of India and China.

By the end of the 1980s, the Jordanian Dinar has lost more than half of its value, inflation
was in double digits- reaching over (20%) at one stage- foreign currency reserves were
depleted and unemployment was growing steadily (Oxford Business Group 2003). A
tight monetary policy was pursued by Jordan's Central Bank through most of the 1990s.
Although it deterred growth, it was successful in curbing inflation and protecting the
Dinar. Inflation was reduced to (1.8%) by 2001. Having controlled inflation, the Central
Bank's monetary policy has been eased and the rediscount rate was cut from (8%) in 1999
to (4.7%) in 2002.

Since the beginning of the 1990s, however, increased importance has been given to
liberalizing the economy after a number of developments had brought it to the brink of
collapse. The government is clearly committed to making Jordan part of the global
economy by taking advantage of various free trade opportunities to develop its economy,
boost exports and diversify its trading partners. In 2001, (40%) of Jordan's goods were
directed towards countries in the Arab world. The US has now become Jordan's biggest
trading partner, with exports jumping from USD 12 million in 1999 to USD 231 million
in 2001. Iraq ranks second with USD 181.3 million in exports (Oxford Business Group
2003). Europe is also an increasingly important destination for Jordanian products.
Jordan has an access to the global market through a number of effective agreements.
Some of these agreements:

Jordan became the 136th member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in
2000

73

Jordan-US Bilateral Free Trade Agreement in 2000

Jordan-EU Free Trade agreement in 2002

The Arab Free Trade Agreement.

Jordan-Egypt Bilateral Economic Cooperation in 1998

Qualifying Industrial Zones in 1998. An area provides the opportunity for duty-
free access to the US for goods manufactured within the zones

The bulk of Jordan's industrial sector consists of small, family-owned enterprises.

According to the Amman Chamber of Industry, the 26,000 or so companies in the
industrial sector employ (15%) of the labor force and contribute (21%) of the GDP.
Manufacturing companies comprises (90%) of the industrial base. Much of the private
sector's industry was developed in the 1970s in response to rising demand from Iraq.
However, the economic crisis of 1998, followed by the Gulf War, resulted in a complete
reorientation in the Jordanian economy. In 1992, the economy began opening up and
there was a renewed focus on developing exports. Industries began diversifying away
from Iraq toward partners elsewhere in the Arab world, as well as Europe and the US.
Unluckily, the small and fractured nature of the industrial base means that most of
Jordan's industry is not prepared to export or compete in truly global competitive market
place (JMOIT 2003).

The Department of Statistics in Jordan classifies different economic data according to the
number of work force in three categories: establishments employing less than five
workers, those employing five workers to less than 20 and the ones employing more than
20 workers. In 1997, the total number of industrial establishments is 26,000, which
employ about 178,500 workers. The number of industrial establishments employing four
workers and less were 19,600 and employing about 58,540 workers. Adding the number
of medium-scale establishments that employ less than 50 workers, the number of the
SMEs in Jordan rises to 25,400 establishments that represent (97.7%) of the total number
of the industrial establishments employing some 92,800 to represent (51.8%) of the total
industrial labor force. As for the geographical distribution of the small-scale industries
employing less than five workers, around (44.5%) of these establishments are
concentrated in the capital of Amman, while (38.9%) are concentrated in three locations

74
(Irbid, Zarqa and Balqa) and the remaining average is distributed around other regions in
the Kingdom (DOS 2004).

In Jordan, there are few associations and programs that support the SMEs. The EU-
Jordan Association Agreement (EJADA) is primarily dedicated to support the SMEs in
Jordan. The European project, which was launched in July 2001, is a four and half year
program worth 41.6 million Euros. It is an integrated program mainly targeting the SMEs
in Jordan through four components: Technical support, financial support, vocational
training, and policy support. In light of the EJADA's vision to ensure sustainability of
industrial policy process, it works closely with the Ministry of Industry and Trade and the
Ministry of Planning in order to develop legal and institutional reforms and promote the
adoption of international standards.

Jordan Upgrading and Modernizing Program (JUMP) is a joint endeavor between the
public and private sectors. It provides technical assistance, training and partial grants to
industry to strengthen the managerial capabilities and technological capacities of the
SMEs in Jordan. As a national program for upgrading and modernizing the Jordanian
SMEs, JUMP was endorsed by the Jordanian Cabinet in October 2003. It is overseen by a
12 member steering committee, equally comprised of representatives of the private and
public sectors, and headed by the Minister of Industry and Trade and deputized by the
chairman of the Jordan Chamber of Industry.

The main objectives of JUMP are:

√ Enhance productivity, improve product quality and reduce unit cost

√ Enable enterprises to face increased competition in the domestic, regional and
global markets
√ Increase market share and develop new non-traditional export markets
√ Benchmark and adopt best international business practices
√ Develop strategic directions driven by market needs
√ Enhance capabilities of human resources

75
In 1997 a new company law was passed and significantly revised in 2002. One of the
main changes was the addition of a new type of limited liability company- the private
shareholding company. This type can have varying types of shares, each enjoying
different rights. The companies' law No. 22 of 1997 (amended by law No. 40 of 2002)
aims at facilitating the establishment of companies and streamlining the registration
processes. Companies registered under this law are divided into general partnerships,
limited partnerships, limited liability companies, private shareholding companies, limited
partnership in shares, public shareholding companies, non-operational foreign companies
(regional offices), holding companies, joint investment companies, and exempt
companies.

The Investment Promotion Law was passed in 1997 and was later improved. It is only in
construction and trading companies that foreigners are banned from holding a majority of
shares. Significant tax exemptions (ranging from 25% to 75% for ten years, depending on
the type of project and its location) are given to all new investors, regardless of their
nationality. Imports of machinery and equipment are exempt from customs. Significant
reductions in personal and corporate tax rates were introduced through two income tax
laws, one passed in 1995 and the other in effect since January 1, 2002. The corporate
income tax rate for most sectors is now 15% while for insurance companies, services and
trading companies is 25%, and for banks 35%. Personal income tax rates are progressive.
They started from 5% to reach 25% drop from the previous maximum of 45%.

The literacy rate is one of the highest in the region. More than (90%) of the population
over the age of 15 is able to read and write. Male literacy rates are estimated at 94%
while female rates are lower at around 79.5% (CIA 2002). Jordan's educational system
has developed remarkably since the 1920s, when the government began to institutionalize
a comprehensive, high-quality school and university system. In 2004, there were 2963
government schools, 2179 private schools, 192 UNRWA and 21 community colleges. In
addition, the Council of Higher Education supervises education in 21 universities (8
public and 13 private). The percentage of female university students is (49.8%).
Education is free for all primary and secondary schools and compulsory for all Jordanian
children up to the age of 15 (JMOP 2005). In Jordan, there are 17 universities that offer

76
33 different Information Technology related specialties. However, the university courses
are more academic than practical, and they are not tailored towards the community needs
(JMOP 2003). In 2004, there were 40,000 registered engineers and architects in the
country, of which (43%) are civil, (23%) electrical and (19%) mechanical engineers.

Jordan has taken some major steps in the last four years towards creating a dynamic and
practical approach to be a part of the international Information and Communications
Technology (ICT) sector. The most significant step towards a realistic goal in developing
the ICT is the creation of the REACH initiative (JMOP 2003). The REACH initiative is
a marriage of the public and private sectors working together to create a dynamic and
workable plan. REACH stands for (Regulatory Framework, Enabling Environment and
Infrastructure, Advancement of National IT Programs, Capital and Finance, and Human
Resource Development). In 2002 there were an estimated 33PCs for every 1000
Jordanians, with only 29 in every 1000 people making regular use of the Internet (Oxford
Business Group 2003). The e-commerce is still at its very early stages of development.
There are some websites that offer merchandize that can be bought online with the use of
credit cards. However, the cost of shipping would be a disadvantage since the average
Jordanian can drive to any store in his/her city in less than twenty minutes.

In order to liberate the national economy and increase the flow of foreign capital, the
government of Jordan has initiated a privatization program designed to activate the role
and efficiency of private investors in the long-term development plans of the Kingdom
(Oxford Business Group 2003). In 1996, the Jordanian Electricity Authority was
transformed to public shareholding companies. Jordan has passed many laws that are
dealing with protecting the copyright of software, promoting investment, and regulating
electronic transactions and signatures. The E-government program is underway, and
many governmental organizations are computerized, and some are on the web (Oxford
Business Group 2003; JMOP 2003). A review of the E-government in Jordan is set in the
context of the contradictions and conflicts of negotiating policies that aim to extent all
scales from local to global. The Jordanian strategy should balance the needs of the
individual citizens with the macro pressures of globalization.

77
The telecommunications infrastructure is still inaccessible to all parts of the Kingdom
(Turner 2001). Telephone and other communications services are still not available
everywhere. The Internet diffusion is still low due to the fact that local phone calls and
the personal computers are expensive. Telephone services were introduced to Jordan in
the 1930s by the British Company Cable and Wireless, which continued to upgrade and
run telephone network until 1966, when control was passed to the Ministry of Post,
Telegraph and Telephony. In 1971 all telecom operations were spun off into a new entity,
the Telecommunications Corporations of Jordan (TCJ). In 1995, the company faced
competition for telephone services, with the arrival of Jordan's mobile telephone services
which was granted a 15-year license to construct (Oxford Business Group 2003).

Further changes were made to allow for the privatization of TCJ itself. This involved a
complete restructuring of the company in 1997 which saw it reborn as the Jordan
Telecommunications Company (JTC). Since privatization, the company has expanded its
range of services to include payment by pre-paid card for fixed-line services, three way
conferencing, voice mail, alarm services and caller ID. The JTC also offers top end
digital services using the ISDN16 and ASDL standards. ISDN offers error-free digital
communication and is widely used for video and picture transfer of large data files. In
2002, Fastlink has almost 1 million subscribers against 300000 for Mobilcom. At the end
of 2001, Jordan had 68,000 Internet subscribers, with the companies dominating the
Internet (Oxford Business Group 2003).

3.1.2. The Economy of Turkey

During the 1930's, development strategies were based on rapid industrialization through
State Economic Enterprises (SEE) and import substitution. Since the 1980's, Turkey’s
development strategy has been based on the free market economy strategy (OZ 1999).
Many structural reforms have been introduced in the general framework of the Turkish
Economy. Turkey's dynamic economy is a complex mix of modern industry and

16
Integrated Services Digital Network. ISDN is an international standard for transmitting voice, data,
image, and video to support a wide range of service over the public telephone lines.

78
commerce along with a traditional agricultural sector that in 2001 accounted for (40%) of
the employment while the most important industry is textiles and clothing, which is
almost entirely in private hands.

The real GNP growth has exceeded (6%) in most years, but this strong expansion was
interrupted by the sharp declines in the output in the recent years (Oz 1999). Meanwhile,
the public-sector fiscal deficit has regularly exceeded (10%) of the GDP due to the huge
burden of the interest payments while inflation has remained in the high double-digit
range (CIA 2002). Table (3.3) presents the main economic performance of Turkey.

Table 3.3. The Main Economic Indicators for the Turkish Economy
Indicator 2004
GDP – real growth rate 8.2%
GDP per capita $7,400
Inflation rate 9.3%
Unemployment rate 9.3%
Exports $69.46 billion
Imports $94.5 billion
Source: CIA 2005

The industry structure is dominated by small and medium sized enterprises. According to
the 1994 survey of industry and business establishments, the total number of the
industrial establishments was 198264 (Turkish Time 2003). The small and medium sized
industrial establishments comprise to 197297 of them. Table (3.4) gives the number and
share of the Turkish small, medium and large industrial enterprises in terms of the total
number of establishments, and the number of workers employed. It is clear from the table
that small and medium industrial enterprises are predominant in Turkey; accounting for
(99.5%) of the overall manufacturing industry and (65%) of the total employees. It is
noticed that the total number of enterprises increased by 6.5% during the period (1992 –
2001) while the number of workers increased by 8%. The highest average (28.5%
increase in the number of enterprises and 52% in the number of workers) is located in the
category (50 – 249) workers (Turkish Time 2003).

79
The Turkish government signed the European Charter for Small Enterprises in 2002 and
agreed to take concrete steps to develop policies and programs for the SMEs. As well, the
Turkish government adopted the Bologna Charter in 2000, together with other OECD
countries to promote bilateral and multilateral initiatives to foster global SME
partnerships (OECD 2004).

Table 3.4. Manufacturing Enterprises in Turkey

Size Category
by Number of Number of Enterprises Workers
Workers
1992 2001 % 1992 2001 %
1 to 9 186 900 199 737 7 523 117 500 738 -4
10 to 49 7 970 7 260 -9 175 646 183 694 4.5
50 to 249 2 434 3 127 28.5 225 650 343 023 52
250 and over 795 912 14.7 553 626 570 083 3
Total 198 099 211 036 6.5 1 478 039 1 597 538 8
Source: OECD 2004

In Turkey, there are different programs and organizations that support the SMEs. The
Turkish Five-year Development Plan (2001-2005) calls for raising product quality and
enhancing the innovation and technology capacity of small business through
collaboration with universities, introduction of new financing instruments, such as risk
capital, and modern management techniques. Partnerships with foreign companies have
been encouraged to develop the SMEs’ export capabilities. The Ministry of Foreign
Trade and Industry and the Small and Medium Industry Development Organization
(KOSGEB), and its Enterprise Development Centers (IGEM) and Technology
Development Centers (TEKMER) are aware of the SME support programs in Europe,
North America and Asia.

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Table (3.5) presents different definitions for the SMEs used in Turkey and the European
Union.

Table 3.5. SME Definitions Used in Turkey and the European Union
Criterion Micro- Small- Medium-
Sectoral
Organization for sized sized sized
definition
definition enterprise enterprise enterprise
KOSGEB Industry Number of 1-50 51-150
workers workers workers
UNDERSECRE Industry, Number 1-9 10-49 50-250
TARIAT OF tourism of workers workers workers
TREASURY workers

Investment amount, 550 000 550 000 550 000

amount of investment
subject to SME
incentive certificate
(EUR)
EXIMBANK Industry Number of -- -- 1-200
workers workers
EU Non- Number of 0-9 10-49 50-249
primary workers workers workers workers
private
Annual <EUR 2 <EUR 10 <EUR 50
turnover million million million
Annual sheet Million <EUR 43
balance <EUR 2 million
million
<EUR 10
Source: OECD 2004

For the past two decades, strategies for economic development in Turkey have shifted
towards increased reliance on market forces and exposure to international competition. At
the turn of the 1980s the government replaced its import substitution strategy in favor of
a market-oriented economic policy. Trade liberalization was given a new drive in the mid
1990s with the signature of the customs union with the European Union (EU), which has
strengthened Turkey’s economic ties with Europe. Governments however, have failed to
achieve macroeconomic stabilization. For two decades, the fiscal imbalances have fuelled

81
high inflation and undermined growth. At the end of 1999, the government launched a
reform program, supported by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund
(IMF), to stabilize the economy. The government’s program focuses on the banking
sector, fiscal transparency, privatization and more generally an increased involvement of
the private sector in the economy. However, the program collapsed with the financial
crisis in November 2000 and February 2001. These developments have highlighted the
difficulty to implement tight monetary and fiscal policies while strong structural
weaknesses persist, and given a new impetus to structural reforms. The economic
program of the government has thus entailed structural policies to provide a better
environment for the economy.

Turkey eliminated tariffs on manufactured imports from the EU, adopted the EU
common external tariff for manufacturing products and the industrial component of
processed agricultural food, and aligned to the EU’s preferential trade regime.
Accordingly, Turkey signed bilateral free-trade agreements with Central and Eastern
European countries, Baltic States, and Israel. The decision of the EU to accept the
candidacy of Turkey to the Community at the European Council of Helsinki in December
1999 has given a new incentive to structural reforms. This entails far-reaching structural
and legislative reforms in many areas, such as customs, duty concessions, competition
policy, etc.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) has remained at a low level in Turkey over the past
twenty years. While in the 1990s the FDI surged over the world, the level of the FDI
inflows remained stable in Turkey. The FDI increased in the 1980s following the
liberalization measures implemented at the beginning of the decade, but growth in the
FDI has been stopped in the 1990s, with inflows averaging less than (0.5%) of the GDP.
In the same time, the Central European countries, which are considered as Turkey’s main
competitor in the region for attracting foreign investment, scored much higher inflows (in
1999, FDI inflows accounted for (9%) of GDP in the Czech Republic, (3.9%) in Hungary
and (4.2%) in Poland. Almost (60%) of the cumulated FDI has gone to the services
sector. However, inflows of the FDI in the service sector have remained at low levels.

82
Foreign-owned banks still have a limited role in the Turkish banking sector (OECD
2004).

In 2000, exports and imports accounted for (40%) of the Turkish GDP, up from (9%) in
1979 to (25%) in 1993. For the past two decades the trade balance has always shown a
deficit, but the size of the deficit has fluctuated widely with volatile domestic growth
rates, in particular due to strong fluctuations of imports. The share of manufacturing in
exports has increased to reach over (80%) in 2000, up from (68%) in 1990 (OECD 2004).
Trade with the OECD countries, in particular European countries, has intensified since
the late 1980s, while trade with neighboring Asian countries has been undermined by
political and economic dislocations in the region. In 2000, the EU countries accounted for
(52.2%) of the Turkish exports and (48.8%) of its imports.

The Information and Communications Technology sector (ICT) is one of the fastest
growing sectors in Turkey. Its share in the GDP was (0.6%) in 1998 and it reached
(0.9%) in 1999 and (1.6%) in 2000 (CIA 2002). Turkey’s ICT industry has grown by
(83%) in 2000 from (47%) in 1999. Turkey boasted more than 1.7 million Internet users
in 2000 and the figure has reached to 3 million by the end of 2001 (Turkish Time 2003).
Turkey has engaged a reform process to liberalize the telecommunications sector. A rapid
upgrade of this industry has become vital to the competitiveness of the Turkish economy.
In January 2000, the Parliament adopted the new telecom law, 27 which paved the way
for a restructuring of the sector over a four-year period. It planned for the privatization
and restructuring of the state-owned incumbent operator, Turkish Telecom (TT),
introduced competition in the provision of the value added and wireless services, and
established an independent regulatory authority for telecommunications. The law allowed
the TT to maintain its monopoly over fixed-line services, including national and
international voice telephony, until the end of 2003 (CIA 2005). The mobile market has
quickly been expanded since the end of the 1990s. The number of the mobile subscribers
surged from 3.5 millions in 1998 to 19.2 millions by the end of 2001. At the same time,
the expansion of fixed lines has been more moderate in recent years. The number of lines
per 100 inhabitants rose from less than 5 in 1985 to 25 in 1997 and 28 in 2001 (against an
average of 52 in OECD countries).

83
3.1.3. The Economy of Italy

In the early post World-War II period, the Italian firms were focusing on low-cost labor.
By the early 1980s many Italian industries achieved advantage based on segmentation,
differentiation, and process innovation and the Italian economy has reached a significant
development (Porter 1998). Italy's economic performance is lagged behind its EU
partners. In 2001, the economic growth is on average (1.8%) a year that is comparatively
low in comparison with other developed countries like the US (2.5%) and the
Netherlands (2.2%). Constant problems include illegal immigration, the damage of
organized crime, corruption, high unemployment, and the low incomes and technical
standards of southern Italy compared with the prosperous north (CIA 2002). Most raw
materials and energy requirements are imported (Porter 1998). Table (3.6) presents parts
of the economic performance.

Table3.6. The Main Economic Indicators of the Italian Economy

Indicator 2004
GDP – real growth rate 1.3%
GDP per capita $27,700
Inflation rate 2.3%
Unemployment rate 8.6%
Exports $336.4 billion
Imports 329.3 billion
Source: CIA 2005

Internationally successful Italian Industries tend to be characterized by the small and

medium sized firms that compete primarily through export, with only limited foreign
direct investment. Another feature of the successful Italian industries is the geographic
concentration in which many of the firms in one industry are located in a single town
(Porter 1998). The structure and size of the SMEs varies sharply from one area to
another. Italy adopts the European Community criteria for the definition of business
dimension. In Italy, the definitions of the criteria for the medium enterprises are
characterized by: number of employees is up to 250, maximum annual turnover is 40
million Euros, and the maximum annual balance sheet is 27 million Euros (DTI 2001).

84
The SMEs’ cluster in Italy is called "Third Italy", while the southern part of Italy is called
"Second Italy", and the northern part of Italy is called "First Italy" (OECD 2000 f).

Smaller companies in Italy are less able to overcome the obstacles of the geographical
distance and they direct their international activity primarily to areas closer to home, in
Europe and the Mediterranean, which take more than three quarters of their exports
(OECD 200f). However, they have also developed initiatives for the internationalization
of production in East Asia, the prevalent inducement being the quest for lower costs.
Large firms instead show a greater geographical diversification of exports and a more
substantial production presence in the developed markets; where their foreign
investments are motivated primarily by access to skilled resources and proximity to
customers.

The Italian economy is going through a very difficult period, with the GDP growth of less
than 1% per year since 2000 (CIA 2005). Reflecting the strong acceleration of the world
trade, the Italian economy’s international openness increased slightly in 2004. The share
of the output sold on foreign markets and that of domestic demand covered by imports
rose to (28.7%) and (28.3%), respectively, at constant prices. These indicators, however,
remained below their levels of 2000.

Italy’s share of the volume of world exports fell almost uninterruptedly in the last decade.
A similar trend was recorded by nearly all the developed countries, corresponding to the
gains achieved by the emerging regions of Asia and Central and Eastern Europe.
However, Italian exports also lost share to those of the other developed countries. One
factor in this decline was the appreciation of the Euro, at least in the last three years. The
competitiveness of Italian products also diminished owing to the relative increase in unit
labor costs, due basically to an unfavorable differential in productivity growth. As well,
the Italian exports’ loss of share is attributable to the country’s poor ability to attract
foreign investment. Italy cannot compete with the emerging countries for the FDI inflows
motivated by cost advantages. On the Italian import market, China, Eastern Europe and
the oil producing countries gained share. Despite the depreciation of the dollar, the Italian
imports from the United States have declined for the fourth consecutive year in volume as

85
well as in value, and has been penalized in part by the weakness of the Italian firms’
demand for the investment goods.

In 1999 there were 61,774 ICT firms in Italy. Most of these firms operate in the software
and services segment of the industry. This was followed by the firms working in
hardware and technical assistance, indirect operators, and telecommunications services
and equipment of firms. However, these ICT firms have played a driving role in
employment growth in recent years. The largest proportion of workers has jobs with
software and services firms. In addition, the firms' investment in the ICT training is also
rising sharply.

There has been a jump in the number of the university degrees awarded in the disciplines
of greatest interest to ICT firms, i.e. engineering, economics, and statistics. The share of
the university students enrolling in the 147 full degree courses and 78 diploma courses in
technological or scientific fields is also rising from (15.3%) in 1999 to 19% in 2001. in
addition, in Italy they started to deliver training to the intermediate-level staff such as
technicians, professional managers, and qualified operators (OECD 2000).

Although it began expanding later than in the other European countries, the Italian ICT
sector is now growing rapidly. This progress has moved Italy into what the OECD calls
the "Medium ICT Intensity" group of countries as shown in table (3.7). The Italian ICT
market is estimated to have grown by (12.8%) in 2000, the fastest pace in Europe after
Greece and Spain. In 2001, the Italian market places the fourth rank by size after the UK,
Germany, and France.

86
Table 3.7. List of Countries in ICT Intensity Groups
High ICT Intensity Medium ICT Intensity Low ICT Intensity
Finland Austria Australia
Hungary Canada Belgium
Ireland Denmark Czech Republic
Korea France Germany
Sweden Greece New Zeland
United Kingdom Iceland Poland
United States Italy Portugal
Japan Spain
Mexico Turkey
Netherlands
Norway
Switzerland
Source: OECD 2000

In spite of the aforementioned Italy's strong points, the country lags behind other
countries in Europe and the US in using the Internet because of the low PC penetration
which at least in the southern part of Italy result of poor economic conditions, and high
unemployment. Italy is hardly being the gate of e-commerce. Italians may never catch up
to their English neighbors who have the language and geographic advantages of being the
bridge from the US to Europe (Oxford business group 2003). The Italian ICT market is
estimated to have a growth by (12.8%) in 2000. In 2004 there were 1,437,511 Internet
hosts and almost 18.5 million users (CIA 2005).

87
3.2. The Natural Stone Sector

Natural stone is a general term employed to cover all types of rock of whatever origin
found in the earth's crust. In buildings, dressed and polished stone is usually employed.
Stones with deliberately produced rough surfaces are used in vertical surfaces (interior or
exterior), in floor covering, on the steps of stairways and for decorative purposes. The
types of building stone used in various types of construction are:

√ Uncut (raw) stone

√ Random cut stone
√ Fragmented and sifted stone (aggregate)
√ Dimensional blocks
√ Processed stone, cut and shaped in the form of slabs or tiles

The most commonly used term in the natural stone sector is marble. In the commercial
sense, the term marble is applied to material of whatever type of origin (sediment,
magmatic or metamorphic) which can provide blocks consistent with accepted standards
and, when cut and polished, display characteristics compatible with the criteria for facing
stone. According to this definition, sedimentary rocks such as travertine, sandstone;
metamorphic material such as gneiss, marble and quartzite, and magmatic rocks such as
granite, syenite and serpentine are classified as marble. According to the scientific
definition, the term marble is applied to metamorphosed limestone produced by a process
of recrystallization. The chemical composition of marbles, mostly made up of cacite
crystals, is calcium carbonate-dolomite. Marbles also contains small quantities of silicium
dioxide and metal oxides that supply color.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the production and trade in natural stone began to
spread from Europe to other countries. In 1926, 1.5 million tons of stone were produced
in a total of 42 countries. Almost (40%) of the total was produced in Italy and another
(40%) in Belgium, France, the US, Germany and the UK (Stone 2003). In 2003, the
annual global production of natural stone blocks has risen to 75 million tones. Almost
(50%) of this consists of marble and other colored stones, (40%) of granite and other hard

88
stones and (10%) of travertine and onyxes. The share of Turkey was 6 million tons (8%)
of the world stone production). China, Italy, Spain, and India represent almost (50%) of
the world stone production (TUMMER 2004).

Countries in the Alps-Himalaya zone, such as Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey,
Iran, and Pakistan, contain very large reserves of carbonates such as marble, limestone
and onyx. Table (3.8) shows the distribution of the world natural stone production in
2002 based on colors.

Table 3.8. World Stone Production with Respect to Colors

Color % Million (tons) Million (meter square)
1. Gray 43.1 17.1 317
2. Beige 13.8 5.5 102
3. White 9.7 3.8 72
4. Pink 6.8 2.7 50
5. Yellow 5.2 2 38
6. Red 4.2 1.7 31
7. Brown 4.1 1.6 30
8. Black 2 0.8 15
9. Green 1.5 0.6 11
10. Blue 1 0.4 7
11. Other 8.6 3.4 63
Total 100 24.5 736
Source: TUMMER 2004

Gray takes the first place with a (43%) share while beige is in the second place with
(13.8%) and the white color is the third in rank with (9.7%) share. These colors make up
(66.5%) of the total natural stone production in the world (TUMMER 2004). Table (3.9)
shows the world consumption distribution and share per country. The data shows that
China, Italy, Germany, the US and Spain represent (41%) of the world consumption.

89
 Table 3.9. World Consumption Distribution
Countries Quantities Shares sq mt x 100
China 61.310 10.3% 5,4
Italy 58.130 9.8% 101,1
Germany 43.920 7.4% 53,5
United States 41.920 7.0% 15,7
Spain 39.330 6.6% 100,1
Japan 33.360 5.6% 26,5
India 26.880 4.5% 2,9
France 24.510 4.1% 42,3
Greece 15.120 2.5% 146,8
Saudi Arabia 13.890 2.3% 72,7
Turkey 9.270 1.6% 14,6
Source: Marble and More 2005

Table (3.10) presents the total world imports and export of the natural stone in 2000. It is
noticed that the unvalued added products (marble and granite blocks and slabs) represent
the major proportion of the world import and export.

Table 3.10. World Import and Export of the Year (2000)

No Type Import (tons) Export (tons)
1 Marble Block/ Slabs 368.079 769.428
2 Granite Block/ Slabs 1.830.143 131.102
3 Marble Processing 52.649 1.437.698
4 Granite Processing 47.097 1.033.465
5 Other Slate Processing 54.683 231.079
6 Modul Granite 226.690 1.220.852
Source: Marble and More 2005

The leading five countries in the world rank of the natural stone exporters in terms of
amount as shown in table (3.11) are: China, Italy, India, Spain, and Turkey. Although
China takes the first place in the amount of the exports, Italy is the country that takes the
largest share in terms of the value. Since China sells cheap merchandise, its place is
lower in rank in terms of value of exports despite its leadership in the amount.

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Table 3.11. Countries in the World Natural Stone Exports (2003)
No Country Total (tons) Block (tons) Processed (tons)
1. China 5,700 856 4,844
2. Italy 3,191 861 2,330
3. India 2,431 1,950 481
4. Spain 1,843 896 947
5. Turkey 1,469 789 680
Source: TUMMER 2004

As well, China leads in imports. Italy holds the second place, keeps buying cheap imports
and exporting under its own brand name with the use of its technology. The USA,
Germany, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan maintain their positions as significant
importers. The imports figures for 2002 are shown in table (3.12).

Table 3.12. Major Importing Countries (2002)

No Country Total (tons) Block (tons) Processed (tons)
1. China 2,546 2,477 69
2. Italy 2,170 1,976 194
3. USA 2,083 453 1,630
4. Germany 1,186 408 1,453
5. Japan 1,755 163 1,592
Source: TUMMER 2004

The main usages of the natural stone as shown in table (3.13) are floor tiles (36.5%),
tombstones (17.5%) and personal use (13.0%)

Table 3.13. Area of Use of Natural Stone

No Area of Use Percentage (%)
1. Floor Tiles 36.5
2. Outer Wall Covering 7.5
3. Stair Steps 3.5
4. Inner Wall Covering 9.5
5. Personal Use 13.0
6. Sculptures 10.0
7. Tombstones 17.5
8. Other 2.5
Source: TUMMER 2004

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Table (3.14) presents the expected world growth of natural stone trade. The data shows
that the annual growth rate in 2025 is expected to be five times the rate in 2005.

Table 3.14. Expected World Growth of Natural Stone Trade

Years Gross Product Finished Total in mill. Annual Ratios
in mill. Sq.mt Products in Sq.mt Growth Rate (%)
mill. Sq.mt (%)
1996 88,4 171,0 259,4 0.0 84.4
1997 103,7 179,2 282,9 9.1 92.1
1998 96,7 181,7 278,4 -1.6 90.6
1999 111,5 195,8 307,3 10.4 100.0
2000 120,6 212,0 332,6 8.2 108.2
2005 179,2 315,1 494,3 9.7 160.9
2010 266,4 468,4 734,8 9.7 239.1
2015 396,1 696,2 1092,3 9.7 355.5
2020 588,8 1034,8 1623,6 9.7 528.3
2025 874,7 1538,3 2413,0 9.7 785.2
Average annual growth rate 8.3%
Source: Marble and More 2005

One of the most positive developments of the natural stone industry is its growing
popularity in major projects (airports, hospitals...). At the same time, more and more raw
materials are appearing everywhere, but the production of many quarries is sometimes
too small to be able to offer the materials for big projects. Additionally, while the
production in the natural stone has increased dramatically in the last decade, the decline
in prices has also been impressive. However, the emergence of Spain in the last ten years
has been an important phenomenon in the natural stone industry. The Spanish companies
were the biggest buyers for the modern machinery, and they constantly invested in better
production facilities. Also, China started to export granite stones and tiles all over the
world at unbeatable prices. Moreover, India, Egypt and some Eastern European countries
are expanding their activities and becoming international actors. Italy holds the
international leadership in stone machinery and technology.

Stone refining starts in a quarry. The first huge stone blocks are quarried from a rock.
After those big stone blocks are disengaged from rocks, they are subdivided into smaller

92
pieces (cubes). These cubes are raw material for the stone refining industry. Most used
working techniques are cutting, sawing, splitting, turning stone on the lathe and
smoothing. The contractor will take delivery of the cut stones and work with the
engineer, architect and laborers to construct the building. Architects and engineers have
the most direct connection with the end customer as shown in figure (3.1).

Figure 3.1.The Natural Stone Industry Chain

Cutting, Contractor,
Quarry Shaping, and Architect, Customer
Finishing Engineer

The granite and marble products are widely used in different application in the
construction industry. They are used for both internal and external applications due to
their desirable properties and nice natural coloring. Today, the market offers the first
continuous electronically controlled lines for cutting blocks and subsequent operations to
fabricate and polish tiles. Additionally, cutting machines, equipped with computerized
controllers are progressively more common in stone processing shops. Technology now
makes it possible to link different gang saws together with a computerized production
control system in which every processing stage is controlled by remote computers. Gang
saws equipped with this new technology can operate 24 hours a day, including holidays,
without requiring operator supervision.

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3.2.1. The Jordanian Natural Stone Sector

Stone has been widely used in building in Jordan since pre-historic times. It has evolved
from being a load bearing construction material to one that is merely used for cladding
buildings and therefore serves aesthetic purposes. Although each historical cultural
period reflects individual building techniques, there are many traditions in the cutting and
processing of stone that have been carried on from antiquity to the present day.
The industry structure of the stone sector is dominated by small enterprises. The stone
sector is mainly composed of 600 small companies, generating employment for about
4,200 with an annual turnover of some US$60 million. The Jordanian firms mainly
export to Israel, US, Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf Countries. However, there are
interesting sources of stone material in Jordan, such as the Beige Ajloun and Hallabat, the
Grey Karak Limestone, and the Jordan Valley Travertine. These kinds of stone are highly
demanded in the US, Europe and East Asia but the Jordanians are facing the problem of
not having sufficient quantities to export in huge volumes.

A variety of different stone formations can be found in Jordan that includes types such as
limestone, granite, sandstone and basalt. Until now, limestone is the most quarried and
used type of stone in Jordan. It is found in different parts of the country in a variety of
color ranges: white, yellow, gray, brown and red. It is also exported to other countries in
the region, either as a raw material or as a finished, cut and dressed product. Additionally,
some buildings in Jordan have employed stone brought from Palestine, which includes
some of the best known quarries in the region.

As for the Jordanian quarries, nowadays limestone is being quarried in the areas of
Ma’an, Ajlun, Irbid, al-Azraq, and the desert plains. The quarries of Ma’an, located in the
southern part of Jordan, are famous for their white hard limestone, which is classified as a
first grade stone, due to its hardness, purity and low porosity. Additionally, some of the
quarries of Ma’an produce another type of limestone that is of lower quality and has a
darker beige color and yellow veins. Ajlun, in the north of Jordan, has white limestone
quarries of high strength, while the quarries of Irbid produce white and reddish colored
limestone in addition to black volcanic rock. The “desert stone” is a white and reddish

94
limestone that comes from the area of al-Azraq east of Amman, along the edge of the
desert areas. Finally, the quarries found in the area of Salt near Amman produce soft
limestone in white and yellow colors.

Table (3.15) presents the production of the natural stone during the years (2000 – 2004)
in Jordan.

Table 3.15 Jordan – Production of Natural Stone

Type 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Dimension, Thousand meters 3508 7000 10000 13578 6560
worked
Gravel and Thousands cubic 10381 11000 13000 14266 14900
Crushed Rock meters
Limestone Thousands cubic 8000 8400 9600 9500 9500
meters
Marble Cubic meters 21575 21000 21000 20685 27650

In Jordan, there are different programs and institutions that support the natural stone
sector. In 1992, Jordan established a non-profit organization called Jordan Stone and Tile
Exporters Association (JOSTONE). The primary objective of the JOSTONE is to
enhance the export capabilities of the sector and to help create export opportunities for its
members, specifically in non-traditional markets. As well, the UNIDO program helped
many stone firms working in the natural stone financially by investing in the latest
technology, giving them the opportunity to become well equipped with the latest
technologies and machinery, as well as the ability to meet international standards and
specifications. The UNIDO program has a good impact on importing advanced
processing equipment from Europe. The data shows that processing equipment utilized
by the Jordanian firms imported from Europe has had a positive trend over the past 10
years with a 250% increase in the production (JMOP 2003).

95
3.2.2. The Turkish Natural Stone Sector

Marble, the word itself deriving from the name of Marmara Island where ancient marble
quarries first took place about 2000 years ago, has recently become the locomotive of the
mining industry with the rapid development. Marmara Island and Afyon were the capitals
of marble production and exports in Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman periods.

Turkey is known to possess five different types of rock formation capable of yielding
stone blocks and of being cut and polished. These are marbles, limestones, magmatic
rocks, travertines, and carbonate alabasters (onyx). Research carried out in Turkey has
established the existence of a reserve of over 5 billion cubic meters of marble and colored
natural stone, a large part of which is located in western Anatolia. Almost 75% of total
production is obtained from quarries in the provinces of Denizil, Mugla, Balikesir,
Bilecik, Afyon, Bursa, Burdur and Eskisehir.

Inappropriate regulations, administrative and bureaucratic applications hindered the

production of stones for years in Turkey. The rapid rise in stone block production in
Turkey began in the 1980s. The removal in 1986 of stone block from the context of the
obsolete "Quarries Regulations" and its inclusion under "Mining Law" gave confidence
that allowed the investors to plan ahead. In the second half of the 1990s production of
stone in Turkey rose from 15th in the world to the 7th. Turkey's production was exceeded
only by three European countries (Italy, Spain and Portugal) and three non-European
countries (China, India and Brazil).

Turkey is a major producer of barite, boron minerals, celestite, emery, feldspar,

limestone, magnesite, marble, perlite, and pumice. A wide variety of primary metallic
minerals were produced as well. Turkey is a major world producer of processed mineral
commodities, which included refined borates and related chemicals, cement, ceramics,
and glass. Turkey is one of the world’s most important natural stone and marble
producers. There are more than 500 quarries, 800 factories and around 1000 workshops
in the sector (TUMMER 2004). With the Mining Law, long-term security was provided
to invest in quarries and define the industry as priority sector for investments. This leads

96
to a major contribution in the fast development of the industry in recent years (Turkish
Time 2003). With the modern quarry production methods that are recently being applied
and with the latest techniques, Turkey has become one of the seven big producing
countries in the world natural stone production (TUMMER 2004).

The natural stone production of the country jumped from 600 thousand tons in 1986 to 6
million tons in 2003. Turkey’s share in the world natural stone production in 2003 is 8%
in terms of amount, but (3%) to (3.5%) in terms of value. Marble plants used to be seen
in Afyon, whereas now they are spotted all over Turkey (TUMMER 2004). United States,
Israel, Spain, and Saudi Arabia seem to be the most significant purchasers of processed
marble while the main purchasers of block marble are China, Syria and Greece. The
leading purchasers of the processed travertine are the US, the UK and Saudi Arabia while
the main purchasers of block travertine are Spain, the US, China and Italy.

Exports of natural stone, which had attained a value of USD 223.5 million in 2001, rose
by (36%) in 2002 to USD303 million. In general, the leading importing country is the
USA, followed by Saudi Arabia, the Aegean Free Zone, China, Spain, Italy and Hong
Kong. The total value of rough slabs and processed, generally hard type stone, imported
from abroad is around USD 40-50 million. The most important natural stone block
importing countries are Spain, Italy, Norway, Brazil, South Africa, India, Ukraine,
Zimbabwe and Portugal.

3.2.3. The Italian Natural Stone Sector

Italy has been a significant producer, exporter and importer of minerals. In terms of
world production, the country is a significant producer of cement, crude steel and
dimension stone. Private and public companies own facilities for the mining and
processing of minerals and mineral products. Some enterprises are under state control for
economic reasons such as to maintain employment.

97
China, Italy, Turkey, Spain, India, Brazil and Portugal make up approximately 70% of
the world natural stone production. Italy alone held (22%) of the world natural stone
production in 1995, but its share dropped to 12% in 2002 (TUMMER 2004). The gap is
filled by China and Turkey. The major markets for the Italian marble products are the
USA and Saudi Arabia. The major market for the Italian granite is Germany and the
USA. Most of the creative innovations introduced into the sector have been initiated in
Italy, where they have rapidly spread to other parts of the world. White Carrara marble
and Travertine have their own strong brand identity, and have a well-known name. Other
important geographic area of producing white marble area in Lombardy, the Po Valley,
Puglia, Sicily Island, and Verona. Vincenza are important colored-marble producing
areas. During the last years, the Italian exports have suffered most from the decline in the
North America and Europe. The drop in exports to Germany and the US has made a
strong negative mark on the overall national statistics (IMM Carrara 2005).

Among stone working equipment manufacturers, Italy maintains its world leadership as
expected, although its share of the world market dropped in the face of competition from
other producer countries in Europe and elsewhere. Most companies are located in
northern Italy (77% of turnover), especially in the provinces of the Veneto. The average
annual growth in turnover of these companies was higher than (10%) over the last five
years. Looking at the breakdown of the turnover figures in a sector by machinery type,
about (70%) of turnover is generated by stone working equipment and a little over (7%)
by machinery for quarries, while the remaining (22%) comes from the production of
other capital goods (tools, handling equipment, parts, etc.).

In Italy, the MARMOMACCHINE Club Association is the most active association for
promoting the natural stone. This association was found in 1984 as a technical
organization open to the entire marble sector and those connected to it. In 1997, the name
has been modified to Associazione Italiana MARMOMACCHINE. Currently has several
hundred members, ten of them are other associations and their consortiums. In order to
promote the sector worldwide, the Italian MARMOMACCHINE Association sponsors
promotional and technical commissions. The Association works in total independence at
its headquarters, conducting research in its own studies centers which is also home to the

98
International Marble Institute (I.S.I.M). The Association’s members are represented in
almost fifteen international fairs and the Association works directly with the Italian
Foreign Trade Institute (I.C.E) in annually defining promotional programs for sectors of
specific interest in the sphere of building and instrumental machines.

Table (3.16) shows the production of natural stone in Italy during the years (1997 –
2001).

Table 3.16. Italian Production of Natural Stone (1997 – 2001) in Metric Tons
Type 97 98 99 00 01
Calcareous
Alabaster 25 25 25 25 25
Marble in
Blocks
White 100 100 100 100 100
Colored 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000
Travertine 2500 2500 2500 2500 2500
Other
Granite 100 100 100 100 100
Sandstone 1800 1800 1800 1800 1800
Crushed
and Broken
Dolomite 760 711 700 700 700
Limestone 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200
00 00 00 00 00
Marl for 1500 1500 1500 1400 1400
Cement 0 0 0 0 0
Serpentine 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500
Source: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Year Book

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3.3. Summary

This chapter presents the profile of Jordan, Turkey and Italy in addition to the natural
stone sector in the three countries. In Jordan, the government has liberalized the trade
regime sufficiently to secure Jordan's membership in the WTO (2000), the free trade
accord with the US (2000), and the association agreement with the EU (2001). These
measures have helped improve productivity and put Jordan on the foreign investment
map. Jordan has taken some major steps in the last few years towards creating a dynamic
and practical approach to be a part of the international ICT sector. The most significant
step toward a realistic goal in developing the ICT is the creation of the REACH
initiative.

Turkey's dynamic economy is a complex mix of modern industry and commerce along
with a traditional agriculture sector that in 2001 accounted for (40%) of the employment
(CIA 2005). It has a strong and rapidly growing private sector, yet the state still plays a
major role in basic industry, banking, transport, and communication. In recent years the
economic situation has been marked by erratic economic growth and serious imbalances.
Real Gross National Product (GNP) growth has exceeded (6%) in many years, but this
strong expansion has been interrupted by sharp declines in output in 1994, 1999, and
2001. Inflation in 2004 fell to (9.3%). Perhaps because of these problems, foreign direct
investment in Turkey remains low. A major political and economic issue over the next
decade is whether or not Turkey will become a member of the EU. The ICT sector is one
of the fastest growing sectors in Turkey. Its share in the GDP reached (1.6%) in 2000
(CIA 2004).

In Italy, the capitalistic economy remains divided into a developed industrial north,
dominated by private companies, and a less developed, welfare-dependent agricultural
south, with (20%) unemployment. However, in most cases, the cost of labor and high
social security contributions make it difficult for enterprises to create new employment.
The Italian industry is characterized by its particular model based on districts and on
flexible specialization. Efficiency and flexibility are not resulting from the presence of a
great number of enterprises but most of all from the way they join and work all together.

100
Research and Development (R&D) budget in Italy is insufficient (1.4% of the GNP) and
not very productive. In addition, Italy’s low Internet usage lags behind other European
countries because of the low computers penetration which at least in the south region
results from poor economic conditions and high unemployment. Therefore, the question
is how it has been possible that during the last decade poor regions in Italy could be
numbered among the most developed industrial areas in the world. The explanation could
be the high level of industrial culture and know-how in the country. In addition, most of
machine tools are manufactured within the district whose main production is obtained by
using the machine itself.

The international stone industry is a sector enjoying growth all over the world. The
driving force of the sector is the international trade. The majority of world consumption
comes from material that is quarried in different countries than those where it is
eventually installed. The leading producers are China, Italy, Spain and India that account
for 50% of world quarrying production. However, prices on the main markets were down
on average, confirming a long-term trend caused by the rapid technological development
and the trade modifications that benefit the most popular materials.

101
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Although all research activities are presented in a sequence, some have been performed
simultaneously in order to save time. First, the chosen topic, "The Competitive
Advantage of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises: The Case of Jordan’s Natural Stone
Industry", has been explored. An academic and business literature search was conducted
to capture the domain of each potential construct adequately. As part of the literature
review, books, journal articles, tertiary literature such as indexes and catalogues,
company minutes, government surveys, CD-ROM in university libraries, Internet sites,
chambers of commerce surveys and professional association surveys have been used.

A combination of the quantitative and qualitative methods is used employing both

qualitative and quantitative data and offering an opportunity in order not only to test the
hypotheses but also to explore deeply into the issues raised by the research questions
(Saunders et al. 2000). The multi-method design enables triangulation to take place.

This chapter gives an overview of the research method used. A presentation of the sample
demographic is discussed in section 4.1. Section 4.2 follows with the quantitative
research method and section 4.3 covers the qualitative research method. A brief summary
of the chapter is presented in section 4.4.

102
4.1 Sample Demographic

The area random sampling is used17. The population has been divided into three strata
based on the geographical distribution (Jordan, Turkey and Italy). A random sample is
then drawn from each of the strata. Dividing the population into a series of relevant strata
means that the sample is more likely to be representative, and each of the strata is
represented proportionally within the sample (figure 4.1). The total population is the sum
of all the SMEs working in processing the natural stone sector in Jordan, Turkey and
Italy. The total number of the firms is 2864 firms; 240 firms in Jordan, 784 firms in
Turkey and 1840 firms in Italy.

Figure 4.1. Population Fraction

8%
27% Jordan
Turkey
65% Italy

Table (4.1) presents the sampling frame of Jordan, Turkey and Italy. Number of workers
is the criteria for selecting the firms in the sample. The three countries (Jordan, Turkey,
and Italy) follow the EU criteria; 10-250 workers.

17
The choice of sampling techniques is dependent on the feasibility and sensibility of collecting data to
answer the research questions and to address the objectives from the entire population. The five main
techniques are: simple random, systematic, stratified random, cluster, and multi-stage.

103
 Table 4.1. Sampling Frame for Jordan, Turkey and Italy
# Country Population Criteria Source
(Workers)
1 Jordan 240 10-250 JMOP, 2005
JMOIT 2005
Amman Chamber of Industry, 2003
2 Turkey 784 10-250 Turkish Time Sectors, 2003
www.turkishtime.org/sector_1/10_eng
.asp
TUMMER
www.TUMMER.org.tr
3 Italy 1840 10-250 Associazione Italiana
MARMOMACCHINE, 2003
www.assomarmomacchine.com
Rome Chamber of Commerce, 2004
Total 2864

Table (4.2) presents the minimum sample size for each country18. The calculation
assumes that the data will be collected from all cases in the sample and is based on
(Saunders 2000):

The level of confidence in the estimate

The margin of error that can be tolerated

The proportion of responses that are expected to have some particular
attributes

2
 z 
The minimum sample size (n) = p% x q% x  
 e% 

Where n is the minimum sample size required

p% is the proportion belonging to the specified category
q% is the proportion not belonging to the specified category
z is the z value corresponding to the level of confidence required
e% is the margin of error required

18
Factors such as the confidence that is needed in the findings, accuracy required and likely categories for
analyses will affect the size of the sample that needs to be collected.

104
 n
The adjusted sample size n is calculated19 as:
n
1+  
N 

Where n is the adjusted minimum sample size

n is the minimum sample size
N is the total population

2
1.96 
As an example, the minimum sample for Jordan = 50% x 50% x   = 384.16
 5% 

384.16
While the adjusted sample size n = = 148
 384 .16 
1+  
 240 

Table 4.2. Sampling Size

Country Population Adjusted Sample Size Received
N %
Jordan 240 148 140 94.5
Turkey 784 258 213 82.5
Italy 1840 320 299 93.5
Total 2864 726 652 89.8
*The estimated level of confidence = 95% (z = 1.96)
*The estimated margin or error that can be tolerated = 5%
* The estimated proportion of responses = 50% (estimated by the Jordanian Ministry of Planning
in Jordan, TUMMER in Turkey and Associazione Italiana MARMOMACCHINE in Italy).

Figure (4.2) shows that the Jordanian sample presents (21%) of the total sample size,
while the Turkish sample presents (33%) and the Italian sample presents (46%).

19
Because of the small total population (less than 10,000) we only need the minimum sample size.
However, this assumes a response rate of 100 percent (Saunders et al 2000).

105
 Figure 4.2. Sample Fraction (Received)

21%
46% Jordan
Turkey
Italy
33%

The Chamber of Commerce in Amman provided the researcher with a list of the
Jordanian companies’ names and their addresses. The interview survey was conducted by
the researcher in cooperation with the Competitiveness Team in the Jordanian Ministry of
Planning. By using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), the sample
random method has been used to select 148 SMEs. The structured interviews have been
used during the period from February to March 2006. The number of the questionnaires
collected is 140. The same questionnaire has been distributed to the SMEs working in the
natural stone sector during the period from September 2003 to December 2003. In the
first cycle the total population was 220 SMEs and only 62 questionnaires have been
collected.

In Turkey, the questionnaire has been sent to 258 SMEs by fax or via e-mail in
September 2004. The Turkish Association of Marble, Natural Stone and Machinery
Products (TUMMER), Izmir Marble Producers Association, and the Turkish Embassy in
Tel Aviv, Israel, provided the names and addresses of the companies to the researcher.
Many telephone calls and reminder faxes have been sent to these firms. Unfortunately, by
the end of the year few firms returned the questionnaires back. Two university business-

106
students20 from Ankara were asked by the researcher to follow up and collect the
questionnaires. By the end of December 2005, 213 questionnaires were collected. The
researcher visited different associations during his visit to Turkey from 28/3/2004 till
10/4/2004. In addition, the researcher attended the International Marble Fair in Izmir
during that period and visited different associations as mentioned in table (5.5).

In Turkey, almost (95%) of the natural stone industry is concentrated in Marmara,

Aegean regions, Mediterranean, Central Western Anatolia and Central Anatolia.
According to TUMMER (2004), there are 2500 operations in Turkey and almost 800
firms are small to medium sized enterprises and the rest are either large-scale enterprises
or workshops. The random sample method is used to select 258 firms out of 784. The
survey covered different provinces such as Balikesir, Bursa, Kirklareli, Afyon, Aydin,
Izmir, Mulga, Kutahya, Ankara, Eskisehir, Kirsehir and Nigde, Adana, and Burdur.

In Italy, the questionnaire has been sent by fax or via the e-mail to 320 SMEs during
September 2004. These firms have been selected randomly by using the SPSS. Names
and addresses of these firms have been prepared with the help of the Associazione
Italiana MARMOMACCHINE, Rome Chamber of Commerce, and Italian Consulate in
Jerusalem, Israel. Many telephone calls and reminder faxes have been sent to these firms.
Few firms returned back the questionnaires by the end of the year. The researcher asked a
Palestinian businessman, who holds a BA in Business Administration21 and owns a
representative office for stone and marble in Verona, Italy, to follow up and collect back
the questionnaires. By the end of December 2005, 299 questionnaires were returned back.
During May 2004, the researcher managed to visit different associations in Italy that are
listed in table (5.5).

20
The two university students were working under the supervision of Ms. Sercil Tokoglu who holds an
MBA from Maastricht School of Management, the Netherlands in 1997.
21
The name of the businessman is Mr. Fahed Gaith. Mr. Gaith was an undergraduate student in Hebron
University where the researcher was teaching as a part-timer.

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4.2. Quantitative Research Method

The purpose of this survey is descriptive-exploratory with some explanatory analysis.

Surveys are frequently conducted for the purpose of making descriptive assertions about
the population that is discovering the distribution of certain traits or attributes (Babbie
1990). Some advantages of the survey design are the cheap economy of this design, the
rapid turn around in data collection, and the ability to identify attributes of a population
from a small group of individuals. The data collected by the survey method may not be
wide ranging as those collected by qualitative research methods; since there is a limit to
the number of questions (Babbie 1990).

4.2.1. Structured Interviews

The questionnaire22 consists of four parts: Part one covers the different elements of
Porter’s diamond and Porter’s five forces, part two covers the different scenarios of the
generic strategies, and part three covers the impact of the ICT while part four cover the
SMEs’ profile. Four-language questionnaires have been prepared (English, Arabic, Italian
and Turkish). The English version (Appendix A-1) has been translated into Arabic
(Appendix A-2) by the researcher and evaluated by the Competitiveness Team at the
Jordanian Ministry of Planning and another team from the Natural Resources Authority
in Jordan, since asking experts to comment on the questionnaire helped in establishing
content validity (Saunders et al. 2000).

A qualified translator has been asked to translate the questionnaire from Arabic into
Italian (Appendix A-3), and the English version has been sent to an Italian staff member
at Maastricht School of Management, the Netherlands to translate the English version
into Italian then the two versions of the Italian translations have been reviewed by an
Italian industrial expert working with an EU project for developing the stone and marble

22
Questionnaires can be used for descriptive or explanatory research. Descriptive research identifies and
describes the variability in different phenomena. While the explanatory research enables to examine and
explain relationships.

108
sector in Palestine. Almost the same process has been done with the Turkish version
(Appendix A-4). A Turkish doctorate student in the USA has been asked to translate the
English version into Turkish and a Ph.D. student at Maastricht University, the
Netherlands has been asked to review the Turkish version. Furthermore, the Turkish
version has been sent to TUMMER in order to send their comments and feedback before
distributing the questionnaires.

In order to link the variables with the research questions and items on the survey, table
(4.3) shows how the variables relate to the survey instrument.

Table 4.3. The Link between the Variables and the Questionnaire
Variables Research Question Item on Survey
Competitive elements Research Questions # 1,2,3 See Question: 1, 2,3,4,8
Impact of the ICT Research Questions # 4 See Questions: 5, 6, 7, 8

4.2.2. Pre-test Phase

A convenience sampling was used to collect data during the piloting. At the beginning,
the sample has been selected from the population and then a pre-test-study sample has
been selected from the remainder of the population. A pre-test study of 5 firms from
Jordan in conformity with the present criteria for small and medium sized enterprises was
conducted. The purpose of the pre-test was to refine the questionnaire so that respondents
have no problems in answering the questions, and in reporting and recording the data
(Saunders et al. 2000; Babbie 1990). In addition, it enabled the researcher to obtain an
overall assessment to the question’s validity of the data that has been collected.

All of the research questions have been answered based on the data of the pre-test-study
sample except the question of measuring the performance indicator. Initially, the
researcher suggested the use of profit, cost, productivity, and debt to equity ratio, the
ability to meet interest payments, and cash flow in terms of liquidity status and market
share as measures for competitiveness (Feurer and Chaharbaghi 1994). Any performance
indicator that entailed enquiring about exact monetary values was completely rejected by

109
the managers/ owners. A monetary measure was not possible either due to the
respondents’ inability or to unwillingness to offer such data. In general, the pre-test phase
proved satisfying in terms of the ways to improve upon the questionnaire and to interview
guide and in terms of asking the appropriate questions on the way to testing the
hypothesis and reflecting upon the research questions.

4.2.3. Analyzing Quantitative Data

The Kruskal-Wallis Test is the non-parametric alternative to a one-way between-groups

analysis of variance. It allows comparing the scores on some continuous variables for
three or more groups. Scores are converted to ranks and the mean rank for each group is
compared (Anderson, Sweeney and Williams 1999). The non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis
test was used since it does not ask for the assumptions of normality and equal variances
that are required by the parametric analysis of variance procedure. Using the levene Test,
Appendix (B-2) shows that there are significant differences in the variances in the
23
different components between the three countries. Although the sample size is more
than (30) in the three countries, the normality test shows that some of the diagrams are
skewed to the right or to the left, such as the diamond diagram in the three countries,
balanced scored card, and the ICT impact diagram as shown in (Appendix B-1).

It was noticed that the significant differences between the three countries is referred to
the Italian figures i.e. the developed country. Thus, the Mann-Whiney Test is used to
testify the significant differences between Jordan and Turkey. This technique is used to
test the differences between two independent groups on a continuous measure (Anderson,
Sweeney and Williams 1999). This test is the non-parametric alternative to the t-test for
independent samples. Instead of comparing means of the two groups as in the case of the
t-test, the Mann-Whitney Test compares medians. It converts the scores on the
continuous variable to ranks, across the two groups. Then it evaluates whether the ranks
23
Levene's test is used to test if k samples have equal variances. Equal variances across samples are called
homogeneity of variance (Anderson, Sweeney and Williams 1999). The deviation around the median in
each group was found. The larger the deviations in one group compared to other groups, the more the
spread and more likely that the variability are different.

110
for the two groups differ significantly. As well, the Mann-Whitney Test is used to test
whether there is a significant difference between the different variables in Jordan in the
first round in 2003 and the second round in 2006 or not.

4.2.4. Reliability and Validity

Validity is concerned with whether the findings are really about what they appear to be
about or not (Saunders et al 2000). There are many threats to validity such as: history,
testing, instrumentation, morality, maturation, and ambiguity about causal direction. For
the quantitative analysis, confirmatory factor analysis was undertaken to test the
consistency of each construct (see Appendix B-3). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
seeks to determine if the number of factors and the loadings of measured (indicator)
variables on them conform to what is expected on the basis of pre-established theory. The
indicator variables are selected on the basis of prior theory, and the factor analysis is used
to see if they load as predicted on the expected number of factors (Anderson, Sweeney
and Williams 1999). All of the data show that the CFA is more than 0.5 which means that
there is an internal consistency of each construct (Saunders et al 2000).

This was followed by the reliability test24 Cronbach’s α. Cronbach Alpha formula was
used to calculate the internal reliability of the tests as shown in table (4.4). Alpha gained
in total degree is (0.9169). The value is above 0.7, so the scale can be considered reliable
with the sample (Saunders et al. 2000). The reliability for Jordan is 0.6541, while the
reliabilities for Turkey and Italy are 0.8216 and 0.8070 respectively.

Table 4.4. Reliability (Cronbach Alpha)

Country No. of Cases No. of Items Alpha
Jordan 140 55 0.6541
Turkey 213 55 0.8216
Italy 299 55 0.8070
Total 652 55 0.9169

24
There are three common approaches for assessing reliability: test re-test, internal consistency, and
alternative form. Cronbach's alpha is method for calculating internal consistency that measures the
consistency of responses across either all questions or a sub-group of questions.

111
It is noticed that the value of the Cronbach Alpha in Jordan is less than Turkey and Italy.
That could be explained by different reasons. The average inter-item correlation is low.
This result could be due to the educational and cultural background. A second reason is
size of the sample; the sample size in Jordan is smaller than the sample size in Turkey
and Italy25.

25
Cronbach's alpha can be written as a function of the number of test items and the average inter-
correlation among the items. formula for the standardized Cronbach's alpha:

Here N is equal to the number of items and r-bar is the average inter-item correlation among the items.
One can see from this formula that if you increase the number of items, you increase Cronbach's alpha.
Additionally, if the average inter-item correlation is low, alpha will be low. As the average inter-item
correlation increases, Cronbach's alpha increases as well.

112
4.3 Qualitative Research Method

An in-depth examination of ten SMEs working in the natural stone-processing sector in

Jordan has been conducted during the year 2003. Appendix (B-4) presents the
background of each firm. The ten SMEs in the sample were selected as ones that have
their own web sites with some spread across size ranges, location, and networking
activity. The non-probability sampling26 was used in selecting these SMEs. The ten firms
were selected in cooperation with the Jordanian Ministry of Planning. The researcher
interviewed firms from the Jordanian market for two reasons: first, the scope of the study
is encompasses the competitive advantage of the Jordanian SMEs and second, the
researcher finds cultural and communication difficulties in conducting such an interview
in Turkey and Italy.

During the semi-structured interviews, a list of themes and questions, as a protocol,

(appendix B-5) has been covered. The protocol is a major tactic in increasing the
reliability and is intended to guide the investigator in carrying out the semi-structured
interview (Yin 1994). These themes and questions varied from interview to interview
(Saunders et al. 2000). Face-to-face one-hour meeting with the interviewee was carried
out. The researcher personally administered all the interviews. The data was covered by
note-taking. Evidence has been collected from six sources: company documents, archival
records, interviews, direct observation, participant observation, and physical artifacts.
Data analysis consists of examining, categorizing, tabulating or recombining the
evidence and then interpreting the data to address the initial propositions of the study.

In addition to the ten Jordanian SMEs, different authorities, organizations and ministries
were also interviewed in Jordan, Turkey and Italy. During the semi-structured interviews,
there is a list of themes and questions (see appendix B-6) to be covered. The main
purpose of these interviews was to gain deep understanding of the context of the
research.

26
Non probability sampling provides a range of alternative techniques based on the subjective judgment.
Some of the techniques of non-probability sampling are: quota, purposive, snowball, self-selection, and
convenience.

113
The interviews have been organized with representatives of the institutes listed in the
table 4.5.

Table 4.5. List of Institutes Visited

Institute Country Date Note
Ministry of Planning Jordan 2003-present Competitiveness Team
Ministry of Industry and Jordan March 20 2006 Competitiveness
Trade Directorate - Manager
Ministry of Industry and Jordan Jan. 12 2003 SMEs Unit Coordinator
Trade
Amman Chamber of Jordan Jan. 13 2003 Computer and Database
Commerce Unit
Natural Planning Authority Jordan Jan. 14 2003 Geological department
Central Bureau of Statistics Jordan Jan. 15 2003 Public Relations
Manager
Jordan-United States Business Jordan Jan. 16 2003 Financial manager
Partnership
UNIDO – IPU Jordan Jan. 19 2003 Project Manager
JOSTONE Jordan Jan. 20 2003 Manager
State Institute of Statistics Turkey March 30 2004 Public Relations
Manager
Izmir Chamber of Commerce Turkey March 30 2004 Public Relations manager
TUMMER Turkey April 1 2004 Deputy Manager
Small and Medium Industry Turkey April 5 2004 Izmir Enterprise
development Organization Development Center
(KOSGEB)
Technology Development Turkey April 5 2004 Izmir Enterprise
Center of KOSGEB Development Center
Enterprise Development Turkey April 5 2004 Izmir Enterprise
Center of KOSGEB Development Center
Associazione Italiana Italy May 5 2004 Studies Center
MARMOMACCHINE
Rome Chamber of Commerce Italy May 6 2004 Public Relations
Crafts and SMEs Association Italy July 20 2004 SMEs Coordinator
of Vicenza Province
National Statistical Institute Italy May 7 2004 Statistics Department

114
4.4. Non-Response and Tendency to Respond Differently

The researcher was cautious in creating standard questions during the interviews in the
three countries. The researcher was focusing on this issue during the training he delivered
to the survey team and during the few interviews he joined in Turkey and Italy. The lack
of standardization in the interviews may lead to concerns about the reliability of the
output (Saunders et al 2000). The concern about reliability is related to the issues of bias.
That is why the interviewers were asked not to impose their beliefs or interpret responses.

In order to reduce the non-response rate, the researcher reviewed carefully the eligibility
(i.e. number of the employees) of the firms before starting the field work. As well, the
researcher reviewed all of the updated contacts (telephone number, fax number, address,
e-mail address-if any, contact person) of the firms in the sample size in order to avoid un-
reachable respondents. Mainly, the reason for non-response is that few respondents
refused to be involved in the research without giving a reason.

In Jordan, we see that the non-response rate is relatively low (5.5%) in comparison with
Turkey and Italy for different reasons:

√ A pre-test sampling was conducted. A questionnaire has been distributed to five

firms in order to refine the questionnaire so that respondents have no problems in
answering the questions.
√ A survey was conducted in 2003. The non-response rate in the first cycle was too
high. The number of questionnaires received was 62 out of 140 that have been
distributed. The respondents involved in the 2006 survey and those who have
been involved in the 2003 survey were familiar with the questionnaire.
√ The survey was conducted by the researcher. The researcher was cautious to visit
the respondents in appropriate times (i.e. the researcher used to phone the contact
person to arrange for the face-to-face interview).
√ The assistance of the Competitiveness Team – Ministry of Planning. Porter
mentioned in the introduction of his book 'The Competitive Advantage of
Nations" that he has been working in a regional economic plan in the Middle

115
 East, involving national teams from Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and the Palestinian
Authority. The National Competitiveness Team provided the researcher with the
list of the respondents and all of the necessary information about the natural stone
sector in Jordan.

In Italy, the non-response rate is (6.5%) is lower than the rate in Turkey for three main
reasons:

√ The essential conditions for conducting the survey were available. All of the
statistics are accessible; most of the firms were concentrated in specific regions;
and it was not very difficult to arrange for face-to-face meetings with the
respondents)
√ Training received by the survey team. During his visit to Italy, the researcher
delivered a two-day intensive training to the survey team. The researcher
discussed with them objective of the research, questionnaire, and collecting
primary data using questioners. The survey team in Italy consisted of five
persons; all of them hold Bachelor degrees and working in the natural stone
sector.

The non-response rate in Turkey is (17.5%). This percentage is relatively high for two
reasons:

√ The survey team in Turkey faced many difficulties in delivering and collecting the
questionnaires. The firms are scattered; and it was not easy to arrange meetings
with the respondents.
√ The survey team consisted of two university students. Although the researcher
delivered two-day training to the survey team, the team did not manage to
convince all of the respondents to fill in the questionnaire.

116
The researcher was cautious in avoiding any intended possibility for the respondents in
the three countries to respond differently. The following points may explain how:

√ Language. Using native languages in their countries reduces the opportunity to

respond differently due to any language misunderstandings.
√ Survey team. Conducting the surveywith natives avoids many cultural
misunderstanding.
√ Experts. Using native translators for the questionnaires avoids many cultural
misinterpretations.
√ Types of the questions. The researcher was cautious with the type of questions
used in the questionnaire. The researcher avoided open-ended questions. Also, he
avoided any cultural or behavioral questions.
√ The training delivered by the researcher to the survey team in Turkey and Italy
might help in avoiding many misunderstandings by the team that may lead to a
tendency to respond differently.

117
4.5. Summary

The data collection started with the gathering of the secondary data by doing literature
research. First, a pre-test was conducted in order to test the validity of the developed
constructs. After revising the questionnaire, the data were collected from Jordan, Turkey
and Italy for the analysis of the given hypotheses.

In Jordan, the Chamber of Commerce in Amman has prepared a list of all the companies’
names and their addresses with the help of the Ministry of Planning. The interview
survey was conducted by the researcher in cooperation with the Competitiveness Team in
the Jordanian Ministry of Planning. In Turkey, the Turkish Association of Marble,
Natural Stone and Machinery Products (TUMMER), Izmir Marble Producers Association
and the Turkish Embassy in Tel Aviv, Israel, have prepared the names and addresses of
the companies. In Italy, the names and addresses of the firms have been prepared with the
help of the Associazione Italiana MARMOMACCHINE, Rome Chamber of Commerce
and Italian Consulate in Jerusalem, Israel.

The questionnaire was developed in four languages: English, Arabic, Turkish and Italian.
Hence, a careful translation method was used. Moreover, the scale items were tested in
terms of reliability and validity to examine the consistency of the constructs and related
items. In addition to the survey method, semi-structured interviews were conducted with
ten SMEs working in the natural stone in Jordan and other related and supporting
organizations and ministries in Jordan, Turkey and Italy.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Based on the survey method described in chapter four, 652 questionnaires were received
from Jordan, Turkey and Italy. The questionnaire consists of four parts. The non-
parametric Kruskal-Wallis Test was used to testify the significant differences for the first
third and fourth hypotheses between the three countries (Jordan, Turkey and Italy). Also,
the non-parametric Mann-Whiney Test was used to testify the significant differences
between Jordan and Turkey as well to testify the significant differences between the first
and second surveys in Jordan. For the second hypothesis, the one way ANOVA was used.

The interviewees were asked about the balanced scored card (innovation, customer's
satisfaction, internal business and financial performance) of their firms as an indication of
their competitiveness. It was measured on a five-point scale (very negative to very
positive). As well, the respondents were asked to select the type of generic strategy they
are implementing. Also, the respondents were asked whether or not they are using the
computer and the Internet and the purposes of using them on a yes/ no basis. The
expected benefits of using the Internet was measured on a five-point scale where 1= less
important and 5= more important. Furthermore, the respondents were asked to evaluate
the different elements of Porter’s diamond and Porter’s five forces. These elements were
also measured on a five-point scale (1 = very negative and 5 = very positive). The mean,
standard deviation, minimum values, maximum values, and skewness for all of the above
mentioned statistics are described in appendix G.

119
Section 5.1 discusses the hypothesis pertaining to the factors of competitive advantage.
These factors consist of the factor conditions, demand conditions, related and supporting
industries, and the five forces. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to testify this hypothesis.

The null hypothesis ( H 0 ):

There are no significant differences in the competitive factors confronting the SMEs
working in processing the natural stone sector between Jordan, Turkey and Italy.

The test statistic computed from ranks determined from the pooled sample observations.
The null hypothesis is that the rank assigned has an equal chance of being any number
between 1 and 28, regardless of the sample group to which it belongs. The null
hypothesis is tested by using the chi-square distribution at α=0.05 (for more details,
please see appendix F-2).

The statistics from the chambers of commerce and the Ministry of Industry and Trade
show that the owners of the firms prefer to work individually or in partnership rather than
to register as a company. Thus, the following hypothesis testifies whether the individual
relationship preferences are the reason behind that or not. Section 5.2 discusses the legal
form of the SMEs working in the natural stone sector in Jordan. The one-way analysis of
variance was used to testify this hypothesis (please see appendix F-1).

The null hypothesis ( H 0 ):

Jordanians are not creating companies in the natural stone sector because of individual
relationship preferences.

120
This hypothesis could be testified by examining whether there are significant differences
between the three legal forms of the SMEs working in the natural stone sector in Jordan
(individual, partnership, and companies) for each individual relationship preferences or
not.

Section 5.3 discusses the influence of the generic strategies on the competitive advantage
(innovation, financial performance, customer satisfaction, and internal businesses) of the
SMEs working in processing the natural stone sectors in the three countries. The
Kruskal-Wallis test was used to testify this hypothesis.

The null hypothesis ( H 0 ):

There are no significant differences in the influence of the different scenarios of the
generic strategies on the competitive advantage of the SMEs working in processing the
natural stone sector in Jordan, Turkey and Italy.

The test statistic computed from ranks determined from the pooled sample observations.
The null hypothesis is that the rank assigned has an equal chance of being any number
between 1 and 8, regardless of the sample group to which it belongs. The null hypothesis
is tested by using the chi-square distribution at α=0.05 (for more details, please see
appendix F-2).

As mentioned earlier, introducing the ICT may have a positive or negative impact on the
performance of the firms. Section 5.4 discusses the impact of the ICT on the elements of
competitiveness. This hypothesis testifies whether or not there is any significant
difference in the impact of the ICT on different competitive elements such as delivery
time, cost, innovation, and flexibility between Jordan, Turkey and Italy. The Kruskal-
Wallis test was used to testify this hypothesis.

121
The null hypothesis ( H 0 ):

There are no significant differences in the impact of the ICT on the competitive elements
of the SMEs working in processing the natural stone sector between Jordan, Turkey and
Italy.

The test statistic computed from ranks determined from the pooled sample observations.
The null hypothesis is that the rank assigned has an equal chance of being any number
between 1 and 14, regardless of the sample group to which it belongs. The null
hypothesis is tested by using the chi-square distribution at α=0.05 (for more details,
please see appendix F-2).

Section 5.5 discusses the SWOT analysis of the SMEs working in the natural stone
sector. A comparison of labor productivity is presented is discussed in section 5.6 while
section 5.7 discusses the cross-cultural comparability of measurement and section 5.8
discusses the recommended policy options. These policy options could be implemented at
three levels as shown in section 5.9. Section 5.10 discusses the economic development of
the natural stone sector in Jordan and section 5.11 summarizes the main findings.

122
5.1. Competitive Factors Confronting the SMEs Working in Processing the Natural
Stone Sector (Jordan, Turkey and Italy)

This section discusses the competitive factors considered by Porter (1979, 1980, 1985,
and 1990). In particular, it discusses the five competitive forces in addition to the three
conditions of Porter's diamond: the factor conditions, demand conditions, and related and
supporting industries. The fourth condition of Porter's diamond "Firm's strategy,
structure, and rivalry" is also analyzed. Rivalry is discussed as an element of the five
competitive forces, while strategy is analyzed by asking the interviewees to select the
most appropriate strategy (cost leadership, differentiation, focus) to their firms. Structure
of the industry is not included in the questionnaire since this study is focusing on small
and medium sized enterprises in Jordan, Turkey and Italy.

In order to test whether there is a significant difference between the three countries or
not, the acceptance and rejection regions are determined by finding the value of Chi
square at α = 0.05 and for two degrees of freedom (number of countries- 1) which is
5.991 (this figure is found in the Chi square distribution- statistics reference). Therefore,
the limit of accepting or rejecting the hypothesis depends on the tabulated Chi square
value. If the calculated Chi square is lower than the tabulated Chi square (the value is
5.991 in our case) then there is a significant difference and the hypothesis is rejected. As
well, this result is assured by looking at the value of the significance (if the value is less
than or equals to 0.05, then there is a significant difference, and the hypothesis is
rejected). Appendix D-1 presents the mean rank of each element in the three countries,
appendix D-2 presents the differences between Jordan and Turkey, and appendix D-3
presents the differences between the first survey in 2003 and the second survey in 2006 in
Jordan.

123
5.1.1. Factor Conditions

The respondents in the three countries were asked to assess each component of the factor
conditions (Porter 1990). The respondents have been asked to evaluate the acquisition of
capital, acquisition of information, political and economic situation, rules and regulations,
infrastructure availability, infrastructure cost, consistency of raw material, technical
qualifications and market accessibility. Table (5.1) shows the significant differences in all
of the factor conditions between the three countries. As well, the data shows that there is
a significant difference between Jordan and Turkey in the political and economic
situation for the advantage of Jordan while there is no significant difference in the market
accessibility between these two countries.

Table 5.1. Kruskal-Wallis Test – Factor Conditions

No Variable Chi-Square Sig
١ Acquiring capital 218.155 .00*
٢ Acquiring information 297.268 .00*
٣ Political and economic uncertainties 8.140 .01*
٤ Bureaucratic rules and regulations 208.088 .00*
٥ Infrastructure availability 283.763 .00*
٦ Infrastructure costs 159.591 .00*
٧ Inconsistent raw material quality 185.654 .04*
٨ Technical qualifications 266.576 .00*
٩ The market accessibility 59.571 .00*
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05) with DF = 2

Jordan has the lowest rank in comparison with Turkey and Italy in acquiring capital,
availability of information, bureaucratic rules and regulations, infrastructure availability,
infrastructure cost, providing consistent stones in huge quantities, and availability of
technical qualifications. Turkey has the lowest rank in the stability of economic and
political environment, and market accessibility.

The above result shows that the Jordanians have to improve the weak elements in order to
develop the factor conditions and thus improve the opportunity to have a competitive

124
natural stone industry. In order to deeply analysis this results, the factor conditions in
Jordan are grouped as follows:

Human Resources

The survey shows that Jordan has a lower rank, in comparison with Turkey and Italy, in
the availability of technical qualifications. The majority of the labor force is unskilled
workers who came mainly from Egypt and start working without receiving any training
in advance. Although those working in the natural stone sector in Jordan are paid more
than the workers in other sectors, the labor cost per hour (on average $2 per hour) which
is very close to the rate in Turkey is less than the labor cost per hour in other countries
such as Italy (on average $25 per hour).

Thus, there is a need to invest more on the human resources by providing training and
counseling to the people who are working in the technical and management issues. The
technical people need to be aware of the efficient methods of production, technical
specifications, material handling and extracting techniques. As well, the Jordanian SMEs
are less active in adopting modern management practices. The reason could be the
management failure in the sense of resistance to change or inadequate training in such
practices. The management people need to be aware of strategic planning, and marketing
and purchasing techniques.

Physical Resources

The data shows that Jordan has a lower rank in the availability of infrastructure, and the
ability to provide high volumes of natural stones with a consistent quality. Thus, the
Jordanian government needs to upgrade the general infrastructure (roads,
telecommunications, etc.) and to focus more on the specialized infrastructure that is
related to the natural stone sector such as water recycling, technical specifications,
extracting techniques, etc. On the other hand, the Jordanian firms need to benefit from the
advantage in the cost of infrastructure.

125
The Jordanian natural stone firms are suffering from the inconsistency of raw material
(there is a variation in the color and specifications of the natural stone that is extracted
from the same location). As a result, the Jordanian firms are facing difficulties in
fulfilling large orders for two reasons. The sizes of the quarries in Jordan are small ones,
and the inconsistency in color and specifications comes from the natural factors such
earthquakes. This disadvantage may put a pressure on the Jordanian firms to innovate
new methods for extracting and cutting the natural stone, as well as producing
differentiated products to niche markets rather than competing with low cost products.
Improving the competitive advantage of the natural stone sector in Jordan depends on
how efficiently and effectively the natural stone are deployed. There is a need to use the
appropriate technology and methods in extracting the blocks and cutting these blocks into
slabs.

Knowledge Resources

The data shows that there is a lack in acquiring information regarding the local and
international demand. Furthermore, there is an unclear picture of the nature of foreign
markets to the businessmen in Jordan. This is due to the shortage of feasibility studies
and knowledge of the regulations and standards in other markets. As well, the practical
orientation, that would teach how to cope with new technological developments, remains
weak in Jordan.

The level of innovation is still too low in Jordan due to the weaknesses in the public
sector R&D spending, and in the overall skill base of the natural stone firms' labor force.
Another explanation is the intuitional structure and lagging financing the university and
public research sector. Low university R&D spending and low levels of university
interactions with firms are factors that directly affect firms' incentives to invest in R&D.
Thus, promoting a cluster organization and university-linked networking institutions
often play a particularly important role in the diffusion of new management best practice.

126
Capital Resources

The Jordanian firms are facing difficulties in acquiring capital. Family businesses, most
of the times, prefer to stay small and prefer not to bring in any external partner to their
firms. As well, many banks might lack the knowledge and experience of dealing with
small loans. However, in terms of capital assets, the lower investment rate in Jordan is
consistent with the Jordanian's low capital productivity and the Jordanian's history of
relatively high macroeconomic volatility and the bureaucratic rules and regulations.

5.1.2. Demand Conditions

Table (5.2) shows the significant differences, between the three countries, in the local and
international demand, image of the stone, and the awareness and sophistication of the
customers. The data shows that Jordan has a lower rank, in comparison with Turkey and
Italy, in all of the demand conditions except in the local demand.

Table 5.2. Kruskal-Wallis Test – Demand Conditions

No Variable Chi-Square Sig
١ Local demand 146.752 .00*
٢ International demand 314.393 .00*
٣ Product image 71.151 .00*
٤ Customer awareness 71.930 .00*
٥ Customers sophistication 56.021 .00*
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05) with DF = 2

Three attributes of home demand are significant (Porter 1990): the composition of home
demand, the size and pattern of growth of home demand, and the mechanisms by which a
nation's domestic preferences are transmitted to foreign markets.

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Home Demand Composition

The composition of home demand shapes how firms perceive, interpret, and respond to
buyer needs. In Jordan, there are two main segments in the natural stone sector: the
luxury segment for building villas, and the commercial segment for constructing
commercial buildings. Most of the local firms are focusing on the largest segment that is
the commercial one. Unfortunately most of these firms are competing with each others
based on low prices by cutting part of their profit margins. Still the size of this segment is
not large enough that the SMEs might benefit from the concept of economies of scale.
Therefore, the Jordanian SMEs need to understand better and act on buyer needs in their
home market and tend to be more confident in doing so. To do so, there is a need to open
communication channels between the firms and their buyers.

Another important issue is the nature of home buyers. A nation's firms gain competitive
advantage if the domestic buyers are sophisticated (Porter 1990). Unfortunately, the
majority of buyers in the commercial segment in Jordan are not so sophisticated. That is
why these unsophisticated buyers do not put pressure on local firms to meet high
standards in terms of product quality, features and service. On the other hand, the luxury
segment buyers are highly sophisticated ones and most of them prefer to buy foreign
products especially from Italy.

Demand Size and Pattern of Growth

The home demand in Jordan is promising for different reasons. Some of these reasons
are:

√ The limited local demand in Jordan may be strengthened by forcing firms to

export.
√ The existence of a large number of small independent buyers in Jordan creates a
better environment for innovation, and expands the pool of market information.
√ The high rate of growth of home demand and the rapid domestic growth lead a
nation's firms to adopt new technologies faster, and to build large and efficient
facilities.

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Internationalization

Even though, Jordan has signed different agreements with the EU, the US and Israel and
entered the WTO; still the Jordanian firms do not benefit much from these agreements.
The international demand and the image of Jordan’s product in international markets are
still weak. Thus, there is a need to improve the image of the Jordanian natural stone
product and increase the local and international demand. As an example this could be
achieved by participating in international fairs, creating a specialized website for the
natural stone, publishing a specialized magazine, and conducting a promotional campaign
locally and internationally.

5.1.3. Related and Supporting Industries

Related and supporting industries measure the presence or absence of related and
supporting industries that are internationally competitive. The presence of internationally
competitive supplier industries in a nation creates advantages in downstream industries.
That could be achieved by providing efficient and rapid access to the most cost-effective
inputs. Moreover, close working relationships between suppliers and firms help firms
perceive new methods and opportunities to apply new technologies and to gain quick
access to information and new ideas.

Related industries are those in which firms can coordinate or share activities in the value
chain. Creating an efficient network can affect the competitiveness of the SMEs by
increasing their productivity, and deriving the direction and pace of innovation. Working
within a network allows the SMEs to benefit as if they had greater scale or as if they had
merged together without requiring them to sacrifice their flexibility.

As shown in table (5.3), there are significant differences in the relations with banks,
insurance firms, research centers and universities, local manufacturers, public institutes,
government, stone cutting firms, and firms working in other sectors. Jordan has the
lowest rank, in comparison with Turkey and Italy, in all of the abovementioned elements

129
except in the supplier-buyer relationship. Italy has the lowest rank in supplier-buyer
relations while there is no significant difference between Jordan and Turkey in this
element.

Table 5.3. Kruskal-Wallis Test – Related and Supporting Industries

No Variable Chi-Square Sig
١ Supplier buyer relations 5.602 .06
٢ Relation with banks 319.617 .00*
٣ Relation with insurance firms 213.065 .00*
٤ Relation with research centers and universities 293.138 .00*
٥ Relation with local manufacturers 168.449 .00*
٦ Relation with public institutes 121.022 .00*
٧ Relation with government 198.089 .00*
٨ Relation with stone cutting firms 173.409 .00*
9 Relation with firms from other sectors 261.05 .00*
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05) with DF = 2

5.1.4 Porter’s Five Forces Model (Jordan, Turkey and Italy)

This section discusses the five competitive forces of the SMEs working in processing the
natural stone in Jordan, Turkey and Italy. Furthermore, it discusses the generic strategies
that are implemented by these SMEs. Figure (5.1) links the different components of
Porter’s model (the independent variable is the five forces, dependent variable is the
competitive advantage and mediator is the generic strategy).

Figure 5.1. Porter’s Model of Five Forces

NEW
ENTRANTS

Competitive
SUPPLIERS RIVALARY BUYERS Advantage

Generic Strategy
SUBSTITUTE

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In order to build a competitive advantage, owner/ manager of the SMEs need to
understand the macro and micro-economic conditions in addition to the natural stone
industry structure that are represented by the five competitive forces. Then the owner/
manager need to position his firms by applying a generic strategy.

Each respondent has been asked to assess the threat of each competitive force. Table (5.4)
shows that there are significant differences in intensity of rivals, power of buyers, power
of suppliers, threat of substitutes and threat of new entrants. Jordan has a higher threat, in
comparison with Turkey and Italy, in all of the five competitive forces except the threats
of substitutes. It means that the natural stone industry in Jordan is a less profitable one in
comparison with Turkey and Italy (please see figure 5.2).

Table 5.4. Kruskal-Wallis Test – Five Competitive Forces

No Variable Chi-Square Sig.
١ Intensity of rivals 122.524 .00*
٢ Power of buyers 123.860 .00*
٣ Power of suppliers 134.721 .00*
٤ Threat of substitutes 99.090 .00*
٥ Threat of entry 7.023 .03*
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05) with DF = 2

Intensity of Rivals

Although there is a relatively high industry growth, Jordan has a higher rank in the threat
of rivalry in comparison with Turkey and Italy. The size of the local market is limited,
most of the existing firms are competing within the same segment (commercial one), and
the exit barriers in Jordan are relatively high (please note table 6.10).

Power of Buyers and Suppliers

Jordan has a higher threat of buyers in comparison with Turkey and Italy. As mentioned
earlier, most of the firms in Jordan are competing within the commercial segment, and
the main buyers of this segment are construction companies. It means that the buyers are
concentrated and fully informed about the natural stone sector. As well, Jordan has the

131
highest threat of suppliers since there is a high danger of forward integration; owners of
the quarries starting up their own stone cutting firms while the backward integration is
less dangerous; starting up a quarry in Jordan consumes time and cost.

Threats of Substitutes

Jordan has a lower rank in threats of substitute in comparison with Turkey and Italy. In
1990s, there were unsuccessful trials for marketing an industrial stone27 in Jordan by a
manufacturing Lebanese firm. It did not succeed for two reasons. The people in Jordan
and the countries in the region resisted the idea of building their houses from an industrial
material due to psychological fears, and the prices of the industrial stone were not
significantly lower than the natural one. However, the difficult economic situation in
Jordan may force many Jordanians to look for substitutes of the natural stone such as
bricks and cement for building their houses especially in the rural areas.

Threat of New Entrants

Jordan has the highest threat of new entrants for many reasons. The economies of scale
do not represent an obstacle for entering new entrants. Besides, there are no government
restrictions to start up new firms in Jordan, switching cost to a new entrant is low, the
volume of investment to start up a new firm is not so high, and there is no brand identity
in Jordan preventing new firms to enter.

27
Industrial stone is manufactured by processing the mud after adding some additives. The technical
specifications of this product fulfills the technical specifications.

132
Figure 5.2. The Industry Structure of the Natural Stone SMEs in Jordan

No minimum level of
investment capital is
required.
NEW ENTRANTS
Low asset specificity.
(MODERATE)
Easy access to
distribution channels.

Low level of know-

High forward how is required.
integration threat by
Minimum level of
suppliers. technical

Low number of qualifications required
quarries. is remedied through

Low backward on-the-job training.
integration threat by
producing firms.

RIVALARY

High number of
competing firms.

Low market growth.

Low storage costs. POWER OF
POWER OF
Low product BUYERS
SUPPLIERS differentiation.
(HIGH)
(HIGH)
Price based
competition.

High exit barriers

Few buyers
due to family type

Low differentiation
businesses

Low switching cost
(HIGH)

Moderate Demand
elasticity.

Low buyer
propensity to switch
to substitutes. (LOW)

High switching costs THREAT OF
to substitutes. SUBSTITUTES

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Porter (1985) shows that the higher the power of buyers and suppliers, intensity of rivals,
threat of new entrants and threat of substitutes, the lower the overall profit potential in the
industry because new entrants bring new capacity and seek market share by pushing
down margins. Powerful buyers and suppliers bargain away the profits for themselves.
The presence of substitute products limits the price competitors and can charge without
inducing substitution and eroding industry volume. Intense competitive rivalry erodes
profits by requiring higher costs of competing or by passing on profits to customers in the
form of lower prices.

On the other hand, Porter (1990) argues that the presence of domestic rivalry is an
essential incentive for the creation and the sustainability of competitive advantage. A
number of domestic competitors is not itself sufficient to determine success. If there is no
effective rivalry among competitors, the advantages of domestic rivalry are nullified.
Domestic rivalry not only creates advantages but helps to avoid some disadvantages. For
example, with a group of domestic rivals following various competitive strategies, there
is a check against forms of government intervention that stifle innovation.

5.1.5. Balanced Scored Card

The Balanced Scored Card is a mean to implement organizational strategy. In the

Balanced Scored Card, strategy is translated in a set of critical success factors, which are
translated into one or more performance measures. In that manner strategy turns into
operational objectives and measures (Kaplan and Norton 1992). The four categories for
Balanced Score Cad are: financial performance, customer knowledge, internal business
processes, and learning and growth.

Table (5.5) presents results of the balanced scored card. The results of the survey show
that there are significant differences in the financial indicators, innovation, customer
satisfaction and internal businesses between the three countries. The Jordanian SMEs
have a lower rank, in comparison with Turkey and Italy, in all of the elements of the four
perspectives of the balanced scored card. This is not a surprising result since the factor

134
conditions, demand conditions, and related and supporting industries are relatively poor
in Jordan in comparison with Turkey and Italy. In addition, the threats of the five
competitive forces are relatively high and the SMEs themselves do not have a structured
mode of setting suitable strategies.

Table 5.5. Kruskal-Wallis Test – Balanced Scored Card

No Variable Chi-Square Sig.
Innovation
1 Percentage of new products of total turnover 99.022 .00*
2 Time necessary to develop new generation of 127.736 .00*
products
Customer Satisfaction
3 Customer satisfaction 65.958 .00*
4 Market share 68.368 .00*
5 Customer loyalty 56.521 .00*
Internal Business
6 Employees satisfaction 15.915 .00*
7 Employees loyalty 9.541 .00*
8 Productivity of your employees 26.114 .00*
Profitability
9 Return on Investment 74.837 .00*
10 Profitability 152.963 .00*
11 Revenue growth 134.545 .00*
12 Cost reduction 9.724 .00*
13 Exportation 141.214 .00*
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05) with DF= 2

Innovation

Innovation perspective is a measure of potential future performance. Adequate

investment in this area is critical to all long-term success. However, innovation should be
taken in its broad definition and not limited to creating a new product. Innovation could
be creating new methods in production, purchasing, selling… etc. To achieve that, there
should be adequate investment in the human and infrastructure and the government
should start creating the environment that is necessary for innovation.

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Customer Perspective

The data shows that the satisfaction of the customers, retention ratio, and market share
are low in Jordan. The Jordanian SMEs lack the competitive elements such as the lowest
prices, highest quality, fast delivery time, and flexibility in production. Understanding
this perspective may help the owners of the SMEs to assess their clients' happiness and to
make needs clear.

Internal Business

The result of the survey shows that the efficiency of the manufacturing process is
relatively low (The manufacturing cycle time, employee's productivity, employees'
satisfaction, and employees' loyalty are all low). The family business could be one reason
for this result since most of the employees are hired based on relatively-basis criteria
rather than qualifications. However, most of the businesses in Turkey and Italy are family
ones as well. Another reason could be the old machinery and production methods the
Jordanian SMEs are using.

Financial Perspective

Jordan has the lowest rank in the financial perspective. As a result of the limited market
size, old machinery and production methods, and employees' low productivity, the cost
per unit is high. That leads to a reduction in the revenue, profit growth, and exportation.

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The aforementioned analysis of data shows that there are significant differences in all of
the competitive factors confronting the SMEs working in the natural stone sector between
Jordan, Turkey and Italy.

The findings rejected the first hypothesis. The analysis of data showed that there are
significant differences in all of the competitive factors confronting the SMEs working
in the natural stone sector between Jordan, Turkey and Italy.

Jordan, in general, has the lowest rank in comparison with Turkey and Italy. Thus, there
is a need to upgrade the competitive factors confronting the SMEs working in the natural
stone sector in Jordan. Chapter five discusses all of the competitive factors, the SWOT
analysis of the sector, and comes up with six conclusions: updating and simplifying the
laws and regulations, upgrading the advanced and specialized infrastructure, promoting
the entrepreneurship and upgrading personnel, establishing credit institutions to support
the SMEs, promoting e-business in the natural stone industry, and building a dynamic
natural stone cluster. These objectives could be realized at three levels: SMEs-level,
government-level, and related and supporting industries-level.

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5.2. SMEs’ Legal Form in Jordan

This section discusses the legal form of the SMEs working in the natural stone sector in
Jordan. Family businesses represent the majority of the respondents in the three
countries; (91.7%) in Jordan, (82.3%) of the respondents in Turkey, and (86.4%) of the
respondents in Italy. Table (5.6) shows that (70%) of the SMEs working in the natural
stone in Jordan is individual businesses while (18.6%) are working as partners firms and
(11.4%) are registered as companies. The data also shows that the average number of
employees in Jordan is (11) and standard deviation (5.5) while the average number of
employees in Turkey is (24) and the standard deviation is (7.9). In Italy, the average
number of employees is (28) and the standard deviation is (9.3).

Table 5.6. Legal Form of SMEs in Jordan

Country Individual Partnership Company
Jordan 70% 18.6% 11.4%
Italy 26.9% 16% 56.1%
Turkey 38.2% 34.9% 26.9%

The size of the SMEs in the developing countries is determined by different factors.
Some of these factors are (OECD 2000e): domestic markets where they operate, access to
finance, adopting new technology, reliable infrastructure especially for communications
and logistics, and the nature of the business (family or non-family business).

Most of the SMEs in Jordan are one-person businesses. The SMEs and their family
represent the majority of the workforce in Jordan. As a result, the informal relationships
of the family dominate formal and explicit relationships. Thus, trust, loyalty and family
ties are of prime importance to advancing the businesses.

The one-way ANOVA Test is used to testify whether there is a significant difference
between the individual relationship preferences28 and the legal form of the firms or not.
The one-way ANOVA, as a parametric test, is used because the conditions for using this

28
The elements of individual relationship preferences are the same as related and supporting industries.

138
kind of tests are achieved (normality and homogeneity). Table (5.7) shows that there are
no significant differences between the related and supporting industries and the SMEs’
legal form in Jordan. Therefore, there are other reasons, rather than the individual
relationship preferences, pushing the firms working in the natural stone industry in
Jordan for not creating companies.

Table 5.7. One-Way ANOVA Test – Companies and Relationship Preferences

No Variable Sum of Mean F Sig.
Squares Square
1 Supplier buyer Between Groups 2.359 1.179 1.635 0.19
relationships have Within Groups 98.813 0.721
depended on the family Total 101.171
and personal ties
2 The relationship with Between Groups 1.570 0.785 2.075 0.12
local banks Within Groups 51.823 0.378
Total 53.393
3 The relationship with Between Groups 0.282 0.141 0.273 0.76
insurance firms Within Groups 70.654 0.516
Total 70.936
4 The relationship with Between Groups 1.520 0.760 1.815 0.16
research and training Within Groups 57.365 0.419
centers and universities Total 58.886
5 The relationship with Between Groups 1.983 0.991 1.024 0.36
local manufacturers Within Groups 132.703 0.969
Total 134.686
6 The relationship with Between Groups 1.486 0.743 0.973 0.38
public institutes Within Groups 104.649 0.764
Total 106.136
7 The relationship with Between Groups 1.830 0.915 1.508 0.22
governmental institutes Within Groups 83.162 0.607
Total 84.993
8 The relationship with Between Groups 0.328 0.164 0.119 0.48
stone cutting firms in the Within Groups 188.358 1.375
same region Total 188.686
9 The relationship with Between Groups 0.686 0.343 0.734 0.88
firms from other sectors Within Groups 64.000 0.467
(design/ marketing) Total 64.686
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05) with DF = 2 between groups (three legal
types – 1), 137 within groups (140 respondents – 2-1), and 139 (140 respondents -1)total.

139
The abovementioned analysis shows that the individual relationship preferences are not
the reasons for preferring the SMEs in Jordan to work as individuals or in partnerships
rather than in companies. Thus, the second hypothesis has been rejected.

The analysis of data rejected the second hypothesis. There are other reasons rather
than individual relationship preferences that are pushing most of the SMEs working in
the natural stone sector in Jordan to work as individuals or in partnerships and not in
companies.

There is small number of people in Jordan that has the capacity to represent their assets in
a manner that makes these assets widely transferable in order to allow them to be
encumbered and permits their owners subject to their account and therefore the ability to
produce and use capital efficiently. A reason for that could be the laws and regulations
that keep these people out of the formal property system. Another reason is due to the
cultural and religious background. Most of the people in Jordan are following the Arabic
and Islamic way in running their businesses. People hold and use their assets on the basis
of myriad disconnected informal agreements. Thus, as long as the assets of these people
are not properly documented and tracked by a property bureaucracy, they are invisible
and sterile in the marketplace (De Soto 2000).

A large proportion of property in Jordan is not formally registered. This is due to the time
and cost of registration. However, complexity leads to uncertainty, increases transactions
costs, and offers opportunities for fraud. In addition, longer and more expensive property
registration is associated with weaker perceived security of property rights. However,
Jordan is doing hard in order to adjust its macro-level, legal business, and foreign
investment to fit with the globalization process. Unfortunately, the policymakers in
Jordan are concentrating only on policies dealing with the macro-level and they are not
inquiring whether people had the means to participate in the open market or not.

140
The abovementioned analysis leads us to the conclusion that one of the major barriers of
creating companies in Jordan could be the complexity of procedures and regulations. To
investigate this barrier, a comparative study regarding the rules and regulations of doing
business, as shown in table (5.8), has been developed between Jordan, Turkey and Italy.
The comparative study covers: starting and closing a business, enforcing contracts,
protecting investors, getting credit, registering property, and hiring and firing workers
(Doing Business 2005). The four dimensions that measure starting a business are (Doing
Business 2005): number of procedure, time, and minimum capital that the entrepreneur
must deposit in a bank before registration starts. In each case, a higher number indicates
that opening a business is more difficult and that fewer entrepreneurs will do so. As an
example, in Jordan, 11 procedures are needed to start up a business and it takes 36 days
to issue the necessary permit. In 2003, Turkey reduced the number of procedures up to
seven. These procedures are: obtaining a permit from the Ministry of Industry and Trade,
making a payment to the consumer’s fund, registering at the trade registry, registering for
taxes, for social security, at the chamber of commerce, and at the Ministry of Labor, were
combined into one, and delegated to the chambers of commerce. Furthermore, application
forms were unified and shortened. A new business can be started in a bout a week.

The employment regulations are designed to protect workers from arbitrary, unfair, and
discriminatory actions by their employers. These regulations are: minimum wage,
overtime work, grounds for dismissal, and severance pay. The dimensions of this
indicator are: difficulty of hiring, rigid work hours, difficulty of firing, and cost of firing.
Jordan has a fair rank regarding this indicator while Italy has some difficulties in hiring
and firing workers. In order to create jobs, Italy abolished the government monopoly on
job placement services and introduced job sharing, for 2 workers to share the same job.
Furthermore, the number of hours and types of part-time contracts were expanded.

However, improving credit information and laws to create and enforce collateral unity is
not just about creditors’ rights but also it benefits deserving debtors by increasing their
chances to access credit. As well, it boosts productivity and growth by shifting capital to
the best business ventures. In Jordan, bankruptcy receives a lot of attention in reform

141
proposals for improving access to credit. The problem is that most of the collateral
enforcement in Jordan takes place outside the bankruptcy.

Table 5.8. Doing Business (Jordan, Turkey and Italy)

No Variable Jordan Turkey Italy
Starting a Business
1 Number of procedures 11 8 9
2 Time (days) 36 9 13
3 Cost (% of income per capita) 52.0 26.4 16.2
4 Minimum capital (% of income per 1147.7 0.0 11.2
capita)
Hiring and Firing Workers
5 Difficulty of hiring index (0-100) 11 44 61
6 Rigidity of hours index (0-100) 40 80 60
7 Difficulty of firing index (0-100) 50 40 30
8 Rigidity of employment index (0-100) 34 55 50
9 Firing costs (weeks) 90 112 47
Registering Property
10 Number of procedures 8 8 8
11 Time (days) 22 9 27
12 Cost (% of property value) 10.0 3.3 1.3
Getting Credit
13 Cost to create collateral (% income per 56.3 19.9 3.7
capita)
14 Legal rights of borrowers and lenders (0- 6 1 3
10)
15 Credit information index (0-6) 3 4 6
16 Public registry coverage (borrowers/1000 5 32 79
adults)
17 Private bureau coverage (borrowers/1000 0 300 571
adults)
Protecting Investors
18 Disclosure index (0-7) 3 2 5
Enforcing Contracts
19 Number of procedures 43 22 18
20 Time (days) 342 330 1390
21 Cost (% of debt) 8.8 12.5 17.6
Closing a Business
22 Time of insolvency (years) 4.3 2.9 1.2
23 Cost of insolvency (% of estate) 8.0 8.0 18.0
24 Recovery rate (cent on the dollar) 26.7 25.7 43.5
Source: Doing Business 2005

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Disclosure Index ranging from 0 to 7 reveals that the Jordanian investors enjoy
reasonable protections with a score of 3. What investors fear the most is having their
money expropriated. Expropriation may be achieved, for example, by selling products or
assets at below-market prices. However, there are three dimensions of investor
protection: disclosure of ownership and financial information, legal protections of small
investors, and enforcement capabilities in the courts or securities regulator (Doing
Business 2005). In enforcing contract, Jordan needs, on average, 43 procedures and takes
342 days. However, the fewer procedures, the lower the cost, and the shorter the time to
resolve disputes lead to efficiency and integrity of the courts. Furthermore, entrepreneurs
become more willing to enter contracts beyond their narrow circle of known business
partners. As a result, trade increases and business expands (Doing Business 2005).

In Jordan, business exit works in direct negotiations between creditors and debtors.
Secured creditors can seize the assets of defaulted companies without the complex court
procedures associated with bankruptcy. As a result, they can recover 26.7 cent for every
dollar loaned. However, efficient insolvency helps new entrepreneurs start and grow their
businesses. With higher recovery rates, banks are more willing to lend and more money
goes to new business ventures (Doing Business 2005).

It is noticed that the cost and capital are the main barriers for doing business in Jordan.
For example, table (6.10) shows that there is a need for (52%) of the income per capita
and (1147.7%) of income per capita, as a minimum capital, for starting up a business. In
addition, there is a need to pay (10%) of property value for registering property.
Therefore, there is a need to make things easier by reducing the monetary requirements,
saving time and simplifying procedures. Then, the black economy can be cleaned up to
enable the owners of the firms to establish legitimate businesses.

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5.3. Generic Strategies

Each respondent, in the three countries, was asked to select one choice from the eight-
scenarios of the generic strategies. These choices are listed in table (5.9). This table
presents the number and percentage of each type of the generic strategies implemented by
the SMEs working in the natural stone sector in Jordan, Turkey and Italy.

Table 5.9. Generic Strategies – Scenarios

No. Generic Strategy Jordan Turkey Italy Total
1 Low cost producer, standard 38 50 17 105
products are offered in a broad 27.1% 23.5% 5.7% 16.1%
market area.
2 Differentiated products sold at a 7 28 20 55
lowest price offered in a broad 5% 13.1% 6.7% 8.4%
market area.
3 Few specific market-niches offer 15 51 29 95
standard products at the low cost. 10.7% 23.9% 9.7% 14.6%
4 Few market-niches with 6 23 27 56
differentiated products are offered 4.3% 10.8% 9% 8.6%
at a price as low as possible.
5 Not the lowest cost producer in the 32 15 44 91
sector. The standard products are 22.9% 7% 14.7% 14%
offered in a broad market area.
6 Differentiated products can be sold 2 13 47 62
at a higher price and offered in a 1.4% 6.1% 15.7% 9.5%
broad market area.
7 Few specific market-niches and 29 20 23 72
offers standard products but not the 20.7% 9.4% 7.7% 11%
low cost producer.
8 Few market-niches with 11 13 92 116
differentiated products but not the 7.9% 6.1% 30.8% 17.8%
low cost producer
Total 140 213 299 652

The strategy guides the way a firm performs individual activities and organizes its whole
value chain (Porter 1980). There are two central concerns that underlie the choice of
competitive strategy: the industry structure (five competitive forces mentioned above) in
which the firm competes, and the positioning within the industry. The two generic
strategies are the lower cost and the differentiation. Gaining cost advantage requires

144
optimizing the linkages among the activities as well as the close coordination with
suppliers and channels. The differentiation results form the way a firm’s product and
associated services affect its buyer activities. In addition, the role of the competitive
scope is important since it shapes the nature of a firm’s activities, the way they are
performed and how the value chain is configured.

Table (5.10) summarizes the generic strategies that are implemented by the SMEs
working in the natural stone in Jordan, Turkey and Italy. In Jordan, almost (10%) of the
SMEs, working in the natural stone sector applies high differentiation and high cost
strategy, and the same percentage applies high differentiation with low cost strategy.
Almost (40%) of them applies high cost and low differentiation strategy and almost the
same percentage applies low cost alongside with low differentiation strategy.

In Turkey (47.4%) of the SMEs applies low cost and low differentiation strategy while
the SMEs that implement high differentiation and low cost strategy represent (23.9%) of
the respondents. The percentage of the SMEs that is following the high cost with low
differentiation strategy is (16.4%) and (12.2%) applies high cost along with high
differentiation strategy. In Italy, (46.5%) of the SMEs applies high differentiation and
high cost strategy while (15.7%) of the SMEs applies high differentiation with low cost
strategy. The percentage of the SMEs that implements high cost along with low
differentiation strategy is (22.4%) and (15.4%) applies low differentiation along with low
cost strategy.

Table 5.10. Generic Strategies – Summary

Cost Leadership Strategy
Generic Strategies Low High
Jordan (37.8%) Jordan (43.6%)
Differentiation Low Turkey (47.4%) Turkey (16.4%)
Strategy Italy (15.4%) Italy (22.4%)
Jordan (9.3%) Jordan (9.3%)
High Turkey (23.9%) Turkey (12.2%)
Italy (15.7%) Italy (46.5%)

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Table (5.11) presents percentages of the three generic strategies (cost leadership,
differentiation, and focus) in the three countries. It is noticed that (71.3%) of the Turkish
SMEs implement low cost strategy, while (62.2%) of the Italian SMEs implement
differentiation strategy, and (57.2%) of the Italian SMEs implements the focus strategy.

Table 5.11. Generic Strategies versus Countries

Country Generic Strategy
Cost (%) Differentiation (%) Focus (%)
Jordan 47.1 18.6 43.6
Turkey 71.3 36.1 50.2
Italy 31.1 62.2 57.2

In Jordan, there are two groups of the SMEs. The first group invests heavily in
technology to improve productivity and assure quality. These firms generally have strong
relations with equipment producers and attempt to compete on image and design. These
firms are export oriented than average, advertise heavily and invest substantial amounts
in showroom expositions. The second group included a larger number of the SMEs in
Jordan competes on price. A reason for not competing with a high value added product
could be the management of these SMEs. The Jordanian SMEs' managers might either
fail to understand the opportunities of competing in premium segments, or might indeed
be better at low cost processes, products, and services. Other reasons are the business
environment, the weaknesses in the infrastructure, science and technology system, and
labor force skills.

Table (5.12) shows the significant differences in the impact of the different scenarios on
the innovation, customer satisfaction, internal business, and financial performance of the
SMEs working in processing the natural stone in Jordan, Turkey and Italy. However,
there is no one type of global strategy, but numerous ways of competing globally
involving choices about where to locate and how to coordinate activities.

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Table 5.12. Kruskal-Wallis Test – Generic Strategies and Competitive Advantage
No Variable Chi-Square Sig.
1. Percentage of new products of total turnover 339.29 0.00*
2. Time necessary to develop new generation of 304.59 0.00*
products
3. Customer satisfaction 225.86 0.00*
4. Market share 232.31 0.00*
5. Customer loyalty 229.07 0.00*
6. Employees satisfaction 164.54 0.00*
7. Employees loyalty 206.06 0.00*
8. Productivity of your employees 228.42 0.00*
9. Return on Investment 259.51 0.00*
10. Profitability 250.73 0.00*
11. Revenue growth 174.64 0.00*
12. Cost reduction 228.35 0.00*
13. Exportation 356.29 0.00*
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05) with DF = 7

The aforementioned analysis shows that there are significant differences in the influence
of the different scenarios on the generic strategies of the SMEs working in processing the
natural stone in the three countries.

The Analysis of data rejected the third hypothesis. There are significant differences in
the influence of the generic strategies on the competitive advantage of the SMEs
working in processing the natural stone sector in Jordan, Turkey and Italy.

Table (5.13) shows that the strategy of "low cost with high differentiation in the broad
market" leads to achieve the highest rank in innovation, customer satisfaction and
financial performance. While the strategy of "low cost with high differentiation in niche
market" leads to achieve the second rank in innovation, customer satisfaction and
financial performance (see Appendix E for Tukey test).

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Table 5.13. Generic Strategies and Competitive Advantage- Mean
Strategy* Innovation Customer Employee Finance
Mean (rank) Mean (rank) Mean (rank) Mean (rank)
1 2.38 (6) 3.52 (6) 3.62 (5) 3.07 (6)
2 3.96 (1) 4.16 (1) 4.09 (2) 3.85 (1)
3 2.50 (5) 3.60 (4) 3.39 (6) 3.25 (4)
4 3.89 (2) 4.06 (2) 4.16 (1) 3.79 (2)
5 2.24 (7) 2.79 (7) 3.04 (7) 2.30 (7)
6 3.85 (3) 3.90 (3) 3.94 (3) 3.39 (3)
7 2.06 (8) 2.68 (8) 2.89 (8) 2.05 (8)
8 3.03 (4) 3.58 (5) 3.63 (4) 3.13 (5)
* Please see table 5.9 for the eight generic scenarios

In addition to responding to and influencing industry structure, the Jordanian SMEs must
choose a position within the industry. In order to implement the low cost strategy, these
SMEs have to design, produce, and market a comparable product more efficiently than its
competitors. In this case, there will be a high competition with many international
competitors from Turkey, Egypt and China, and many others. As an example, the labor
and transportation costs in Egypt are lower than Jordan. Thus, the Egyptian can benefit
from the concept of the economies of scale due the huge quantities of raw material they
have.

The Jordanian SMEs should focus on offering high value-added products rather than
focusing on delivering products in low prices. In order to provide differentiated products,
the Jordanian SMEs need to focus on unique and superior value to the buyer in terms of
product quality, special features, and after-sales service. As well, the Jordanian SMEs,
due to the limited quantities and inconsistency in quality, should focus on the markets
such as Saudi Arabia and the USA where they can sell high value-added products, and
they should focus on niche segments such as floor tiles and inner wall covering where
they can specialize in these production lines.

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5.4. The ICT and the Natural Stone Sector (Jordan, Turkey and Italy)

This section discusses the usage of the computer and the Internet, and the impact of the
ICT on the competitive elements of the SMEs working in the natural stone sector. The
data shows that the percentage of the SMEs using the computer in Jordan is (80.7%), in
Italy (95.7%), and in Turkey (89.2%). This percentage for using the computer in the
natural stone sector in Jordan is relatively higher than other sectors in the country. The
average percentage of using the computer in the manufacturing industries in Jordan is
almost (60%) (DOS 2005). The Jordanian SMEs have the lowest rank in using the
computer for printing, accounting, inventory control, payroll and production. As well, the
data shows that (74.2%) of the respondents using the Internet in the three countries
(60.7% in Jordan, 82.9% in Italy, and 70.9% in Turkey). The percentage of using the
Internet by the SMEs working in the natural stone sector in Jordan is relatively higher
than other sectors in the country. The average percentage of using the Internet in the
manufacturing industries in Jordan is almost (40%) (DOS 2005).

In order to assess the impact of the ICT on the competitive elements of the SMEs
working in processing the natural stone sector, each respondent using the Internet in the
three countries has been asked about the impact of the ICT on the competitive elements.
Table (5.14) shows the significant differences in all of the elements between the three
countries. It is noticed that Jordan is behind Turkey and Italy in the impact of the ICT on
the competitive elements for different reasons. Some of these reasons are:

Business environment. Still there is a need to simplify corporate regulations and

simplify dissolution of businesses.

Infrastructure. The Internet connection needs to be faster since the availability of
broadband connections may affect the SMEs’ decisions to adopt e-business.

ICT Skills. Most of the small firms are hiring people interested in technology and
not ICT professionals.

Information. Small firms lack information regarding the benefits and costs of
adoption of the ICT. On-line provision of government information and services
can increase the efficiency and coverage of public service delivery to small firms.

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 Table 5.14. Kruskal-Wallis Test – Impact of the ICT
No Variable Chi-Square Sig.
1 Reduce transaction costs 87.26 .00*
2 Improve quality of product/service 94.08 .00*
3 Defend your self against competitors engaging in e– 111.66 .00*
commerce
4 Increase the flexibility of your firm 131.77 .00*
5 Increase your ability to innovate 26.58 .00*
6 Increase job creation in your firm 21.54 .00*
7 Improve the image of your firm 64.06 .00*
8 Contribute to solving your problem of lack resources 76.9 .00*
and access to technology
9 Increase market share 20.65 .00*
10 Enter new markets 43.98 .00*
11 Reach new suppliers 16.61 .01*
12 Reach new customers 19.47 .00*
13 Work with large firms (local and international) 71.95 .00*
14 Improve control of your business process organization 18.94 .00*
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05) with DF = 2

The aforementioned analysis shows that there are significant differences in the impact of
the ICT on the competitive elements of the SMEs working in the natural stone industry
between the three countries.

The Analysis of data rejected the fourth hypothesis. There are significant differences in
the impact of the ICT on the competitive elements of the SMEs working in processing
the natural stone sector between Jordan, Turkey and Italy.

Very few initiatives in the area of the e-commerce have been developed in Jordan.
Tejari29, is one of these initiatives designed and developed in the United Arab Emirates
and expanded in Jordan as a business-to-business (B2B) e-Marketplace where member
companies and organizations can buy and sell goods and services online in real time.

29
www.Tejari.com

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Through Tejari, buyers can find, compare, and procure products and services. Buyers can
conduct reverse auctions in which sellers bid to supply products and services at the most
competitive prices. On the other hand, suppliers can list their products and services, to
sell them through online catalogs or auctions.

E-commerce applications are expected to grow given the high amount of use of Visa and
other credit cards in the country. Jordan Telecom, through its subsidiary e-dimension and
the Jordanian banks launched the e-payment gateway in 2003, which was intended for
telecommunications billing but should be extended to utilities and commercial purposes.
E- Banking has been provided for the last several years by the main commercial banks in
Jordan. The e-services include: internet banking, shopping, transfers, e-cards, ATM, e-
transactions, bank to bank transfers. Recently, Visa Jordan is issuing the Smart Card and
e-service commercial portal for commercial transaction, which will make Jordan among
the leading countries in the region.

The Jordanian SMEs need to understand that the technological change is one of the
principal drivers of competition. Technological change is not important for its own sake,
but is important if it affects the competitive advantage and the industry structure. It plays
a major role in the industry structural change, as well as in creating new industries.
Therefore, the impact of the new ICT, especially the Internet, on the five competitive
forces, value chain, industry foundries, and sources of competitive advantage should be
analyzed by the Jordanian SMEs in order to benefit fully from this new technology. It is
also important to forecast the path of technological evolution to allow a firm to anticipate
technological changes and thereby improve its position. With some insight into the likely
pattern of technological evolution, a firm may be able to anticipate changes and move
early to reap competitive advantage. However, there will always be uncertainty whenever
technology is involved.

The Jordanian government should foster appropriate business environment for the e-
business and the ICT uptake and target programs to overcome market failures. Policies
that affect the adoption and use of the ICT include those designed to expand and improve
the quality of network infrastructure and legal and regulatory environment, foster

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technological diffusion and create a favorable business environment. In addition to the
ICT awareness programs, business consultation and training services are reinforced to
enhance the ICT and managerial skills. However, there is no one-size fits all approach
and policies depend on national circumstances. Moreover, the e-government in Jordan
can increase the efficiency and coverage of public service delivery to small firms, and to
act as a model user and standard setter for the ICT adoption by small firms.

As mentioned earlier, the natural stone industry in Jordan is located in the factor-driven
stage. This industry draws its advantage almost from the basic factors of production. This
source of competitive advantage limits sharply the range of industry segments in which
the Jordanian firms can successfully compete in international terms. The Jordanian firms
compete solely on the basis of price; technology is sourced largely from Italy; Turkey and
Germany and very few Jordanian's firms have direct access to foreign markets.

Each nation goes through its unique process of development (Porter 1998). Some of the
most telling conditions necessary for the Jordanian natural stone industry to progress to
more advances stages are the following:

√ The Jordanians need to focus on more advanced and more specialized factors
such as new ways of production and new technologies. This could be achieved
by providing the owners/ mangers of the firms with the necessary training,
information and capital.
√ Shifting the rule of rivalry from price-based to innovation-based competition.
This could be achieved by upgrading the quality of demand that creates the
potential for success in more sophisticated segments. Upgrading the quality of
demand achieved by rising the level of income and education of the citizens.
√ The Jordanian government plays a role through its policy choices. The
government has already signed many trade agreements with the USA and
Europe and the WTO. Still, the government needs to revise the existing rules
and regulations.
√ As well, the Jordan SMEs play a role by implementing the suitable strategies.
It could be infeasible for the Jordanian firms to heavily invest in enlarging

152
 their production scale in Jordan or to invest abroad for two reasons: Jordan
does not have a large raw-material quantities and that needs a huge capital.
Instead, these firms might establish contact points in different countries such
as the US, Europe and Saudi Arabia (potential countries where these firms can
sell value-added products).
√ The proposed clusters can help the Jordanian SMEs to export their products to
the international markets. Competitive success in the business services is a
sign of achieving innovation-driven competitive advantage. However,
achieving competitive advantage in the natural stone industry and its related
and supporting industries requires a pre-existing base of strong firms and
higher levels of technological capabilities.
√ The ICT might assist in creating more specialized factors, delivering
specialized training to the owners/ managers of the SMEs, building the natural
stone cluster, and facilitating the role of the government. As well, the ICT
might assist in connecting the international contact points with the local
SMEs. The ICT provides an e-trading platform to the utilities companies in
Jordan, and helps both sellers and buyers simplify their procurement processes
and reduce costs. As well, the SMEs can use the Global Technology Network,
provided by the US Agency for International Development (USAID), to find
comparable small and medium-sized US companies to share business
solutions that satisfy their existing technological needs. It is worth mentioning
that the Jordanians may have a better opportunity, than Turkey and Italy, in
benefiting from the ICT in international trade for two reasons: Turkey and
Italy are located in the low and middle ICT intensity groups respectively, thus
Jordan can follow and edge the two countries in the ICT intensity. The second
reason is that the Jordanian natural firms did not have their own existing
system in exporting their products, so they can build a new and flexible one
with the assistance of the ICT.

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5.5. The SWOT Analysis of the Jordanian SMEs

It has been a long struggle, but Jordan's economy seems to be turning a corner. The GDP
growth rate is accelerating, exports are rising, and reserves are at record levels. However,
Jordan still faces formidable challenges in the area of foreign debt, the budget deficit,
poverty and unemployment (Oxford Business Group 2003).

In the banking and finance sector, the challenge of international accountability is a major
issue for Jordanian financial institutions as they are trying to integrate into the global
economy. With regard to loan facilitation, access to local equity and bond market, Jordan
positioning itself nears the lower middle of the international list (WEF 2005).
Nonetheless, lending remains predominantly short-term and trade related; very little
lending is directed at long-term productive investments. As well, the stock market is
considered underdeveloped in Jordan (Oxford Business Group 2003).

One of the major challenges in Jordan is the discrepancy between educational curricula
and the actual needs of the labor markets, which furthers the dilemma of high
unemployment rates and declining real wages. As well, availability of scientists and
engineers, spending on R&D, and the government's priority of ICT are all crucial issues
to technological innovation. Thus, it will be difficult to develop the scientific talents
needed to prosper in a knowledge-based economy.

In terms of openness, the Jordanian economy remains low. This is mainly due to cost of
importing foreign equipment, hidden import barriers, and exchange rates and exports.
When a firm needs to import foreign equipment, the combined effects of import tariffs,
license fees, bank fees, and the time required for administration raises the cost by 11-20%
(JMOP 2003). As for the exchange rate, the Jordanian Dinar has been pegged to the US
Dollar since late 1995. Nevertheless, by examining the evolution of the effective
exchange rate in Jordan since 1995, it becomes evident that there is a general upward
trend illustrating the depreciation of the Jordanian Dinar. This depreciation may
adversely affect Jordanian exports, as their competitiveness in the world market would
diminish considerably.

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5.5.1. Opportunities

Although Jordan is a small country with a limited income per capita (CIA 2002), it is a
country with a rapidly increasing population. This makes investments, especially in the
infrastructure and housing, essential. That leads to increase the demand on the local and
international natural stone. Besides, the geographical position Jordan occupies in the
heart of the Middle East makes it relatively inexpensive to export natural stone and other
commodities to Asia and to the Gulf due to the low transportation cost. In addition,
Aqaba Port and Queen Alia International Airport enable easy access to Europe and
United States.

The Jordanian government is doing all its best to provide a fertile environment in order to
support firms that are working in the natural stone sector. Therefore, it signed a favorite
agreement with the EU, Israel, and Free Trade Agreement with the United States,
"Jordan-United States Business Partnership's (JUSBP). Its objectives are to develop the
Jordanian dimension stone sector by coordinating and organizing the efforts of all the
Jordanian natural stone manufacturers via the Jordan Stone and Tile Exporters
Association (JOSTONE). Furthermore, the government has established many industrial
zones and becomes a member in the World Trade Organization (WTO). In addition,
Jordan has established Qualifying Industrial Zones (QIZ), so the foreign investments are
expected to increase in different industries.

In order to study the impact of the international agreements of the natural stone sector in
Jordan, the following tables present the impact of these agreements on the customs tariff
and thus on the competitiveness of the sector. Most imports into Jordan are subject to
tariffs and import taxes. Industrial raw materials and capital equipment imported by
licensed industrial projects are exempt. Import tariffs range between 0-45 percent on
most commodities. Tariffs on luxury items are higher, ranging between 60-120 percent.
The Jordanian Standards and Measures Department is responsible for all issues related to
standards, measures, technical specifications and International Standards Organization
(ISO) certification and qualification, except for the pharmaceuticals, which are handled
by the Ministry

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Table (5.15) presents the customs tariff on exporting stone and marble products to the US
from different countries.

Table 5.15. Customs Tariff to US and to EU

Jordan Turkey Israel
Raw Material 0 0 0
Processed 0 0 0
Source: JMOP 2003

It is shown that the Jordanian firms can export raw and processed natural stone to the US
market without any customs tariff. At the same time, Turkey and Israel have the same
special treatment. Table (5.16) presents the customs tariff on importing the US products
to Jordan till 2010

Table 5.16. Customs Tariff on US Products

2003 2005 2010
Raw Material 4% 0 0
Processed 21% 15% 0
Source: JMOP 2003

By the time, the customs tariff on the US products has decreased and by the year 2010,
the customs tariff will be zero. By that time, the intra-trade between Jordan and the US
will increase. The Jordanian firms will have the capability and experience to export to the
US market and at the same time, the Jordanian buyers will benefit from the advantage of
buying the US products with zero customs tariff.

Table (5.17) presents the customs tariff on exporting the EU products to Jordan till 2014.
It is expected that the customs tariff on the EU raw material and processed products will
be declined. By the year 2014, the customs tariff on the EU products will be zero. In this
case, the demand on the European products will be much higher and that may affect the
market share of the local products.

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 Table 5.17. Customs Tariff on EU Products
2006 2009 2014
Raw Material 9% 6% 0
Processed 21%-27% 18% 0
Source: JMOP 2003

In order to liberate the national economy and increase the flow of foreign capital, the
government of Jordan has initiated a privatization program designed to activate the role
and efficiency of private investors in the long-term development plans of the Kingdom.
As an example, the Telecommunication Corporation and the Jordanian Electricity
Authority were both transformed in 1996 into public shareholding companies as a first
step towards full privatization (CIA 2005). This program will increase the efficiency and
productivity of the related and supporting industries for the natural stone sector.

When Jordan and Israel signed the peace treaty in 1994, it did not only mark an end to a
state of war but it also set in motion the formation of links of economic cooperation and
interdependence. One day, borders would no longer be militarized frontiers. Instead,
there will be highways transporting people and goods to new markets and destinations.
Proponents of this so-called "New Middle East" vision argued that such a model would
help promote Arab-Israeli peace by demonstrating that it could generate mutual economic
benefits and would then solidify closer relations by sharing material and strategic
interests between the regional governments and their respective private sectors (JMOP
2003).

The existing legal system provides a basis for the necessary commercial and investment
functions (CIA 2002). It defines property rights, the exchange of property rights, rules for
business entry and exit and rules for market operation. Under the Copyright Law all
works must be registered at the Department of National Libraries that belongs to the
Ministry of Culture. Trademarks must be registered at the Ministry of Industry and Trade.
Patents must be registered with the Registrar of Patents and Trademarks at the Ministry
of Industry and Trade. Protection is granted for seven years and is renewable for an
additional seven (JMOIT 2003). The explorations of licensing and mining rights are

157
governed by special rules issued by the Natural Resources Authority (NRA) based on the
Regulatory Law of Natural Resources for the year 1968. For exports and imports
purposes, an approval from both the Ministry of Industry and Trade and NRA is required
(NRA 2003). We notice that the existing legal system covers all of the necessary
transactions but still needs both simplifications and updating.

The development of Jordan's educational system can only be described as dramatic.

Starting from almost nothing in the early 1920s, Jordan has forged a comprehensive,
high-quality system to develop the human capital of its citizens. The rapid spread of
facilities enabled citizens in poor and remote areas to gain access to education. In
comparison to other countries in the region, Jordan has the highest rate of colleges and
university graduates. There are several universities in Jordan whose civil engineering and
architecture faculties are of first-rate in the Middle East. However, practical orientation
remains weak and there is a need for vocational schools that would teach how to cope
with new technological developments that affect the industry (JMOP 2003). We notice
that there are many universities that offer academic programs in Jordan that are necessary
for the competitiveness of the firms working in the natural stone sector, such as
engineering, but what really not there is the vocational schools that offer practical
diplomas such as stone quarrying, stone cutting,….

The Jordanian firms had faced some unfavorable out of control events. The Iran-Iraq War
created serious problems in what used to be a good market for these firms. Similarly, the
Iraqi’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and the Gulf War in 2003 created considerable
troubles for the Jordanian firms. At the same time there is an opportunity for the
Jordanian firms to participate in rebuilding Iraq. As well, the Israeli restrictions on the
Palestinian Territories and the limitations on the Palestinian exports assist in increasing
the demand on the Jordanian natural stone as a substitute to the Palestinian ones.

158
5.5.2. Strengths

As mentioned earlier, most of the SMEs in Jordan are family-owned businesses. The
family businesses have unique working environment that fosters family-oriented
workplace and inspire greater employee care and loyalty. In addition, they have more
flexible work practices for their employees, and have lower recruitment costs. The family
members have a family language that allows them to communicate more efficiently and
exchange more information with greater privacy. Thus, family relationships generate
unusual motivation, loyalties and trust. Family firms have less organizational structure
and lower monitoring and control costs. Decision making tends to be centralized among
top family members, which decreases costs and increasing flexibility of the firm.
Moreover, the family's reputation can play a major role in the success of the firm. Many
natural stone companies were certified for (Quality Management Systems ISO 9000) and
(Environment Management Systems ISO 14000).

A variety of different stone formations can be found in Jordan that includes types such as
limestone, granite, sandstone and basalt. Limestone is the most quarried and used type of
stone in Jordan. It is found in different parts of the country in a variety of color ranges:
white, yellow, gray, brown and red. It is also exported to other countries in the region,
either as a raw material or as a finished, cut and dressed product. Some buildings in
Jordan have employed stone brought from Palestine, which includes some of the best
known quarries in the region. In Jordan, stone is quarried locally, as the cement is
produced locally and steel reinforcement bars are available locally, as well. Jordan also
produces its own ceramic tiles, kitchen cabinets, timber joinery, air conditioning and
heating equipment, electrical items, elevators, pipes and wires. These are all available at
competitive prices, providing savings in customs duties and overseas transportation.

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5.5.3. Threats

According to the Jordanian Ministry of Planning (2003) study, several factors show that
Jordan’s research and development (R&D) effort suffers from a weak participation by the
private sector. While the university-based intellectual potential is high, the university-
industry interactions are weak because there is an inadequate funding for cooperative
projects at the universities and research laboratories. Besides, the Jordanian SMEs find
difficulties in obtaining finance. Studies show that no more than (5%) of the available
bank credit is provided to the industrial SMEs (EJADA 2002). Many banks prefer to
work with large companies and banks that might make loans for small companies
actually lack the knowledge of how to make small loans (Oxford Business Group 2003;
JMOP 2003). The high interest rates and prerequisites of these institutions are considered
obstacles to the SMEs to receive loans and other difficulties in raising capital in Jordan
are due to the owners' unwillingness to share partners outside the family.

Even though, Jordan’s active banking and finance sector has been liberalized and grown
rapidly in the recent years, it still needs some reforming especially in the case of the
relationship with small firms. Since 1989 the Central Bank of Jordan (CBJ) has initiated a
number of reforms designed to make the banking sector more secure and competitive. In
2003, there were twenty-four commercial banks and financial institutions operating in
Jordan (CBJ 2003), of which nineteen are domestic and five are foreign. There are five
private investment banks and one Industrial Development Bank (IDB).

In Jordan, the basic items of infrastructure (water, electricity, transportation,

telecommunications and water recycling) are available. However, the existing of an
industrial infrastructure such as standard and quality control institution, industrial zones
and parks, an export marketing institution, and consulting and training services are not
very active (Oxford Business Group 2003). Also, there is an unclear picture of the nature
of foreign markets to the businessmen in Jordan. This is due to the shortage of feasibility
studies and knowledge of the regulations and standards in other markets. The Jordanian
customer's awareness is relatively weak with regard to product quality standards. The
opportunity to develop demand conditions under the current situation is rather limited.

160
There are many areas in Jordan, especially the poor ones, still do not use the natural stone
in their buildings due to the high prices of the natural stone when compared to other
substitutes such as cement or bricks (JMOP 2003).

The threat of rivals in Jordan ranges from moderate to high. The reasons behind that are
due to the high numbers of competing firms in the small country. The bargaining power
in Jordan is relatively high since the buyers have full information about the prices and
specifications and most of the Jordanian firms produce standard products. Thus, the buyer
can easily switch to another competitor. The threats of suppliers are almost high. This is
due to the limited number of quarries, credible forward integration threat by suppliers,
and significant cost to switch between suppliers. Furthermore, the tight regulations in
obtaining the necessary licenses for extracting the raw materials play a role in limiting the
number of quarries. The threat of substitutes is moderate since it is not easy for buyers to
switch to substitutes such as the industrialized stone or cement bricks for building their
own houses. The threat of new entrants is moderate since there are no government’s
barriers to enter the industry and the distribution channels are not restricted. Besides, the
required assets, technical qualifications and organizational economies of scale, are not
difficult to be reached.

5.5.4. Weaknesses

The fundamental weaknesses of the natural stone sector in Jordan are the insufficient
know-how, and traditional and outdated technology (JMOP 2003). The design of the
SMEs’ products is traditional and is produced using inefficient methods and outdated
tools. Furthermore, the investment in information and communications technologies
(ICT) remains low in Jordan, and the support policies that would have been necessary for
their technological development were not available. The low level of technology is linked
to the weakness in innovation. The lack of technical skills keeps the SMEs working in the
natural stone sector from deriving the full benefit of any cost advantages to be used
domestically or for export. While the SMEs dominate the natural stone sector in terms of

161
employment, they evidently operate with a comparatively little capital equipment, and
generate relatively low levels of value added (JMOP 2003). Furthermore, these firms
receive only a minor share of the funds mobilized by the banking sector.

Supplier-buyer relationships depend on the family and personal ties. These relations lack
any significant horizontal or vertical linkages (JMOIT 2003) and most of the SMEs have
no clear distribution channels in the local and international markets. That leads to lack the
coordination between firms and force these firms to negotiate small orders focusing on
price rather than quality, which in turn weakens their bargaining power. Owners-
managers are usually professional themselves, and they participate in practical work. The
Jordanian natural stone firms are usually not that formal and they use the subcontracting
in the natural stone industry which contributed to the lack of attention to formalization
since it gives a firm a capacity to undertake work beyond its scope in terms of size and
specialization. In the absence of regulations governing the hiring process, the Jordanians
rely on the security of family relations. The most single criterion for hiring is referrals.
The Jordanian family owners rely on their family members or friends to fill vacant
positions.

Technology and spare parts are mainly imported from Italy, Turkey and Germany. Some
of the hand tools used in the trimming and polishing are locally manufactured. There is a
lack of information dissemination about the new technologies used in the industries
(JMOP 2003). The Jordanian firms lack insurance, which protects them in case of any
risk of devaluation or political changes (Oxford Business Group 2003).

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Table (5.18) presents the matrix of the SWOT analysis.

Table 5.18. Matrix of the SWOT

Opportunities Threats
Liberal trade and foreign investment Small, limited local market
policy (open economy) Small range of products that comply with
High speed of construction industry international standards
development Old reserves damages by explosions
Regional peace process Antiquated laws and regulations
Geographic location of Jordan Cross-border trade restrictions with
Rebuilding Iraq neighboring countries
Low labor cost Environmental issues
Remarkable growth in services sector Low variety of stones reserves
Low transportation costs Credit terms and conditions of commercial
International donations banks discourage investments in SMEs
Unique colors of stones and construction Existence of several small stone reserves in
materials reserves one mine area
Enhancement of the variety and quality of Obstacles in the SME registration procedures
construction materials
Strengths Weaknesses
Personnel Personnel
√ Employee turnover √ Management, employees' skill
√ Experience Quality Management
√ Labor relations √ Lack coordination and networking among
Quality Management SMEs and related industries
√ Internal practices to enhance quality √ Procedures for monitoring quality
of products and services Information Systems
√ Acquiring ISO certificates √ Accuracy of information
Organization √ Ability of people to use information
√ Flexibility Organization
√ Communication √ Strategic planning, control system
Production and Operations Marketing
√ Flexibility √ Product image, and promotion
Unique Colors √ Market share
Financial and Accounting
√ Capital equipment, and cost control
Production
√ Know-how, R&D - innovation
√ Level of value added
√ Economies of scale
√ Raw material availability

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5.6. Labor Productivity

This section compares the productivity of each firm within and between the three
countries in terms of labor. In order to calculate the output of each firm in the three
countries, labor productivity of each firm has been multiplied by the number of labors in
that firm (i.e. Output = Labor Productivity * Number of Labors).

The labor productivity of each firm was measured by the five-point likert scale, and to
make the comparison easier and more meaningful, each scale was multiplied by 20 (1
was converted to 20, 2 to 40 as so forth). As an example, the labor productivity in the
firm number one in Jordan is measured by number 4 in the five-point likert scale (this
figure was multiplied by 20 and became 80) and the number of employees of this firm is
7, thus the output is calculated by multiplying 80 * 7 = 560 units. After repeating this
process for all of the firms in Jordan, it was noticed that the firm highest output is 3000
units (30 labors multiplied by 100 units per labor). The figure below (5.3) shows the
outputs of the all of the respondents in Jordan.

Figure 5.3. The SMEs' Output - Jordan

3000
2500
2000
Output

1500
1000
500
0
1 14 27 40 53 66 79 92 105 118 131
SMEs

In order to calculate how much could each firm expand its output to reach the frontier of
the best (3000 units in the Jordanian case), the productivity of each firm was multiplied

164
by the number of labors of the best performer (30 labors in the Jordanian case) in order to
keep the labor constant. Then, the output of each firm was deducted from the best
performer's output as shown figure (5.4).

Figure 5.4. The SMEs' Output Gap - Jordan

3000
Output to Reach the

2500
2000
Frontier

1500
1000
500
0
1 15 29 43 57 71 85 99 113 127
SMEs

The same procedure was followed in the Turkish and Italian cases. In the Turkish case,
the output of the best performer was 7200 units (72 labors * 100 units per labor) as
shown in figure (5.5).

Figure 5.5. The SMEs' Output - Turkey

7200

5200
Output

3200

1200

-800 1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141 161 181 201

SMEs

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Figure (5.6) shows the amount that each firm could expand its output in order to reach the
frontier of the best performer.

Figure 5.6. The SMES' Output Gap - Turkey

7200
Output To Reach the

5200
Frontier

3200

1200

-800 1 22 43 64 85 106 127 148 169 190 211

SMEs

In Italy, the output of the best performer was 8500 units. Figure (5.7) shows the output of
the SMEs in the sample.

Figure 5.7. The SMEs' Output - Italy

8500

6500
Output

4500

2500

500

-1500 1 39 77 115 153 191 229 267

SMEs

In order to calculate how much could each firm expand its output to reach the frontier of
the best performer is 8500 units (85 labors * 100 units per labor) , the productivity of

166
each firm was multiplied by the 85 (the number of labor of the best performer to keep the
number of labors constant). Figure (5.8) shows the result.

Figure 5.8. The SMEs' Output Gap - Italy

8500
Output to Reach the

6500
Frontier

4500

2500

500

-1500 1 31 61 91 121 151 181 211 241 271

SMES

In order to compare the labor productivity across the three countries, the regression
equation of the labor productivity in each country was found. Regression analysis tells
how one variable is related to another by providing an equation that allows using the
known value of one or more variables to estimate the unknown value of the remaining
variable (kindly see appendix H). The SPSS was used to find the regression coefficient
for each country as follows:

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Jordan

Table (5.19) presents the regression coefficient and figure (5.9) shows regression line in
Jordan. Therefore, the output is:

Y = - 225.65 + 89.67 X

Where Y = Firm Output

X = Number of Workers

Table 5.19. Regression Coefficient - Jordan

Un-standardized t Sig.
Standardized Coefficients
Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
-225.652 32.096 0.947 -7.030 .00
89.670 2.608 34.377 .00

Figure 5.9. Regression Line - Jordan

4000

3000

2000

1000
OUTPUT

0
0 10 20 30 40

LABOR

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Turkey

As shown in table (5.20) and figure (5.10), the output in Turkey is equal to:

Y = -129.41 + 81.58 X

Where Y = Firm Output

X = Number of Workers

Table 5.20. Regression Coefficient - Turkey

Un-standardized Standardized. t Sig.
Coefficients
Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
-129.413 48.443 .943 -2.671 .00
81.587 1.993 40.944 .00

Figure 5.10. Regression Line - Turkey

8000

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000
OUTPUT

1000

0
0 20 40 60 80

LABOR

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Italy

Table (5.21) and figure (11) shows that the output in Italy is equal to:

Y = -204.10 + 85.89 X

Where Y = Firm Output

X = Number of Workers

Table 5.21. Regression Coefficient - Italy

Un-standardized t Sig.
Standardized Coefficients
Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
-204.101 62.605 .937 -3.260 .00
85.894 1.968 43.644 .00

Figure 5.11. Regression Line - Italy

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000
OUTPUT

-2000
0 20 40 60 80 100

LABOR

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An interesting result was reached. The Turkish firms have a higher output in comparison
with Jordan and Italy while the number of labors is less than 15. The Jordanian firms
have a higher output than Italian and Turkish firms while the number of labors is more
than 15. Figure (5.12) shows the output equations for the three countries.

Figure 5.12. Regression Lines – Jordan, Turkey and Italy

2700

2200

1700 Jordan
Output

Turkey
1200
Italy
700

200

-300
Labor

The aforementioned result could be explained by different reasons:

√ The Italians emphasize more on quality, time, and technological and process
development.
√ Most of the firms in Jordan use labor-intensive operations. Thus, by increasing the
number of workers, their output will increase. On the contrary, most of the
Turkish firms use capital-intensive operations, thus increasing the number of
workers might lead to diminishing returns to labor, which means that the increase
in output resulting from the employment of one more unit of labor declines as the
amount of labor used increases. Diminishing returns are explained by the fact that
as employment increases and other inputs remain constant, each labor on the job
has fewer machines with which to work.

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5.7. Incomparability of Measurement

Bias can result in systematic errors and thus distort results and interpretations. There is a
chance that differences between countries regarding some of their performance could be
due to a different way of responding on a likert scale basis (King et al. 2004). The
researcher took into account the impact of inter-personal variation between the three
countries in response patterns. This inter-personal may have an impact on the findings.
There are two possible explanations for this unexpected finding. The first explanation is
that even if the respondents from different cultures perceive performance in similar ways,
they may report it differently on survey questionnaires, guided by culturally-supported
values and norms about how a respondent should respond on a survey. It seems that some
cultures are more openly forthright and honest, and yet others are more diffident and
harmonious in their responses.

The second explanation is that respondents evaluate performance against their local
reference-frame, which includes attributes of the local economic situation, such as
comparative business opportunities and expectations for their fair profitability and
investment growth. For example, Jordanians might perceive greater relative productivity
gains, profits and reputational benefits from the training programs and technology
transfer opportunities than an equivalent Italians from a more-developed country.

The literature on this problem has focused on developing ways of writing more concrete,
objective, and standardized survey questions and developing methods to reduce
incomparability. The most widely used modern terminology for interpersonal
incomparability is differential item functioning (DIF)30. The DIF centers on the
identification of common anchors that can be used to attach the answers of different
individuals to the same standard scale. This helps, but is often insufficient (King et al.
2004). Researchers sometimes compare a survey response at issue to designated anchors
which are questions that tap the same concept that experts believe have no DIF. Other
researchers evaluate each survey question in turn by comparing it with an average, or

30
DIF occurs when examinees from different groups show differing probabilities of success on the item
after matching on the underlying ability that the item is intended to measure.

172
factor analyzed weighted average, of all the others that measure the same concept
assuming that all the other questions do not have DIF on average, as each question moves
in and out of the standard comparison group, is internally inconsistent (Please see
Appendix I-1 that shows the deviation within each country and appendix I-2 that shows
the deviation between countries).

DIF statistical techniques are based on the principle that if different groups of test-takers
have roughly the same level of something, then they should perform similarly on
individual test items regardless of group membership. All DIF techniques match test
takers from different groups according to their total test scores and then investigate how
the different groups performed on individual test items to determine whether the test
items are creating problems for a particular group or not?.

There are three hurdles to establishing DIF:

Is the DIF statistically significant? (Please see appendix I-3)

Does the DIF have substantive implications?

Is the DIF real or accidental? (Please see I-4)

The one-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test (appendix I-3) that compares the observed
cumulative distribution function for a variable with a specified theoretical distribution
shows that there are significant differences between the three countries. As well, the runs
test (appendix I-4), that testifies whether the order of occurrence of two values of a
variable is random or not, shows that there significant differences between the three
countries. To simplify the calculation, the cut point in the one-sample Kolmogorov-
Smirnov Test and runs test is number 3 ((the middle number of the likert scale:
(1+2+3+4+5/5=3).

The abovementioned deviations could be explained by the following:

√ The natural stone industry in Jordan is located in the factor-driven stage while the
natural stone industry in Turkey is located in the investment-driven stage and in
Italy it is located in the innovation-driven stage. The different locations of the

173
 economic development stages explain, to some extent, why the Jordanians
respond less in most of the cases.
√ In recent times, the Jordanian government started to consider the natural stone
sector as one of the most favorite industries. The Jordanians started to review the
related rules and regulations, and provide the necessary infrastructure and
information. Thus, the natural stone industry in Jordan is considered an infant
industry in relative to Turkey and Italy.
√ The experience of the Jordanian firms in creating industrial clusters, developing
new products, utilizing the ICT in their production processes is relatively poor.
√ As a result of the relatively weak factor conditions, demand conditions, and
related and supporting industries, as well as the unclear strategic positioning of
the firms working in the natural stone in Jordan, the performance (innovation,
customer satisfaction, employee satisfaction and profitability) of the SMEs
working in the natural stone sector is lower than Turkey and Italy.
√ Above all, the inter-personal incomparability plays due to cultural differences.

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5.8. Policy Options

Based on SWOT matrix, the following policy options are developed.

5.8.1. Updating and Simplifying the Laws and Regulations

There is a need to review, amend and modernize the current laws to make them more
simple and helpful for starting new SMEs and for those already established. As an
example, the Jordanian government should consider the impact of the investment
promotion law and the different international agreements that mainly benefit the large
firms in Jordan.

On 17/7/2003, the Council of Ministers in Jordan asked a team to analyze all of the laws
and regulations related to the natural stone sector in Jordan to come up with new
recommendations. The members of the team are representatives from the ministries of
Finance, Agriculture and Environment, in addition to the Natural Resources Authority,
Antique Authority, Police and the private sector. The team came up with new promising
recommendations but still these recommendations need an official legislative ratification.
As an example of these recommendations, the team suggested having a one-stop shop in
order to save time, effort and money. The one-stop shop enables the investor to apply an
application at the Natural Resources Authority, and after two weeks he will receive an
answer without visiting the other related authorities.

5.8.2. Upgrading the Advanced and Specialized Infrastructure

The Jordanian government should focus its efforts on the general infrastructure such as
roads, water, electricity, airport and trains. At the same time, the advanced and specialized
infrastructure that is necessary for the competitiveness of the firms working in the natural
stone sector should be developed. There is a need to upgrade the water recycling system,
feasibility studies, geological studies and other environmental treatment, in order to have a

175
cleaner environment and to protect the fauna and flora of Jordan. The introduction of
modern environmental technologies and the application of proper environmental industry
standards will result in huge savings for the owners.

5.8.3. Promoting the Entrepreneurship and Upgrading Personnel

There is a need to integrate entrepreneurship at all levels of the formal education system
and ensure access to information, skills and expertise relating to the entrepreneurship.
The SMEs should cooperate with the local universities and research centers. It should
also participate in international fairs and subscribe to specialized magazines in order to
overcome the problem of not doing their own research and development. Vocational high
schools and universities can work with lower-level schools to provide a general
entrepreneurial curriculum to help build an entrepreneurial culture.

Box (5.1) shows that there is an interesting difference between how the entrepreneurs
involved in the semi-structured interview in Jordan view themselves and the actual facts
on the ground. The ten SMEs that are involved in the semi-structured interview are
family-owned businesses in which the ownership is transferred automatically from father
to son or to another close family member.

Box 5.1

Where as the majority of the SMEs involved in the semi-structured interview in

Jordan perceive themselves as very good in administration, finance and marketing,
their skills do not seem to have much impact on the way they conduct their business.
This suggests that most of these studies follow old traditional methods of doing
business which emphasis the necessity of training for the SMEs’ owners and
managers. A major reason behind the lack of proper managerial competence may be
explained by the fact that the overwhelming majority of businesses in Jordan are
family enterprises. However, inheriting the job does not necessarily mean that the
candidate must be exempted from proper training.

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There is a need to provide tailor-made consulting and training services for people
working in the natural stone sector. The training should focus on the managerial and
technical sides. The managerial training should have the basics in management, strategic
management, decision-making, accounting, production management, quality
management, purchasing management, inventory management, technology management
and marketing. The technical training should focus on the extraction methods, stone
cutting method, finishing method and quality control. The Royal Scientific Society in
Amman could be the right place for building a test center especially that it is in the way
of acquiring an international accreditation for this kind of tests. The main goal is to
improve and maintain the quality of the stone and marble production in order to better
present the sector in the local and the international markets.

It is important to consider the certification of private individuals who provide

management consulting and technical assistance services to the SMEs. The goal of this
certification is to ensure that the professionals providing such services are properly
trained and capable of providing useful assistance. Several countries have similar
systems. Japan has a certified small business consulting program that calls for an
additional year of specialized training following a master of business administration
degree, plus few years of experience, with or consultant to smaller enterprises (Oxford
Business Group 2003). The United States has recently started a similar program operated
by the Small Business Development Centers Directors Association. This certification
program has been developed after approximately 20 years of experience in operating
small business development centers (OECD 2004).

5.8.4. Establishing Credit Institutions to Support the SMEs

Although there are many banks and insurance companies in Jordan, there is a need to
establish credit institutions to support the SMEs by soft loans. The insurance companies
furthermore should pay their attention towards the small companies in order to protect
them in case of any risk of devaluation or political changes. The government's financial

177
support for the SMEs should be based on the presumption that banks cannot serve the
needs of smaller enterprises without government intervention. The SMEs that fall within
the scope of the government aid program can receive direct or indirect credit, an
exemption from certain import duties and from payment of value-added taxes on
investments in equipment. While the SMEs’ financing requirements differ at each stage
of development, policies should aim to ensure that markets can provide financing for
credit-worthy SMEs. This means that the innovative SMEs with good growth prospects
have access to appropriately structured risk capital at all stages of their development.

5.8.5. Promoting E-Business in the Natural Stone Industry

The Jordanian government should understand the obstacles of using the new technology
by the SMEs and set the required policies to eliminate these obstacles. There is a pressing
need to alert business owners and managers to the importance of the computer
technology in modern business and the role of the computer in simplifying and
facilitating business transactions and in improving communication. The SMEs should use
a customized packaged Internet application appropriate for their particular strategies.
Using ready-made packages and the Internet can be introduced in the SMEs’ businesses
stage by stage (Porter 2001). The Jordanian government may succeed in information
technology promotion, but still there is a need for information technology training, legal
framework for information technology development and creating laws relating to the
Internet use.

The procurement process of the SMEs working in the natural stone sector in Jordan is
still predominately based on traditional approaches, tools and communication channels.
The proposed approach is to promote B2B e-commerce by using the electronic bidding.
The objective of the electronic bidding solution is to overcome the drawbacks of the
traditional procurement by providing:

Quick access to up-to-date product information (i.e. automated update of

company's local product data and search facilities),

178

Improved product characteristics including color information and common
product identifiers to support the selection of the "right" product,

Advanced price requests for negotiation support, and

Direct ordering and invoicing of product components defined in the bidding
process.

The semi-structured interviews investigate the impact of the ICT on the five competitive
forces, as shown in Box 5.2, in order to investigate the impact of the ICT on the threats of
the natural stone industry.

Box. 5.2.

Four firms, involved in the semi-structured interview in Jordan, showed that the
threat of rivals will increase due to the increase in the number of competing firms.
The customers then will have the ability to look for the competitors’ prices through
the Internet by one click. On the other hand, six firms explained that the threat of
rivals will decrease. They believe that few Jordanians are able to buy directly from
foreign companies due to the economic circumstances and trade restrictions i.e.
import procedures and high transportation costs. As well, they do believe that there
is a limited number of Jordanians who have the willingness to take the risk and to
buy through the Internet. Five firms showed that the Internet will increase the
bargaining power of the local buyers especially the Jordanians who have money and
have the willingness to buy through the Internet. At the same time, the Internet
provides the overseas buyers with an easier access to the Jordanian products. Six of
the firms expected that the Internet is going to decrease the bargaining power of
physical intermediate channels since the customers can buy immediately from the
supply. At the same time, the six firms expected that new electronic inter-mediators
(electronic brokers) will be created.

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The bidding system will automat and synchronize the product data with the respective
information provided by the broker. Instead of contacting several quarries, the SME can
specify a request and send it electronically to the broker service and receive a list of
matching components in return with price comparisons. The broker service can provide
standardized product identifiers and precise color information. The natural stones are
mainly purchased by color and pattern. Samples have to be exchanged physically to get
an idea of the stones' look. Once the appropriate existing techniques have been identified,
advanced selection features for stones are possible, e.g. color matching mechanisms for
finding stones in a certain color or color range or checking whether a new series of
natural stones still has the same color as its predecessor series.

As shown in Box 5.3 the SMEs involved in the semi-structured interviews were asked
about the impact of the ICT on the value chain of these firms in order investigate the
impact of the ICT on the internal businesses.

Box 5.3.

The owners/ managers of the ten firms use the Internet to communicate but not yet to
make decisions. A full decision support system is not present yet in any of the ten
SMEs. In addition, none of the firms have been automated an interface with their
customer and only four SMEs using automation in another area of the company. This
automation is on a very low scale and not directly related to the implementation of the
e-business. However, the ten firms agree that the waste within their firms has
decreased; the burden of general office work, data handling and keeping of archives
has become easier. Nevertheless, in most firms the archives are not digital yet.
Although none of the ten firms using the Internet in their internal businesses
transactions or conducting financial transactions with banks, they believe that the
Internet will eliminate redundancies, reduces cycle time and increases the ability to
innovate. Furthermore, all of the firms believe that the Internet will help in improving
the image of their firms, adding value to existing products through the information
content and contributing to solving the problem of lack resources and access to
technology.

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5.8.6. Building a Dynamic Natural Stone Cluster

In order to evaluate the existing cluster, there are four questions need to be answered:

Does the cluster have critical mass?

Is the cluster specialized?

Is the cluster productively efficient?

Is the cluster dynamic?

Figure (5.13) presents the current natural stone cluster map (the area that need
improvements and the satisfactory area).

Figure. 5.13. Current Natural Stone Cluster

Business Supporting Agencies (JIB,

Specialized JEDCO, JUSBP, EJADA, Accredited labs
Geological Studies UNIDO/IPU)

Local suppliers for

Natural Resources
Machinery Spare parts
Authority

Quarrying Marble Land & sea

Machinery Quarries Processing transportation
Plants
Land & Survey Packing Companies
Department

Land Educational & Maintenance Spare Parts & Polish

Transportation Training Agencies Services stones suppliers

Unavailable
Needs Improvement
Satisfactory

Source: JMOP 2003

The above figure shows that specialized geological studies, accredited labs, and local
suppliers for machinery and spare parts are unavailable in Jordan. While, quarrying
machinery, transportation, training agencies, maintenance services, and spare parts
suppliers are there but need improvements.

181
The ten SMEs that are involved in the semi-structured interview in Jordan were asked
whether they are working within a network or not? Box 5.4 presents the answer.

Box 5.4.

Six of the SMEs are working within a larger network of suppliers, intermediaries and
competitors. The owners/ managers of these firms believe that working in a
networking will help in entering new markets, increasing market share, increasing
performance, decreasing costs, increasing specialization, increasing information
sharing, and increasing profits. The owners of the other four firms fear of losing
power over the network, lack of commitment and fear of losing customers. The SMEs
that are working within a network show that the following characteristics are needed
in building a dynamic cluster:

Intense cooperation organized through various institutions for collaboration

such as chambers of commerce, JOSTONE, etc.

Intense rivalry with a continuous upgrading and change.

Linkages to related industries, sharing pools of talent and new technological
advancement.

Access to increasingly specialized and advanced factors of production.

Proximity to sophisticated and demanding buyers.

The natural stone cluster represents 15-20% of the Jordanian manufacturing employment
i.e. people working in the quarries, stone cutting firms, construction, building material
firms, … (JMOP 2003). In the 1990s, Jordan Stone and Title Exporters Association
(JOSTONE) had a background in recommending methods of successful export markets
entry and assisting in this process. The idea to set up the cluster initiative had been taken
over by the Jordan-United States Business Partnership (JUSBP). The JUSBP is a program
operated by the International Executive Service Corps (IESC) headquartered in
Washington D.C, USA, and is funded under a Cooperative Agreement with the United

182
States Agency for International Development (USAID) mission in Amman, Jordan. The
Industrial Development Directorate (IDD) of the Ministry of Industry of Trade (JMOIT)
is JUSBP's counterpart organization. On the basis of this experience emerged the need for
more sophisticated information services provided.

Till now, the cluster initiative is not a self-sustainable. There is no strong involvement of
local actors and there is no profit orientation on the part of the JOSTONE. The success of
this case depended partly on a strong vision shared among the various promoters of the
initiative and the strong commitment of the government.

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5.9. Three-level Approaches

In order to build a sustainable competitive advantage for the SMEs working in the natural
stone sector, all of the entities (the SMEs, related and supporting industries, and
government) should work together in order to achieve this objective.

5.9.1. The SME - Level

The research results reveal a number of serious shortcomings and inadequacies that
should be addressed by the owners of the SMEs themselves. The study revealed the lack
of experience in the form of strategy formulation and market analysis. This could be due
to the low educational level of many of these entrepreneurs and the lack of a modern
business perspective on their part. This situation has had a negative impact on the way
many business owners practice on their daily activities.

Obsolete managerial practices are still in use. The continuation of this state of affairs in a
globalized economy may be disastrous for the small business. The research findings
reveal that the level of technology applied in the Jordanian businesses is relatively low,
particularly with regard to the use of computer information systems in collecting,
processing and analyzing data. It is not clear whether this is caused by a lack of funds or
ignorance on the part of owners and managers. In both cases, however, there is a pressing
need to alert business owners and managers to the importance of computer technology in
modern business and the role of the computer in simplifying and facilitating business
transactions and in improving communication.

In the light of the aforementioned facts, it is imperative that extensive training should be
carried out for both potential and operating entrepreneurs. The curricula of the training
courses designate to fit the special needs of the Jordanian business owners and managers.

184
5.9.2. Related and Supporting Industry-Level

Jordan has a limited experience with building clusters and should be able to extend the
concept in new directions. In order to promote a healthy and dynamic cluster that affect
the competitiveness of the natural stone sector the satisfactory and unsatisfactory
elements are highlighted in figure (5.12). The approach should keep in mind the
following:

Invest in strengthening microeconomic foundations - four determinants of the

Diamond;

Use of information and communications technology as an enabling technology
and as a indication of growth and economic change to improve production and
innovation

Cultivate trust, innovation and creative environment

Extend innovation and upgrading for the entire value chain.

The government can encourage clustering by offering an improved infrastructure and

other incentives to producers and related service providers to locate in a designated area.
The government can facilitate cluster development by providing an institutional
framework that allows cluster participants to form, grow and discuss mutual needs and
interests. The private sector and business associations can identify barriers and
opportunities, propose legislative and policy changes, and collaborate with research and
educational institutions to translate research and development and technological advances
into commercial applications. Development agencies can play a pivotal role by providing
research, training and funding to promote the development of natural stone sectors.

In the proposed natural stone cluster model (NSCM) as shown in figure (5.14), the board,
led by the related ministries and authorities, in a consensus framework with involved
organizations (professional associations, educational-training, technical and financial
support organizations and related ministries). The cluster can promote productivity,
innovation and competition in a number of ways, e.g., the reduced cost of sharing
resources, the critical mass created by having a pool of specialized skills, expertise and

185
value-added products. The cluster enhances economic foundations such as a skilled
workforce, research and development capacity and infrastructure, and thus creates assets
such as trust, synergy, collaboration and cooperation, which are all essential for
competitiveness.

The main proposed objectives of the natural stone cluster are:

Establishing networks among firms

Promoting innovation and new technology

Creating brands for the Jordanian products

Providing business assistance, management and training

Enhancing production processes and establishing technical standards

Providing incubator services

Promoting exports from cluster

Lobbying the government within the cluster ad improving regularly policy

Coordinating purchasing

5.9.2.1. Board of the Natural Stone Cluster

The board of the cluster consists of the following bodies:

Related Ministries and Authorities.

The related ministries and authorities are: the Ministry of Planning, the Ministry of
Industry and Trade, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Labor, Natural Resource Authority,
Land and Survey Department, Local Authorities, Central Bureau of Statistics, Police, and
Investment Promotion Authority.

The Jordanian Ministry of Planning (JMOP) formulates long-term development programs

that include policies for the SMEs. The Ministry of Industry and Trade is the primary
authority for defining SME policies and implements policy. It performs a coordination
function between public and private bodies in order to implement these policies as
effectively as possible. The SME department at the Ministry implements the SME

186
policies with the aim of supporting their growth and development in Jordan carries out
the necessary development and support programs for the following functions: developing
SMEs’ technological skills, improving their training and information levels, providing
appropriate managerial and financial mechanisms.

Figure 5.14.The Natural Stone Cluster Model (NSCM)

Professional Support
Associations Agencies
BOARD

Related Ministries Research-Education

and Authorities Institutions
Management
(Natural Stone Authority)

Statistics QC Export Academy

Center Center Center

Network
Quarries, Construction, Cement,
Iron, Packing, Engineering,
Consulting, Machinery and Parts

187
A recommended method for ensuring better policy coordination within the government is
to consider creating a high-level SME advocate position (or small office) within each
ministry or major government organization. It would be the responsibility of each
advocate to identify policies and procedures that might have significant effects on SMEs
so that these could be reviewed properly within each organization and cooperative with
the management of the cluster and outside professional organizations where appropriate.

Professional Associations

The professional associations are: Chambers of Industry and Commerce, Engineering

Association, and JOSTONE. The professional associations play an important role in
formulating the policies of the SMEs that work in processing the natural stone in Jordan.
JOSTONE should be able to promote and sell Jordanian products as a stable, reliable
trading partner and upgrading the technical capabilities and facilitate the export activities
of the Jordanian stone companies to international markets.

The establishment of business associations was primarily driven by the need to

consolidate the SME efforts to push for regulatory changes that facilitate the operations
of the SMEs. Most of the operational business associations, however, have small
membership and lack resources. As such, they were neither very successful in policy
advocacy efforts nor very helpful in providing members with development services.
Separately, they were only able to address short-term and small-scale problems, which do
not pursue initiatives addressing fundamental issues for SMEs, such as creation of a more
business-friendly legislative environment. For this type of initiatives, many Business
associations acknowledge the necessity to cooperate with other Business associations.
Most of them agree that there is a lot of potential in the business community of Jordan,
this has not been fully understood or utilized at present.

Advanced forms and activities of business associations, such as business promotion and
lobbying may be achievable only if members of business associations have a strong intra-
organizational relationship. Thus, provision of technical support and intensive training
are the highest priority in formation of the effective business associations.

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Support Agencies

The support agencies are: Jordan Electricity Co., Water Co., Land and Sea
Transportation, Export Supporting Agencies, and Business Supporting Agencies. The
business development service is relatively new in Jordan. During the 1990s, there were
few centers and companies that provide professional training services on a regular basis.
A small group of companies provide more advanced and sophisticated training courses
(such as Management Information System, Risk Management, Business Process
Reengineering, etc.) to a rather limited target group. At present, there are almost all kinds
of consulting companies and services in Jordan, which may be required for the SMEs.
The demand side is much less developed, although it tends to grow. Great majority of the
SMEs have never used business-consulting services and never paid for them. The
Jordanian consultancy market remains heavily dependent on programs and projects
funded by the donating organizations.

Research-Education Institutions

Examples of the research-education institutions are: Royal Scientific Society, University

of Jordan, Vocational Schools and Research centers and Geological Centers. The
research centers and universities should conduct applied economic research to examine
the impact of the policies and regulations on the competitiveness of the SMEs. University
business schools have provided vast amounts of services to the SMEs in many countries,
often with support through government-sponsored small business development centers
that provide outreach and coordination with university management specialists.

In Jordan, there is poor evidence that R&D specialists are occasionally invited by the
SMEs to consult on production technology problems. The negative developments in the
R&D have weakened the opportunities for the emergence of consulting and marketing
services in the areas of product and technology innovations for the SMEs. Moreover, if
and when the R&D is restructured and properly funded, it can only function as an
innovation source for predominantly large companies due to the high cost of R&D. To

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support the SME competitiveness and export opportunities, technology development and
dissemination programs are to be vital components for the SME development strategies.

5.9.2.2. Management of the Cluster

The Natural Stone Cluster should be an independent, non-profit and private membership
based organization. The Natural Stone Cluster serves as a gateway to the capacities of the
sector and of the individual companies. The main roles of the management of the NSC:

To represent the natural stone in Jordan in its relationships with the

government and various agencies through effective dialogue and reasoned
advocacy of the needs and concerns of the members.

To advise the government on needed public infrastructure for the sector.

To encourage the development of the skills needed to promote stone
production and export development through training courses on standards and
quality, packaging, safety, delivery, marketing.

To identify key target markets, and to establish sector representation points in
those markets.

To serve as the principal contact point for those who seek investment and
opportunities in natural stone in Jordan.

To participate in the worldwide network of exhibitions and conferences
related to the stone industry.

To establish a center for information on the Jordanian stone industry with
links to other similar data base world wide.

To promote and support locally, regionally, and internationally the interests of
its members and to provide such services to members as seem necessary for
the achievement of these objectives.

To carry out studies with the purpose of securing production of natural stone
reserves in a productive way.

To provide qualified and readily available services to the SMEs in order to
help them produce their goods and services to high quality standards, at low
prices and using advanced technologies.

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To help in eliminating all of the obstacles that the SMEs might confront while
competing with the domestic and foreign markets.

To increase the SMEs technological expertise by encouraging these firms to
carry out successful R&D projects, utilizing available support from
universities, larger firms and technological resources throughout the world.

5.9.2.3. Centers

In order to achieve the targeted objectives of the proposed cluster, the following four
centers are recommended:

Statistics Center

The main aim of this center is to strengthen the relation with the members. The center
will help in building the nucleus base for any study about the stone and marble industry
in Jordan through analyzing the collected data. The roles of this center are:

To establish and update the database for businesses working in the natural
stone industry across Jordan and the world.

To gain a comprehensive understanding of the effects of the present political
situation has on the performance of natural stone manufacturers in Jordan

To consolidate the membership of registered businesses.

To expand the membership base by recruiting new members.

To increase financial returns by collecting membership fees from registered
businesses and new members.

Natural Stone Academy

The academy provides education, research and training for the natural stone sector in
Jordan. It works on the development of the natural stone industry through establishing a
study center to be specialized in stone and marble studies. It will also conduct a series of
educational and training programs. These programs facilitate stone and marble
entrepreneurs from all over the country to work together in an environment of sharing,

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and to expand their common interests in stone and marble industry. It will, furthermore,
promote an advancement of the stone and marble industry through emphasizing technical
stone fabrications and maintenance, business, stone design, mining techniques, geological
studies, quality control, and safety and health.

The Academy will be committed to expanding the community's awareness of stone and
marble industry. It will also promote the use of natural stone, and will be the authoritative
source of information on the standards of workmanship and practice and suitable
application of stone products. This center serves nearly 1,500 companies and firms
including producers, exporters/importers, distributors/wholesalers, fabricators, finishers,
installers, and industry suppliers all are committed to the highest standards of
workmanship and ethics.

The activities of the Academy include, but not limited to, delivering professional
technical opinion to the beneficiaries, publishing technical information, educating factory
owners, workers and other design professionals, sponsoring industry awards, examining
new and improved uses of dimension-cut natural stone, developing specifications for
proper fabrication and installation of natural stone, and maintaining liaison with other
professional associations and government agencies to facilitate and increase the spectrum
of services offered to the community. Many of the academy's objectives will be met
through conducting valuable studies, offering professional diplomas and short training
programs, producing and distributing numerous publications such as the dimension stone
design manual, which contains technical information and definitions for natural stone.
Furthermore, it will publish a monthly newsletter, and issue technical advisories updating
the industry on current issues and activities.

Quality Control Center

Stone and marble industry addresses quality. The proposed center includes a laboratory
equipped, in cooperation with the Royal Scientific Society, with all the necessary tools to
conduct various quality tests. It will provide training, consultations and counseling to the
stone factory owners and workers. The main purpose of this center is to improve and

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maintain the quality of the stone and marble products in order to a better presentation of
the sector in local and international markets.

Internationalization and Export Promotion Center

The management of the cluster should emphasize the quality of the products and the
quality of production processes so that more Jordanian products meet international
standards. Furthermore, as the Jordanian market continues to develop, more and more
small businesses will direct their primary production towards meeting the demand from
larger Jordanian businesses. Jordanian SMEs that produce high-quality components and
sub-assemblies for larger manufacturers could help the latter to become more competitive
in the international markets.

This center is aimed to remain physical and on-line, exhibitions and fairs of locally
manufactured products. This facility will provide an environment where wholesalers and
customers from Jordan and other countries can visit, thus allowing for more efficient
exchange of information on market demand. This approach is one of the tools to ease the
sales efforts of the local producers by helping cut costs. It helps in the understanding of
the needs for improved packaging and branding policies, as they see and experience a
more efficient and transparent marketplace.

5.9.2.4. Network of the Cluster

In order to build an effective and dynamic cluster, the SMEs that work in processing the
natural stone in Jordan should build a network with construction firms, cement and iron
agencies, packing agencies, engineering offices, machinery producers and importers,
maintenance workshops, export/import agencies and consulting firms. The combination
of services and support provides broad support to the SMEs looking to improve their
production, marketing and export capabilities. The SMEs can receive management and
technical assistance, access to capital, R&D and management training. They also receive
assistance in recruiting and managing personnel and some help for hiring skilled workers.
Small businesses are very reluctant to bring in outside consultants, particularly if they

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have to pay the market rate for such services. Lowering the price of services (through
subsidies) may help to overcome this reluctance.

The management of the cluster should cooperate and work closely with the international
and national donors in order to organize the funding process according to the priorities of
the sector. Some of the current projects supporting the SME in Jordan:

National Fund for Enterprise Support (NFES), Japanese Fund

UNIDO – IPU, Italian Fund

Jordan - United States Business Partnership (JUSBP, US Fund

Euro – Jordanian Action for Development of Enterprise (EJADA), EU Fund

EMPRETEC, MED2000, Italian Fund

National Fund

It is necessary to create mechanisms to distribute legislative changes with the appropriate

comments and interpretations to the SMEs. The approach is aimed at keeping interested
businessmen updated of the relevant regulatory amendments. It also keeping relevant
government agencies informed of entrepreneurs’ feedback. Round-table discussions
where the participants can focus on the implications of these amendments to their
business operations lead to a longer-term development approach of this mechanism. To
further facilitate the discussions, workshops will need to be conducted in order to
exchange experience and lessons learned.

5.9.2.5. New Start-Ups

The management of the cluster should have several programs to support entrepreneurs
with new start-ups. The general goals of these programs include informing entrepreneurs
about the investment environment, providing sector-based plans and market research, and
help with business planning and the strategic approach to business growth and
development. The development of one-stop centers can provide information to both new
and existing businesses. The centers can provide application forms for various permits or
licensees and can act as networking agents, providing information about the availability
of both public and private support services. At present, Jordan lacks the financial

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infrastructure to support start-ups. Even if the infrastructure was in place and the funds
were sufficient, banks are usually reluctant to fund start-ups because the entrepreneur
usually has no established track record, and the business start-ups are risky.

5.9.3. Government-Level

At a time of extremely tight budgetary constraints, the need to optimize resource

allocation among the various support programs of varying sizes will force the SME
policy makers to prioritize carefully. They will have to evaluate programs both before
they are formulated and adopted (ex ante) and to measure the effectiveness of existing
programs (ex post) in order to assess their relevance and to compare the cost-
effectiveness of the use of resources.

The evaluation process to be undertaken by the government should address both the
direct and indirect effects of each program as well as the effectiveness of program
implementation. It should be done using evaluation methods and tools such as cost-
benefit analysis, economic impact analysis, econometric analysis, peer review, and case
studies.

The government policies for supporting the SMEs should be coherent at the international,
regional and local levels and they should include:

Stable macroeconomic policies. Such as competition, international trade and

investment, financial markets, labor markets and education.

Enabling regulatory frameworks taking into account the needs of the SMEs.

Promoting laws and systems that support the development and diffusion of
new technologies in ways that enable and encourage SMEs to take full
advantage of them.

There is a need to reduce barriers to the SME access to global markets.

There is a need to develop a strong “evaluation culture” in ministries and
agencies responsible for SME polices and programs.

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An evaluation of the existing loan schemes should be undertaken. The
evaluation process should also look at the costs and benefits of loans made by
banks supplied with government credit.

The question of who undertakes these evaluations is important, as it is necessary to bear

some potential conflicts in mind. Ideally, those undertaking the evaluations should be
independent of those responsible for the programs, as in any audit role. At the same time,
a key role of evaluation is to contribute to continuous policy improvements, and the
evaluators need the active cooperation and involvement of both policy makers and
deliverers. This may be more difficult to achieve if the evaluator is viewed as an outsider.

Examples of Cluster Development Initiatives

In the United States, state and local governments have had prominent roles. In several
instances, state or local governments have created a process that has been taken up by the
private sector. In Arizona, for example, a commission set up by the Governor initiated a
process of identifying clusters in the state at local universities and bringing together
relevant actors from the private sectors. Cluster organizations were then formed to assess
and address the constraints and opportunities facing individual clusters. These
organizations have come to encompass members from a specific set of industries,
suppliers, customers, consultants and universities. Although seed funding came from the
government, the subsequent growth and development of the cluster organizations has
largely been led and funded by the private sector.

In Italy, the typical practices have been for regional or local governments to work with
industry associations and local organizations such as financial institutions, research
centers and universities. Several regional governments have departments or key
individuals devoted to cluster development. Local universities, research institutes, service
centers and financial bodies contribute to the process. These actors have also been
instrumental in the founding and development of specific organizations that work to
identify and overcome the problems and constraints that the clusters face.

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In the United Kingdom, cluster development initiatives have generally been promoted by
regional development agencies or organizations. In Scotland, Scottish Enterprise has
developed a top-down approach in which the agency has selected a number of clusters for
inward investment promotion, local linkage programs, and training and research support.
In Wales, the Welsh Development Agency has led similar efforts to attract plants for
foreign firms and then develop a local supplier base to support these firms. In Northern-
Ireland, a private-led effort linked with local government agencies and government
funding has identified a rather diffuse set of clusters for support.

The Netherlands has engaged in extensive cluster studies over the years. These have fed
directly into government policy and programs based mostly on efforts to upgrade the
technological capabilities of Dutch firms. The Dutch government has identified three
rationales for cluster-based policies: market failures and externalities; rates of return on
research and development that are higher for society that for private sector companies;
and the potential to match private needs with publicly funded research. Specific
approaches have included improving overall economic conditions, network broker
policies, and using government procurement as a stimulus to cluster development.

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5.10. Economic Development of the Natural Stone Industry in Jordan

The natural stone industry in Jordan is positioned in the factor-driven stage (JMOP 2003).
The industry draws its advantage almost from the basic factors of production; natural
resources and inexpensive semi-skilled labor pool (JMOP 2003). Moreover, there is a gap
between environmental attitudes and subsequent behavior of the firms working in the
natural stone sector in Jordan. This could be explained by the perceived irrelevance of
environmental issues to small organizations, a lack of organizational capacity for change,
and limited access to finance and information.

The SMEs solely compete on the basis of price, technology sourced largely from Italy,
Germany and Turkey. As well, very few SMEs have direct access to foreign markets.
However, Jordan should think seriously to shift the sector to the innovation-driven stage.
The shift to an innovation-driven stage implies many changes: a new mindset, and new
ways of doing things in production, marketing and buying. It is very important to ensure
that people's skills, investment capital, technology, infrastructure, business climate and
quality of place support the transformation. The innovation-driven is about moving away
from traditional ways of thinking, doing business and moving into a new constantly
changing dynamic (Porter 1990).

In order to drive the state of the art in product and process technology, marketing, and
other aspects of competition, there should be an availability of necessary conditions to
achieve that. The Jordanian should create favorable demand conditions, specialized and
advanced factor conditions, and a dynamic cluster in order to push the SMEs working in
the natural stone sector to innovate. These firms should compete internationally in more
differentiated segments by competing with self-contained global strategies along with
growing brand reputations. Moreover, a growing international position in sophisticated
services- such as advertising- is also essential for innovation (Porter 1990). However, the
Jordanian government should carefully stimulate the creation of more advanced factors,
and improving the quality of local demand.

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The question raises is whether the Jordanian natural stone industry can jump to the
innovation-driven stage without passing by the investment-driven stage or not?

In the investment-driven stage, national competitive advantage is based on the

willingness and ability of a nation and its firms to invest aggressively (Porter 1998).
Firms invest to construct modern and large scale facilities equipped with the best
technology available on global markets. As well, these firms should compete in more
sophisticated industries and industry segments, establish some international marketing
channels of their own, and should be able to absorb and improve foreign technology. At
the investment-driven stage firms invest in the principal advantage rather than the ability
to offer unique products or produce with unique processes. As well, these firms still
compete in the standardized and price-sensitive segments of the relatively large market
(Porter 1990).

The above mentioned characteristics prove that it will not be feasible for the Jordanian
natural stone industry to move to the investment-driven stage for different reasons.
Majority of the firms working in this sector are small ones thus, they can not heavily
invest to construct large scale facilities. As well, it will be costly for these firms to
establish their own international channels and to improve foreign technology. In addition,
the quantity of natural stone in Jordan is relatively limited therefore; there will be no
places for large scale plants.

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5.11. Summary

The analysis of data shows that there are significant differences in all of the competitive
forces confronting the SMEs working in processing the natural stone industry between
Jordan, Turkey and Italy. The data shows that Jordan almost has the lowest rank in the
factor conditions, demand conditions, and related and supporting industries. As well, the
data shows that the Jordanian SMEs have the highest threats in the five competitive
forces.

In light of the analysis, there are some areas which require more attention for the
Jordanian economy, such as maintaining macroeconomic and political stability,
conducting institutional reforms to smooth the functioning of the bureaucracy as well as
the financial markets, and improving the general transportation and communication
infrastructure. Moreover, the government and industry participants should act together,
although the bulk of the responsibility has to be assumed by the government since Jordan
is in the early stages of the development process. The SMEs, on the other hand, should
take a more proactive role in education and development and promote industry-specific
education and research institutions. Similarly, industry associations should participate in
developing specialized skills, technology and infrastructure, and constitute a bridge
between industry and educational institutions.

The SMEs in Jordan must understand what is about their home nation that is most crucial
in determining their ability, or inability to create and sustain competitive advantage.
These firms gain competitive advantage where their home base allows and supports the
most rapid accumulation of specialized assets and skills, and when their home base
affords better ongoing information and insight into product and process needs. Moreover,
the Jordanians should be aware that nations succeed not in isolated industries but in
clusters of industries connected through vertical and horizontal relationships.

The analysis of data shows that the individual relationship preferences are not the reasons
for pushing the SMEs working in processing the natural stone sector in Jordan to act
individually or in partnership. Other reasons should be taken into considerations such as

200
starting and closing a business, enforcing contracts, protecting investors, getting credit,
registering property, and hiring and firing workers.

Development specialists often focus on helping poor countries to become richer by

improving primary education and infrastructure such as roads and telephones. That’s
surely sensible. Unfortunately, it’s only a small part of the problem. Education,
infrastructure, and factories only begin to explain the gap between rich and poor whereas
the problem of twisted rules and institutions explain the main part of the gap.

The analysis of data shows that there are significant differences in the influence of the
generic strategies on the competitive advantage of the SMEs working in processing the
natural stone in Jordan, Turkey and Italy. The SMEs must choose a position within the
industry. Positioning embodies the firm's overall approach to competing. The data shows
that implementing the low cost strategy with high differentiation leads to the highest rank
in innovation, customer satisfaction and financial performance.

The analysis of data shows that there are significant differences on the impact of the ICT
on the competitive elements between the three countries such as cost, quality and
flexibility. Jordan has the lowest rank due to different reasons such as the business
environment, infrastructure, skills, information and competition. Despite the obvious
benefits of the ICT, uncertainty exists about the implications of the ICT and its likely rate
of diffusion. The ICT may boost productivity by increasing the efficiency of the
procurement system, strengthening inventory control, lowering retail transaction costs,
and eliminating or transforming intermediaries.

The nascent condition of the ICT diffusion in Jordan depends on the availability of
telecommunications services. The quantity and quality of telecommunications services
provided in a country is a significant determinant of the existence of the ICT connections
and the level of its use. Thus the government in Jordan has an important role in speeding
the ICT diffusion. Inappropriate policies and the lack of complementary services,
particularly affecting the telecommunications sector, other infrastructure, human capital,
and the investment environment severely constrain the ICT access.

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Based on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis, and
analysis of labor productivity, six policy options have been developed in order to improve
the competitive advantage of the SMEs working in the natural stone sector in Jordan.
These policy options are: upgrading and simplifying the laws and regulations, upgrading
the advanced and specialized infrastructure, promoting the entrepreneurship and
upgrading the personnel, establishing credit institutions to support the SMEs, promoting
e-business in the natural stone industry, and building a dynamic natural stone cluster.
These conclusions could be realized at three levels: SMEs-level, government-level, and
related and supporting industry-level.

A proposed natural stone cluster model (NSCM) has been developed. The board of the
model is led by the related ministries and authorities in a consensus framework with
involved organizations (professional associations, educational-training, technical and
financial support organizations and related ministries). It is essential that the management
of the natural stone cluster should be independent. This cluster serves as a gateway to the
capacities of the sector and of the individual companies.

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 CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH

In this chapter, the researcher highlights the main results and discusses them in section
6.1. Limitations are discussed in section 6.2. Finally, recommendations for future
research are presented in section 6.3.

6.1. Main Results

For thousands of years, the people of Jordan have created beautiful and practical works
from their native stone. The most famous is the Rose-Red City of Petra, which is one of
the world's greatest architectural wonders. In the 60s and the 70s of the last century,
Jordan started to import marble and granite from different countries like Italy, Spain and
Portugal, and processing the product locally and selling it to the domestic and regional
markets. In 2005, 240 firms operated and were registered in the dimension of stone and
marble sector. The industry is dominated by small sized enterprises that constitute 96% of
the sector, employing about 61% of the total industry workforce.

Many of the countries have used their natural resources as a tool to accelerate economic
development and to increase their competitiveness. The performance depends on the
macroeconomic and microeconomic foundation of the nation. However, the long-term
benefits do not come from the presence of the natural resources themselves but rather

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from the value-added products and services developed around them. On the other hand,
the emergence of the information and communications technologies (ICT) has changed
the dynamism of many sectors (E-Economy Conference 2001). In Chile, for example, an
Internet network among farmer organizations has dramatically increased farmers'
incomes by providing information about crop status, weather, global market prices and
training. As well, the ICT facilitates global connectivity, resulting in new ways of
creating and delivering products and services on a global scale. New business models and
market configurations enabled by the ICT, including business process outsourcing, value
chain integration and disintermediation, provide developing countries with access to new
markets and new sources of competitive advantage from which to drive income growth.

Although, a sound macroeconomic, political, legal and social context creates the potential
for competitiveness, it ultimately depends on improving the microeconomic capability of
the economy. The microeconomic business environment plays a critical role in driving
innovation and the upgrading of competitive advantage by a nation’s firms. Porter’s
diamonds (1990), taken individually and as a system, create a context in which a nation's
firm is established and able to compete.

The five competitive forces determine the profitability and attractiveness of the industry.
These forces are important in shaping the prices that firms can charge, the costs they have
to bear, and the required investments to compete within the industry. As well, the
competitive advantage depends on the way the firms organize and perform their
activities. The activities performed, when competing in a particular industry, can be
grouped into categories as these activities can be divided broadly into primary activities
and support activities.

In Jordan, the research and development intensity in the natural stone sector is very low
and most of the laws and regulations applied concerning the natural stone industry are
antiquated, excluding some few ones. There is a scarcity in the availability of information
regarding the local and international markets, efficient production technology, geological
studies, international trend and international competition. In addition, the SMEs in Jordan

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suffer from the lack of funding, adequate use of management and control systems, and
ability to access consulting services.

6.1.1. Research Hypotheses

The results of this study will be discussed in the same order of the research hypotheses:

The findings rejected the first hypothesis. The analysis of data shows that there are
significant differences in all of the competitive factors confronting the SMEs working
in the natural stone sector between Jordan, Turkey and Italy.

Jordan has the lowest rank in comparison with Turkey and Italy in terms of acquiring
capital, availability of information, bureaucratic rules and regulations, infrastructure
availability, infrastructure cost, providing consistent stones in huge quantities, and
availability of technical qualifications. Turkey has the lowest rank in the stability of the
economic and political environment, and market accessibility. In addition, there are
significant differences between the three countries in the local and international demand,
image of the stone, and the awareness and sophistication of the customers. The data
shows that Jordan has the lowest rank, in comparison with Turkey and Italy, in all of the
demand conditions except in the local demand.

There are significant differences in the relations with banks, insurance firms, research
centers and universities, local manufacturers, public institutes, government, stone cutting
firms, and firms working in other sectors. Jordan has the lowest rank, in comparison with
Turkey and Italy, in all of the abovementioned elements except in the supplier-buyer
relationship. Additionally, the analysis of data shows that there are significant differences
in the five competitive forces between the three countries. Jordan suffers a higher threat
in comparison with Turkey and Italy in the intensity of rivals, new entrants, bargaining

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power of buyers and suppliers while Jordan has the lowest threat in substitute of
products.

The analysis of data rejected the second hypothesis. The individual relationship
preferences are not the reasons for pushing the SMEs working in the natural stone
sector in Jordan to work individually or in partnership.

The Kruskal-Wallis test shows that the individual relationship preferences are not the
reasons for pushing the SMEs in Jordan to work individually or in partnership rather than
in companies. The analysis of data shows that Jordan has the lowest rank in comparison
with Turkey and Italy in the relationship between the SMEs with banks, insurance
companies, research and training centers, local manufacturers, public institutes, stone
cutting firms and the relations with firms from other sectors.

Other reasons should be taken into considerations such as the macroeconomic situation,
and the complexity of procedures and regulations regarding starting and closing a
business, enforcing contracts, protecting investors, getting credit, registering property,
and hiring and firing workers. As an example, in Jordan, 11 procedures are needed to
start a business, taking 36 days to accomplish. However, the complexity leads to
uncertainty, increases transactions costs, and offers opportunities for fraud. As well,
bankruptcy receives a lot of attention in reform proposals for improving access to credit
in Jordan. The problem is that most of the collateral enforcement takes place outside of
bankruptcy.

Another example in enforcing contract is that Jordan needs 43 procedures and takes 342
days and business exit-works in direct negotiations between creditors and debtors.
Secured creditors can seize the assets of defaulted companies without the complex court
procedures associated with bankruptcy. As a result, they can recover 26.7 cent for every
dollar loaned. However, efficient insolvency helps new entrepreneurs start and grow their

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businesses. With higher recovery rates, banks are more willing to lend and more money
goes to new business ventures.

The analysis of data rejected the third hypothesis. There are significant differences in
the influence of the different scenarios of the generic strategies on the competitive
advantage of the SMEs working in processing the natural stone sector in Jordan,
Turkey and Italy.

It is noticed that the "low cost with high differentiation" strategy has the highest influence
on the competitive advantage of the SMEs working in processing the natural stone in the
three countries. However, due to the limited quantities and unique quality of the
Jordanian natural stone, the SMEs working there should focus on offering differentiated
products for niche markets rather than focusing on delivering products with low prices.

The analysis of data rejected the fourth hypothesis. There are significant differences in
the impact of the ICT on the competitive elements of the SMEs working in the natural
stone sector between Jordan, Turkey and Italy.

There are significant differences in the impact of the ICT on the competitive elements of
the three countries. Jordan has the lowest rank in comparison with Turkey and Italy. The
benefits of the ICT- such as e-mail and websites- depend on the size of the SMEs
network externalities i.e. the installed base of other firms and consumers who also adopt
these technologies. Thus, the appropriate timing of the ICT investments is likely to differ
according to the industrial sector and the particular supply chain structures within which
a firm is located. As well, the location-specific factors have a potential importance in the
technology diffusion.

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6.1.2. Significance of the Research

In light of the analysis, there are some areas require more attention for the Jordanian
economy. Apart from such general implications as maintaining macroeconomic and
political stability, conducting institutional reforms to smooth the functioning of the
bureaucracy as well as the financial markets, improve the general transportation and
communication infrastructure and promoting long term investment. According to Porter
(1990), governments should move beyond macroeconomic policy, avoid over reliance on
devaluation and wage rates, and focus on the true sources of competitive advantage
instead.

Among things that can be done are increasing investment in specialized human resources,
encouraging employee training, forging closer ties with educational institutions and
industry, emphasizing more practical orientation, promoting respectable and high quality
forms of higher education besides the university, supporting research and development,
and encouraging specialization amongst the universities. The SMEs, on the other hand,
should take a more proactive role in education and promote industry-specific education
and research institutions. They should grant scholarships and research funds for them,
increase investment in on-the-job training and put pressure on research institutions so that
the research is commercially relevant. Similarly, the associations within an industry
should participate in developing specialized skills, technology and infrastructure, provide
a clearing house for information, and constitute a bridge between industry and
educational institutions.

Building on the entrepreneurial strength of the Jordanian businessmen needs special

attention. Promoting new business formation and encouraging and facilitating
international involvement of Jordanian SMEs are amongst the most prominent areas that
can be improved in this respect. As well, the SMEs should seek challenges, which push
them to upgrade. They should, for example, prefer to serve the most of the sophisticated
and demanding buyers and urge the domestic suppliers to improve by either setting
performance standards or product specifications. Furthermore, the SMEs need to be able
to figure out how, when, and where to use the ICT techniques to reap the above gains.

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The Jordanian government may also contribute towards the improvement of domestic
demand conditions by, for example, introducing better standards, consumers' rights
legislation and environmental regulation and confirming commitment to quality. As well
the government may encourage and support the development of the natural cluster.

6.1.2.1. Academic Significance of the Research

√ Applying Porter’s diamond, Porter’s five forces, the generic strategies, and the
impact of the ICT on business environment on three countries located in
different economic stages. A study of Jordan (located in the factor-driven
stage), Turkey (located in the investment-driven stage), and Italy (located in
the innovation-driven stage) present a good opportunity to apply all of that in
low, middle and high income countries. Beside, all of the above mentioned
models, generic strategies, and the impact of the ICT were applied on the
SMEs working in processing the natural stone sector in the three countries.
√ Porter has constructed his diamond mainly deriving from the case studies of
the industries in the selected developed nations. This study consists of
different statistical tests such as the ANOVA, and the Kruskal-Wallis test not
to testifying the model itself rather than to testifying whether there are
significant differences between the three countries.
√ Applying Porter’s diamond, Porter’s five forces, value chain, the generic
strategies, and impact of the ICT on business environment as a conceptual
framework. The study discusses Porter's diamond as a microenvironment
context, in addition to Porter's five forces model as an industry structure.
These five forces shape the generic strategies of the SMEs taking into
considerations the internal value chain of these SMEs.
√ The statistical test proves that the expectation is not the reason why the SMEs
working in processing the natural stone sector in Jordan are not working as
companies. Other reasons such as laws and regulations concerning the
entrance and exit of the businesses in Jordan might be the reason.

209
6.1.2.2. Empirical Significance of the Research

√ The Jordanian government and the SMEs working in processing the natural
stone sector are aware of the competitive factors confronting their competitive
advantage. This study applies Porter's diamond and five forces framework on
these SMEs in order to contribute towards a better understanding of the
sources of competitive advantage. Thus, in order to build a sustainable
competitive advantage for the SMEs in Jordan, there is a need to improve the
sources of competitive advantage.
√ The Jordanian government and the SMEs working in processing the natural
stone sector are aware of the benefits and limitations of using the ICT. The
introduction of the ICT changes the nature of competition. Therefore, there is
a need to understand its impact in order to maximize its benefits and to reduce
it threats.
√ The Jordanian government is aware of the reasons why the SMEs in Jordan
prefer to work individually or in a partnership (not as companies). As a result,
the Jordanian government needs to revise the current laws and regulations
concerning the entrance and exit of the businesses in order to modify and
simplify them.
√ Building a dynamic clustering for creating competitive advantage for the
SMEs working in processing the natural stone in Jordan. Networking allows
the SMEs to combine the advantages of smaller scale and greater flexibility
with economies of scale and scope in larger markets. The links might take
different shapes in which different firms join together to co-produce, co-
market, or co-purchase, cooperate in new product development, or share of
information. In order to build a dynamic cluster, the researcher proposes the
model shown in (figure 5.3). The professional associations, educational-
training, technical and financial support organizations and related ministries,
lead the board of the proposed cluster. The board is responsible for setting up
the strategic directions and evaluating the performance of the cluster. While
the management of the cluster is responsible for promoting productivity,

210
innovation and competition of the participants in a number of ways, e.g., the
reduced cost of sharing resources, the critical mass created by having a pool of
specialized skills, expertise and value-added products. The cluster will
enhance the economic foundations such as a skilled workforce, research and
development capacity and infrastructure and create assets from trust, synergy,
collaboration and cooperation, which are all essential for competitiveness.

211
6.2. Limitations and Obstacles

The researcher is aware of a number of limitations and obstacles present in the study.
Hence, the conclusions drawn from the study need to be put into perspective such
limitations and obstacles:

In Jordan, it is likely that no local references can be found related to the

competitive advantage of the SMEs working in the natural stone sector.

Importing approaches from one country to another can not always be applied
elsewhere. This may lead to bias the analysis being based on the competitive
advantage theory grown by Porter (five forces, value chain, and the diamond).

For the Jordanian firms, the ICT concept may be relatively new and this may
cause a bias in the data gathering and consequently in the interpretation and
the conclusion.

There is a lack of documentation and informality of business in the small
sized enterprises in the three countries.

The study focuses on one specific sector in three countries. Therefore, there
are some limitations in generalizing the conclusions of the study.

The difficulties in dealing with the Turkish and Italian SMEs due to the
language and cultural differences. Therefore, the researcher read many books
and articles before his visits to Turkey and Italy and he asked friends to
accompany him in his visits to the firms.

The difficulties in determining the accurate number of the SMEs that are
working in processing the natural stone in the three countries; different
sources provide different information. That is why the researcher was very
cautious in selecting the reliable source of information.

212
6.3. Recommendation for Future Research

Over the course of the research, there were a number of issues that were touched upon
and that are of relevance to the topic studied yet entails further elaboration to lie beyond
the scope of the paper. It is worthwhile for future research to delve into such issues to
gain a different perspective and a more elaborated understanding of the competitiveness
of the Jordanian SMEs.

√ The research has solely tackled the SMEs that are working in processing the
natural stone sector in Jordan, Turkey and Italy. Future research needs to
cover other sub-sectors within the natural stone industry such as quarries and
contracting, and other sectors in the three countries. Other non-Mediterranean
countries might be involved as well such as India, and China.
√ The implementation of the generic strategies by the SMEs has been discussed.
Future research needs to provide an elaborated analysis on the operational
strategies such as marketing strategies, production strategies, etc…
√ The research covers the impact of the basic elements of the ICT mainly the
B2B and B2C on the competitiveness of the SMEs. Future research may
discuss other elements of the e-business such as e-auction, Business to
Employees (B2E), Business to Government (B2G), etc….
√ There is a need for impact assessment to current financial programs. A set of
performance indicators need to be in place, irrespective to the source of
support, that is aligned with the government's expectations of the role to be
played by the SMEs in growth and development. Future research would
provide a tool to synchronize the diversity of efforts being exerted rather than
being faced with a situation of isolated model in terms of lack of synergy
among such programs.
√ The research shows that the social relationship preferences are not the reason
for the SMEs working in processing the natural stone sector to work
individually or in a partnership. There is a need to investigate the impact of
other reasons such as the laws and regulations concerning the entrance and
exit of the businesses.

213
 √ Based on the significant differences in the results of the survey in Jordan in
2003 and 2006, it would be of interest to conduct the same survey after 3-5
years in Jordan, Turkey and Italy. Conducting this research after 3-5 years will
explain the dynamism of the natural stone sector in the three countries
especially the impact of the ICT on the sector.
√ More work is needed to establish the validity and measurement of culture and
cultural distance. It would be beneficial to investigate the impact of the
different cultures on survey scales and how it could be controlled and
corrected these biases.

214
 APPENDICES

Appendix A-1

Questionnaire (English)

Part I Industry Competitiveness and Macro-environment

1. Which of the following elements do you consider to be critical threats to your

business?

very Neg. Mod Pos. Very

Neg. Pos.
- Acquiring Capital
- Acquiring Information
- Political and economic uncertainties
- Bureaucratic rules and regulations
- Infrastructure availability
- Infrastructure costs
- Inconsistent raw material quality
- Technical qualifications
- The market accessibility
- Local demand
- International demand
- Product image in the international markets
- Consumer awareness with regard to product
quality standards
-Sophisticated customers visit many
manufacturers before purchasing
- Supplier buyer relationships have depended on
the family and personal ties
- The relationship with local banks
- The relationship with insurance firms
- the relationship with research and training
centers and universities
- The relationship with local manufacturers
- The relationship with public institutes
- The relationship with governmental institutes
- The relationship with stone cutting firms in the
same region
- The relationship with firms from other sectors
(design/ marketing)

215
2. Which of the following industry structure do you consider to be the critical threats to
the future of your business (Rank in order 1, area of major threat & 5, not an area of
major threat)?

Area of major Not an area of

threat threat
1 2 3 4 5
- The intensity of rivals
- The power of buyers
- The power of suppliers
- The threat of substitutes
- The threat of entry

Part II Firm’s Strategy and Performance

3. Which type of generic business strategy is most closely related to your firm’s strategy
(please only select one type)?

- Your firm is the low cost producer in the sector. The standard products
are offered in a broad market area.
- Your firm offers differentiated products, and they are produced at
lowest cost. The products are offered in a broad market area.
- Your firm is operating in one or a few specific market-niches and offers
standard products. Within this market niche, your firm is the low cost
producer.
- Your firm is operating in one or a few market-niches. In these niches
many differentiated products are offered and produced at low cost as
possible.
- Your firm is NOT the lowest cost producer in the sector. The standard
products are offered in a broad market area.
- Your firm offers many differentiated products, and you are NOT the
low cost producer. The products are offered in a broad market area.
- Your firm is operating in one or a few specific market-niches and offers
standard products. Within this market niche, your firm is NOT the low
cost producer.
- Your firm is operating in one or a few market-niches. In these niches
you offer differentiated products, your firm is NOT the low cost
producer.

216
4. How do you evaluate the following elements at your firm?
very Neg. Mod. Pos. Very
Neg. Pos.
- Percentage of new products of total
turnover
- Time necessary to develop new
generation of products
- Customer satisfaction
- Your market share
- Customer keep on
- Your employees satisfaction
- Employees keep on
- Productivity of your employees
- Return on Investment
- Profitability
- Revenue growth
- Cost reduction
- Exportation

Part III E-Commerce

5. Do you use a computer?  Yes  No

If yes, for what purpose:

 Printing
 Accounting
 Inventory
 Pay roll
 Sales
 Production
 Other: please specify:_____________________________________________

217
6. Do you use an Internet?  Yes  No

If yes, for what purpose:

 A tool for communicating

 A tool of obtaining information
 A tool for advertising and marketing
 A tool for buying
A tool for selling
 A tool for conducting banking and financial transactions
 A tool for improving interaction within the company (processes/ organization)

If no, what is the reason?

 Low level of technological expertise
 Uncertainty about benefits
 The fear of too low use of e-commerce by customers and suppliers
 Ensuring the security of payments and privacy of personal data
 Do not know how to cope with the complex rules governing this area.
 The predominance of English on the World Wide Web
 The high cost of Internet access is a further impediment
 Uncertainty about the legal, regulatory and tax environment

218
7. Using the Internet helps you to (Rank in order 1, most important & 5, least important)?
Most Less
Important Important
1 2 3 4 5
- Reduce transaction costs
- Improve quality of product/service
- Reach new suppliers
- Reach new customers
- Defend your self against competitors engaging in e–
commerce,
- Work with large firms (local and international)
- Increase market share
- Enter new markets
- Increase the flexibility of your firm
- Increase your ability to innovate
- Improve control of your business process organization
- Increase job creation in your firm
- Improve the image of your firm
- Contribute to solving your problem of lack resources
and access to technology

Part IV Firm’s Profile

8. What is the legal form of your firm?

 Sole Proprietorship  Partnership  Company
9. What is the type of your firm?
 Family  Non-Family
10. Total number of employees: ____________________
11 .Year of Establishment: ________________________
12. Firm’s Location:
 City  Village  Industrial Zone

219
 ‫‪Appendix A-2‬‬

‫)‪Questionnaire (Arabic‬‬

‫اء اول‪ :‬ا ا‬

‫‪ .١‬آ‪ /0& 1‬ا‪%.‬اﻡ‪ ,‬ا‪  +‬وا‪%& '( ) *& '+‬ی‪ #‬ا"!  ا؟‬

‫ای ﺏ'‬ ‫ای ﺏ'‬ ‫ﻡ‪%0‬ل‬ ‫ﺱ'‬ ‫ﺱ'‬

‫ﺝ)ا‬ ‫ﺝ)ا‬
‫‪ -‬ﺱ‪ %7‬ا"‪%‬ل ‪ :‬راس ا ل‬
‫‪ -‬ﺱ‪ %7‬ا"‪%‬ل ‪ :‬ا‪%.‬ﻡ ت‬
‫‪ -‬او@ ع ا* ﺱ وا>=‪ "+‬دی‬
‫‪ -‬ا‪%0‬اﻥ‪ C‬واﻥ‪ A‬ا‪%.‬ل ﺏ‪7‬‬
‫‪ -‬ا! ا‪ ++‬ا‪#(%+‬ة ﺡ ‬
‫‪ -‬آ‪ F‬ا! ا‪++‬‬
‫‪ -‬إﻡ‪ I‬ﻥ &وی) آ ت آ‪#‬ة ﻡ‪ C‬ا‪ #‬ﺏ!‪ HF‬ا‪%‬دة أو‬
‫ا‪%‬ن‬
‫‪ -‬ا‪N‬ه‪L‬ت ا‪ !F‬ا‪#(%+‬ة ﺡ ‬
‫‪ -‬ﺱ‪ %7‬ا)‪%P‬ل إ‪ :‬اﺱ‪%‬اق ا وا‪ .‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻡ*‪%+‬ى ا‪ R‬ا' ‪ :‬ا‪ #‬وا‪ P#‬م‬
‫‪ -‬ﻡ*‪%+‬ى ا‪ R‬ا‪ : ' .‬ا‪ #‬وا‪ P#‬م اردﻥ'‬
‫‪ -‬ﺱ‪ .‬ا‪ #‬وا‪ P#‬م اردﻥ' (' اﺱ‪%‬اق ا‪ .‬‬
‫‪ -‬درﺝ و' اﺏ‪%‬ن ﺡ‪%‬ل ا‪%‬اﺹ‪ F‬ت ا‪# !F‬‬
‫وا‪ P#‬م‬
‫‪ -‬اﺏ‪%‬ن ی‪ C*& R‬و&‪%‬ی‪ : #‬ا!‪ +‬ت ﺏ‪,IU‬‬
‫ﻡ*‪#+‬‬
‫‪ -‬وﺝ‪%‬د ا‪ =L.‬ت ا‪ '( "WU‬ا‪ V‬وا‪#U‬اء‬
‫‪ .& -‬ون ا!‪%‬ك ا‬
‫‪ .& -‬ون ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ* ت ا‪ +‬ﻡ‪ C‬ا‬
‫‪ .& -‬ون ﻡ‪#‬اآ ا‪ Y‬وا‪)+‬ری‪ R‬وا>ﺱ‪ U+‬رات وا ﻡ‪ .‬ت‬
‫‪ .& -‬ون ا"!‪ C.‬ا‪). C‬ات وادوات‬
‫‪ .& -‬ون ا‪N‬ﺱ* ت ا‪ .‬ﻡ )\‪#‬ف & ری‪ /‬ا& دات‪/‬‬
‫ﺏ)ی ت(‬
‫‪ .& -‬ون ا‪N‬ﺱ* ت ا‪%I‬ﻡ‬
‫‪ .& -‬ون ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ*‪ _+‬ﻡ‪ V‬ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ* ت ﻡ‪ C‬ﻥ‪ = HF‬ع ا‪#‬‬
‫وا‪ P#‬م‬
‫‪ .& -‬ون ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ*‪ _+‬ﻡ‪ V‬ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ* ت ﻡ‪  = C‬ت أ‪#P‬ى ﻡ`‪,‬‬
‫)&"‪%*& //‬ی‪ b( /a‬ﺝ‪%‬دة(‬

‫‪220‬‬
‫‪ .2‬آ‪ /0& 1‬ا‪%.‬اﻡ‪ ,‬ا‪  +‬ﺡ*‪)7& R‬ی)ه ‪N‬ﺱ*‪) _+‬ا‪ (١) /=#‬ی`‪ ,‬ا‪ .‬ﻡ‪ ,‬اآ`‪ #‬أه‪ ،‬ا‪ (٥) /=#‬ی`‪ ,‬ا‪ .‬م‬
‫ا=‪ ,‬أه(‬

‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﺵ)ة ا! (* ﺏ‪ C‬ا‪N‬ﺱ* ت‬
‫‪ -‬درﺝ &‪ /I‬ا‪#+U‬ي )ا‪/)7.+‬اﺏ‪%‬ن(‬
‫‪ -‬درﺝ &‪ /I‬ا‪%‬رد )ﺹ ﺡ‪ R‬ا‪(#‬‬
‫‪)7& -‬ی) د‪%P‬ل ﺱ‪ V‬ﺏ)ی )ﺡ‪ #‬ﺹ! '(‬
‫‪)7& -‬ی) د‪%P‬ل ﻡ! (*‪ C‬ﺝ)د ‪ 0‬ع ا‪#‬‬
‫وا‪ P#‬م‬

‫اء ا` ﻥ'‪ :‬اﺱ‪#+‬ا& ا‪N‬ﺱ* واة ا‪*( !+‬‬

‫‪ .٣‬أي ﻡ‪ C‬ا>ﺱ‪#+‬ا& ت ا‪  +‬ه' ا=‪#‬ب ‪N‬ﺱ*‪_+‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ*‪ _+‬ه' ا!‪ h+‬ذات ا‪ 1 I+‬ا=‪ = '( ,‬ع ا‪ #‬وا‪ P#‬م و&‪%0‬م ﺏ‪j‬ﻥ‪ +‬ج ﻡ!‪ +‬ت‬
‫ﺱ‪ +‬ﻥ)رد )آ‪#k‬ه ﻡ‪ C‬ا!‪)W (C+‬ﻡ ( ت ﻡ‪).+‬دة (' ا*‪%‬ق‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ*‪ _+‬ه' ا!‪ h+‬ذات ا‪ 1 I+‬ا=‪ = '( ,‬ع ا‪ #‬وا‪ P#‬م و&‪%0‬م ﺏ‪j‬ﻥ‪ +‬ج ﻡ!‪ +‬ت‬
‫ﻡ‪+‬ة ‪ C‬ا‪N‬ﺱ* ت ا! (* ‪)W‬ﻡ ( ت ﻡ‪).+‬دة (' ا*‪%‬ق‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ*‪ _+‬ه' ا!‪ h+‬ذات ا‪ 1 I+‬ا=‪ = '( ,‬ع ا‪ #‬وا‪ P#‬م و&‪%0‬م ﺏ‪j‬ﻥ‪ +‬ج ﻡ!‪ +‬ت‬
‫ﺱ‪ +‬ﻥ)رد )آ‪#k‬ه ﻡ‪ C‬ا!‪)W (C+‬ﻡ ( ﻡ)دة (' ا*‪%‬ق‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ*‪ _+‬ه' ا!‪ h+‬ذات ا‪ 1 I+‬ا=‪ = '( ,‬ع ا‪ #‬وا‪ P#‬م و&‪%0‬م ﺏ‪j‬ﻥ‪ +‬ج ﻡ!‪ +‬ت‬
‫ﻡ‪+‬ة ‪ C‬ا‪N‬ﺱ* ت ا! (* ‪)W‬ﻡ ( ﻡ)دة (' ا*‪%‬ق‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ*‪ l* _+‬ا!‪ h+‬ذات ا‪ 1 I+‬ا=‪ = '( ,‬ع ا‪ #‬وا‪ P#‬م و&‪%0‬م ﺏ‪j‬ﻥ‪ +‬ج ﻡ!‪ +‬ت‬
‫ﺱ‪ +‬ﻥ)رد )آ‪#k‬ه ﻡ‪ C‬ا!‪)W (C+‬ﻡ ( ت ﻡ‪).+‬دة (' ا*‪%‬ق‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ*‪ l* _+‬ا!‪ h+‬ذات ا‪ 1 I+‬ا=‪ = '( ,‬ع ا‪ #‬وا‪ P#‬م و&‪%0‬م ﺏ‪j‬ﻥ‪ +‬ج ﻡ!‪ +‬ت‬
‫ﻡ‪+‬ة ‪ C‬ا‪N‬ﺱ* ت ا! (* ‪)W‬ﻡ ( ت ﻡ‪).+‬دة (' ا*‪%‬ق‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ*‪ l* _+‬ا!‪ h+‬ذات ا‪ 1 I+‬ا=‪ = '( ,‬ع ا‪ #‬وا‪ P#‬م و&‪%0‬م ﺏ‪j‬ﻥ‪ +‬ج ﻡ!‪ +‬ت‬
‫ﺱ‪ +‬ﻥ)رد )آ‪#k‬ه ﻡ‪ C‬ا!‪)W (C+‬ﻡ ( ﻡ)دة (' ا*‪%‬ق‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ*‪ l* _+‬ا!‪ h+‬ذات ا‪ 1 I+‬ا=‪ = '( ,‬ع ا‪ #‬وا‪ P#‬م و&‪%0‬م ﺏ‪j‬ﻥ‪ +‬ج ﻡ!‪ +‬ت‬
‫ﻡ‪+‬ة ‪ C‬ا‪N‬ﺱ* ت ا! (* ‪)W‬ﻡ ( ﻡ)دة (' ا*‪%‬ق‪.‬‬

‫‪221‬‬
 ‫‪ .٤‬آ‪ /0& 1‬ا‪ !.‬ﺹ‪ #‬ا‪ '(  +‬ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ*‪ _+‬وا‪ 0.+‬ﺏ‪)+‬ی) ﻡ&_ ا‪*( !+‬؟‬
‫ای ﺏ'‬ ‫ای ﺏ'‬ ‫ﻡ‪%0‬ل‬ ‫ﺱ'‬ ‫ﺱ' ﺝ)ا‬
‫ﺝ)ا‬
‫‪ -‬ﻥ* إد‪ P‬ل ﻡ!‪ +‬ت‪ /‬أﺹ! ف ﺝ)ی)ة ﻡ‪C‬‬
‫ﻡ‪ ,‬ا!‪ +‬ت‬
‫‪ -‬ا‪#+F‬ة ا‪m 7=#k+*& '+‬د‪ P‬ل ﻡ!‪ +‬ت ‪/‬‬
‫أﺹ! ف ﺝ)ی)ة‬
‫‪ -‬درﺝ ر@‪ :‬اﺏ ﺉ‪C‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺡ"‪ _+‬ﻡ‪ C‬ا*‪%‬ق ا'‬
‫‪ -‬درﺝ ا>ﺡ‪ F+‬ظ ﺏ ﺏ ﺉ‪C‬‬
‫‪ -‬درﺝ ر@‪ :‬ا‪CFp%‬‬
‫‪ -‬درﺝ ا>ﺡ‪ F+‬ظ ﺏ ‪CFp%‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻡ*‪%+‬ى إﻥ‪ +‬ﺝ ا‪CFp%‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻡ*‪%+‬ى ا‪m‬ی‪#‬ادات ﺏ !* ‪/‬‬
‫ا>ﺱ‪ `+‬ر )ﺏ‪  ,IU‬م(‬
‫‪ -‬ﻡ‪%+‬ﺱ‪ q‬ا‪#‬ﺏ )ﺏ‪  ,IU‬م(‬
‫‪ -‬ا!‪ '( %‬ا‪m‬ی‪#‬ادات )ﺏ‪  ,IU‬م(‬
‫‪ -‬ﻡ*‪%+‬ى &‪ ,0‬ا‪ '( 1 I+‬ا‪m‬ﻥ‪ +‬ج‬
‫‪ -‬ﻡ*‪%+‬ى ا‪ I‬ا‪)"& '+‬ره‬

‫اء ا` ‪ :Y‬ا‪ +‬رة ا>‪#+I‬وﻥ‬

‫‪ .٥‬ه‪)W+*& ,‬م ا‪#&%I‬‬
‫>‬ ‫ﻥ‪ /.‬‬ ‫‬
‫اذا آ ن ا‪%‬اب ﻥ‪#k _r( /.‬ض‪) :‬ی‪ CI‬ا‪ +P‬ر أآ`‪ #‬ﻡ‪ C‬إﺝ ﺏ(‬
‫‪  t‬‬
‫ﻡ ﺱ ‬
‫@‪ q‬ﻡ‪W‬ون ‬
‫روا&‪ R‬‬
‫ﻡ‪ .‬ت )إرﺱ  ت( ‬
‫إﻥ‪ +‬ج ‬
‫اﺱ‪)W+‬اﻡ ت أ‪#P‬ى‪ ...........................................................‬‬

‫‪222‬‬
 ‫‪ .٦‬ه‪)W+*& ,‬م ا‪m‬ﻥ‪#+‬ﻥ‪l‬؟‬
‫>‬ ‫‬ ‫ﻥ‪/.‬‬ ‫‬
‫إذا آ ن ا‪%‬اب ﻥ‪#k _r( ،/.‬ض‪) :‬ی‪ CI‬ا‪ +P‬ر أآ`‪ #‬ﻡ‪ C‬إﺝ ﺏ(‬
‫ آ‪u‬داة ‪ "&L‬ل ﺏ)ل ا‪ F‬آ‪ H‬أو ا‪%F+‬ن‬
‫ آ‪u‬داة "‪%‬ل ‪ :‬ا‪%.‬ﻡ ت‬
‫ آ‪u‬داة ‪Lv‬ن وا‪%*+‬ی‪a‬‬
‫ آ‪u‬داة ‪) V‬ﺡ‪ Y‬ی‪ /+‬ﺏ‪ V‬ا!‪ +‬ت واﺱ‪L+‬م ﺙ!‪ 7‬ﺏ ﺱ‪)W+‬ام ﺏ = ا>ﺉ‪ +‬ن(‬
‫ آ‪u‬داة ‪#U‬اء )ﺡ‪ Y‬ی‪ /+‬ﺵ‪#‬اء ا!‪ +‬ت ود(‪ V‬ﺙ!‪ 7‬ﺏ ﺱ‪)W+‬ام ﺏ = ا>ﺉ‪ +‬ن(‬
‫ آ‪u‬داة ‪%*+‬ی اﻡ‪%‬ر ا!‪ I‬وا>&" ل ﺏ ‪N‬ﺱ* ت ا ‬
‫ آ‪u‬داة ‪ C*+‬ا‪ , F+‬دا‪ ,P‬ا‪N‬ﺱ* )&"‪ q@ //‬ﻡ‪W‬ون‪ b(/‬ﺝ‪%‬دة(‬
‫ أﻡ‪%‬ر أ‪#P‬ى‪ ،‬ﺡ)د‪__________________________________________:‬‬
‫إذا آ ن ا‪%‬اب >‪ ( ،‬ه‪ %‬ا*‪) :R‬ی‪ CI‬ا‪ +P‬ر أآ`‪ #‬ﻡ‪ C‬إﺝ ﺏ(‬
‫ = ﻡ*‪%+‬ى ا‪#W‬اء (' ا ل‬
‫)م ﻡ‪ (#.‬ا‪%F‬اﺉ) ﻡ‪ C‬اﺱ‪)W+‬ام ا‪m‬ﻥ‪#+‬ﻥ‪ l‬وا‪ +‬رة ا>‪#+I‬وﻥ‬
‫ ا‪%W‬ف ﻡ‪ = C‬اﺱ‪)W+‬ام ا‪ +‬رة ا‪#+Im‬وﻥ ﻡ‪ ,= C‬ا*‪ _7+‬و‪/‬او ا‪%‬رد‬
‫ &‪u‬آ) ﺱ‪#‬ی  ت ا)(‪ V‬و اﻡ‪%‬ر ا‪)) "WU‬م وﺝ‪%‬د ا`‪ 0‬ﺏ >ﻥ‪#+‬ﻥ‪(l‬‬
‫)م ﻡ‪ (#.‬آ‪ F‬ا‪%‬اآ ﺏ‪r7‬ا ا‪%+‬ر‬
‫ه! ا‪ k‬ا‪m‬ﻥی (' ﻡ ل ا‪m‬ﻥ‪#+‬ﻥ‪l‬‬
‫ ار&‪ F‬ع &‪)P 1 I‬ﻡ ا‪m‬ﻥ‪#+‬ﻥ‪l‬‬
‫ )م ا‪ (#.‬ﺏ ‪%0‬اﻥ‪ C‬واﻥ‪ A‬ا‪ 0.+‬ﺏ ‪ +‬رة ا‪#+Im‬وﻥ‬

‫‪223‬‬
 ‫‪ .٧‬ﺏ‪#‬أی_ اﺱ‪)W+‬ام ا>ﻥ‪#+‬ﻥ‪ '( l‬أ ل ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ*‪ )= _+‬ی* ) ﻡ‪N‬ﺱ*‪) :'( _+‬ا‪ (١) /=#‬ی`‪ ,‬ا‪ .‬ﻡ‪ ,‬اآ`‪ #‬أه‪،‬‬
‫ا‪ (٥) /=#‬ی`‪ ,‬ا‪ .‬م ا=‪ ,‬أه(‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪ ,0& -‬ا‪FI‬‬
‫‪ C*& -‬ﺝ‪%‬دة ا!‪ /h+‬ا‪)W‬ﻡ‬
‫‪ -‬ﺱ‪ %7‬ا‪%‬ﺹ‪%‬ل ‪%‬ردی‪ C‬ﺝ)د‬
‫‪ -‬ﺱ‪ %7‬ا‪%‬ﺹ‪%‬ل ﺏ ﺉ‪ C‬ﺝ)د‬
‫‪ -‬ﺏ! ء أدا‪ y‬د(  أﻡ م ا! (*‪ C‬ا‪r‬ی‪ C‬ی*‪)W+‬ﻡ‪%‬ن ا‪m‬ﻥ‪#+‬ﻥ‪'( l‬‬
‫أ ‪/7‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻡ‪%‬اآ ا‪N‬ﺱ* ت ا‪#I‬ة ا‪)W+*& '+‬م ا‪m‬ﻥ‪#+‬ﻥ‪l‬‬
‫‪%& -‬ﺱ‪ V‬ر=‪ .‬ا*‪%‬ق‬
‫‪ z+( -‬أﺱ‪%‬اق ‪ P‬رﺝ‬
‫‪ -‬زی دة ﻡ‪#‬وﻥ ا‪N‬ﺱ*‬
‫‪)= -‬رة ا‪N‬ﺱ* ‪ :‬ا‪m‬ﺏ)اع‬
‫‪ -‬زی دة @‪ q‬ا‪ .‬ﻡ‪ C‬ا‪%‬رد إ‪ :‬ا‪N‬ﺱ* إ‪ :‬اﺏ‪%‬ن‬
‫‪#( aP -‬ص ‪ '( ,‬ا‪N‬ﺱ*‬
‫‪ C*& -‬ﺹ‪%‬رة ا‪N‬ﺱ*‬
‫‪ ,& -‬ﻡ‪ IU‬ا‪N‬ﺱ* ت ا"‪#k‬ة ﻡ‪ C‬ﺡ‪ Y‬ﻥ‪ b0‬ا‪%‬ارد‬
‫واﺱ‪)W+‬ام ا‪%%!I+‬ﺝ وا‪ Y‬وا‪%+‬ی‪#‬‬

‫اء ا‪#‬اﺏ‪ :V‬ﻡ‪%.‬ﻡ ت  ﻡ‬

‫‪ .٨‬ﻡ ه' ا"‪ k‬ا‪ 0‬ﻥ‪%‬ﻥ ‪N‬ﺱ*‪:_+‬‬

‫ ﻡ)ودة ا*‪N‬و‬ ‫ﺵ‪#‬آ &} ﻡ!‬ ‫ (‪#‬دی‬

‫ \‪  #‬ﺉ‬ ‫‪ .٩‬ه‪ ,‬ا‪N‬ﺱ*‪   :‬ﺉ‬
‫‪) .١٠‬د ا‪ CFp%‬ا‪m‬ﺝ '‪ :‬ــــــــــــــ‬
‫‪ .١١‬ﺱ! ا‪u+‬ﺱ‪___________________:H‬‬

‫ ﻡ!‪ 0‬ﺹ! ‬ ‫ =‪#‬ی‬ ‫‪ .١٢‬ﻡ‪ V=%‬ا!‪ U‬ة‪  :‬ﻡ)ی!‬

‫‪224‬‬
 Appendix A-3

Questionnaire (Italian)

Parte I Competizione industriale e macro-ambientale

1. Quale dei seguenti elementi consideri essere quello chiave per lo sviluppo dei tuoi
affari?
very Neg. Mod. Pos. Very
Neg. Pos.
- Acquisizione capitale
- Acquisizione informazioni
- Incertezza politica ed economica
- Norme e regolamentazione burocratiche
- Disponibilita’ di infrastrutture
- Costo delle infrastrutture
- Inconsistenza qualita’ di materie prime
- Qualificazione tecnica
- Accessibilita’ al mercato
- Domanda Locale
- Domanda internazionale
-Immagine del prodotto nel mercato
internazionale
- Coscienza del consumatore riguardo agli
standards qualitativi del prodotto
-Clienti complessi che visitano molte
aziende prima dell’acquisto
-Relazioni tra compratore e fornitore
devono dipendere da legami familiari e
personali
- Relazione con banche locali
- Relazione con compagnie assicurative
-Relazione con centri e universita’ di ricerca
e addestramento
-Relazione con industrie locali
manifatturiere
-Relazione con istituti pubblici
-Relazione con istituti del governo
-Relazione con industrie di estrazione
nella stessa regione
-Relazione con aziende di altri settori
(design/marketing)

225
2. Quale delle seguenti strutture industriali consideri essere critica minaccia nel futuro
dei tuoi affair? (considerando 1 come il settore di maggiore minaccia e 5 il settore di
minore)

Area of major Not an area of

threat threat
1 2 3 4 5
- Intensita’ della concorrenza
- Potenza dei compratoti
- Potenza dei fornitori
- Minaccia di rimpiazzi
- Minaccia della concorrenza

Part II Strategia e performance dell’azienda

3. Quale tipo di strategia di conduzione degli affari in generale e’ la piu’ vicina a quella
scelta dalla tua azienda (si prega di scegliere un solo tipo)?

- La tua azienda e’ la produttrice a piu’ basso costo nel settore., prodotti

standard sono offerti in un mercato a largo consumo
-La tua azienda offre grande varieta’ di prodotti, che possono essere
venduti al piu’ basso costo. I prodotti sono offerti in un mercato a largo
consumo.
-La tua ditta e’ operante in uno o pochi specifici settori di mercato ed offer
prodotti standard. Entro questa branca la tua ditta e’ la produttrice a piu’
basso costo.
-La tua ditta e’ operante in uno o pochi settori di mercato. In queste
branche molti e diversificati prodotti sono offerti al piu’ basso costo
possible.
-La tua ditta NON e’ la produttrice a piu’ basso costo del settore. I prodotti
standard sono offerti in un mercato a largo consumo.
-La tua ditta offre molti diversi prodotti, cosicche’ possono essere venduti
al prezzo piu’ alto. I prodotti sono offerti in un mercato a largo consumo.
-La tua ditta opera in uno o pochi specidici settori di mercato ed offre
prodotti standard. Entro questo settore la tua ditta NON e’ la produttrice
a piu’ basso costo.
- La tua ditta opera in uno o pochi settori di mercato. Entro questi settori
offre molti diversi prodotti, ma la tua ditta non e’ la produttrice a piu’
basso costo.

226
4. Come valuti I seguenti elementi per la tua azienda?

very Neg Mod Pos. Very

Neg. Pos
- Percentuale di nuovi prodotti rispetto al totale
di innovazione
- Tempo necessario a sviluppare una nuova
generazione di prodotti
- Soddisfazione del cliente
- La tua fetta di mercato
- Mantenimento del cliente
- Soddisfazione dei tuoi dipendenti
- Fedelta’ dei dipendenti
- Produttivita’ dei tuoi dipendenti
- Ritorno sugli investimenti
- Profitto
- Crescita del reddito
- Riduzione costi
- Esportazione

Part III E- Commerce

5. Usi il computer?  Si  No
Se si, per quale motivo:
 Stampa
 Ricezione
 Inventario
 Amministrazione stipendi
 Vendita
 Produzione
 Altro: prego
specificare:_____________________________________________

227
6. Usi Internet?  Si  No

Se si quale per quale motivo:

 Mezzo di comunicazione
 Mezzo per ottenere informazioni
 Mezzo per pubbicita' e marketing
 Mezzo d’acquisto
 Mezzo di vendita
 Mezzo per amministrare transazioni bancarie e finanziarie
 Mezzo per migliorare l’interreazione nell’azienda (processi/organizzazione)

Altri motivi: ___________________________________

Se no, Per quale motivo?:
 Basso livello di conoscenza tecnologica
 Incertezza riguardo I benefici
 Paura di un uso troppo basso di e-commerce da parte di clienti e fornitori
 Garantire la sicurezza di pagamenti e privacy di dati personali
 Non so come accordarmi con le complesse regole di governo in questo settore
 Predominanza dell’inglese nel World Wibe Web
 Alto costo d’accesso a internet e’ un unlteriore impedimento
 Incerto riguardo il settore legale, normativo e delle tasse

228
7. L’uso di internet ti aiuta (Nell’ordine, da 1 come piu’ importante a 5 come meno
importante)?
Most Less
Important Important
1 2 3 4 5
- Riduce i costi delle transazioni
- Migliora la qualita’ prodotto/servizio
- Raggiunge nuovi fornitori
- Raggiunge nuovi clienti
- Ti difende da rivali impegnati nel e-commecre
-Lavoro con grandi firme (locali ed internazionali)
- Aumenta la fetta di mercato
- Entra in nuovi mercati
-Aumenta la flessibilita’ della tua azienda
- Aumenta la tua abilita’ di innovazione
-Migliora il controllo dell’organizzazione dei tuoi
processi d’affari
- Aumenta la creazione di lavoro nella tua azienda
- Migliora l’immagine della tua azienda
- Contribuisce a risolvere il tuo problema di mancanza
di risorse e accesso alla tecnologia

Part IV Profilo della Ditta

8. Quale è la configurazione legale della sua ditta?

 Proprietà unica  Partnership  Società
9. Di che tipo e’ la sua ditta?
 Familiare  Non-Familiare
10. Numero complessivo di dipendenti: ____________________
11.Anno di fondazione: ________________________
12. Ubicazione della Ditta:
 Città  Paese  Zona industriale

229
 Appendix A-4

Questionnaire (Turkish)

Bölüm I Sanayi Rekabeti ve Makro çevre

1. Aşağıdakilerden hangisi sizin işinizi kritik olarak etkilemektedir?

Çok Olumsuz Orta Olumlu Çok

olumsuz olumlu.
- Sermaye temin
- Bilgi temini
- Siyasi ve ekonomik
belirsizlikler
- Bürokratik kurallar ve mevzuat
- Altyapı kullanılabilirliği
- Altyapı maliyeti
- Uyumsuz hammadde kalitesi
- Teknik özellikler
- Pazar ulaşılabilirliği
- Yerel talep
- Uluslararası talep
-Uluslararası pazarda ürün’ün
imajı
-Tüketicinin üretim kalite
standartlarından haberdar
olması
-Bilinçli tüketicilerin sipariş
öncesi pek çok üreticiyi ziyaret
etmesi
-Alıcı ve satıcı iliskilerinin ailevi
ve kisisel baglara dayanmasi
-Yerel bankalarla olan ilişkiler
- Sigorta şirketleriyle olan
ilişkiler
-Araştırma, Eğitim merkezleri ve
üniversitelerle olan ilişkiler
-Yerel üreticilerle olan ilişkiler
-Halk enstitüleri ile olan ilişkiler
-Devlet birimleri ile olan ilişkiler
-Aynı bölgedeki tas-kesme
firmaları ile olan ilişkiler
-Başka sektörden olan firmalarla
ilişkiler (tasarım / pazarlama)

230
2. Aşağıdaki sanayi yapılarından hangisi sizce işinizin geleceği için kritik bir tehdittir?
(Derece sırası 1, Önemli bir tehdit unsuru & 5, Önemli bir tehdit unsuru değil)?

Önemli bir Önemli bir

tehdit unsuru tehdit unsuru
değil
1 2 3 4 5
- Rakiplerin etkinliği
- Alıcıların gücü
- Satıcıların gücü
- ikame urunler.
- Yeni firmalarin pazara girisi
- Diğerleri, Lütfen belirtiniz:

Bölüm II Firmaların stratejisi ve performansı

3. Hangi genel iş stratejisi sizin firmanızın stratejisine yakındır (Lütfen sadece bir tür
seçiniz)?

- Firmanız sektördeki ucuz üreticidir. Standart ürünler geniş bir pazar

alanında sunulmaktadır.
- Firmanız değişik ürünler sunmaktadır, ve en düşük fiyatla
satabilmektedir. Ürünler geniş bir pazar alanında sunulmaktadır
- Firmanız bir veya birkaç özel alan üstüne çalışmaktadır, ve standart urun
sunmaktadir. Bu alanlardaki en düşük maliyetli üretimi
gerçekleştirmektedir.
- Firmanız bir veya birkaç özel ürün üstüne çalışmaktadır. Bu alanlarda
değişik ürünler mümkün olan en düşük fiyata satılmaktadır.
- Firmanız sektördeki en düşük maliyetli üretici değildir. Standart ürünler
geniş bir Pazar alanında sunulmaktadır.
- Firmanız pek çok ürün sunmaktadır, ve ürünler nispeten yüksek fiyatla
satılabilmektedir. Ürünler geniş bir pazar alanında sunulmaktadır.
- Firmanız bir veya birkaç alanda çalışmaktadır ve standart ürünler
sunmaktadır. Bu alanda pazardaki en düşük maliyetli firma sizinki
değildir.
- Firmanız bir veya birkaç alanda çalışmaktadır ve farklı ürünler
sunmaktadır. Bu alanda pazardaki en düşük maliyetli firma sizinki
değildir

231
4. Aşağıda sıralanan etkenleri nasıl değerlendiriyorsunuz?

Çok Olumsuz Orta Olumlu Çok

olumsuz olumlu
- Yeni ürünlerin toplam is
hacmindeki oranı
- Yeni nesil ürünlerin
geliştirilmesi için gerekli zaman
- Müşteri memnuniyeti
- Pazar payiniz
- Muhafaza edilen müşteriler
- Çalışanların memnuniyeti
- Muhafaza edilen çalışanlar
- Çalışanlarınızın verimliliği
- Yatirim getirisi
- Karlılık
- Gelir artışı
- Maliyet azaltılması
- İhracat

Bölüm III E-Ticaret

5. Bilgisayar kullanıyormusunuz?  Evet  Hayır
Eğer cevabınız Evet ise, hangi amaç için:
 Çıktı almak
 Yazı yazmak
 Envanter çizelgesi
 Ücret bordrosu
 Satış
 Üretim
 Diğer: Lütfen belirtiniz:_____________________________________________
6. İnternet kullanıyormusunuz
Evet  Hayır
Eğer cevabınız Evet ise, hangi amaç için:
 Haberleşme yolu olarak
 Bilgi temin etmek için
 Reklam vermek ve ticaret için

232
 Satınalım için
 Satış için
 Bankacılık ve finansman muameleleri için
 Şirket içi etkileşimi geliştirmek için (süreç/ organizasyon)
Diğer amaçlar için: ___________________________________
Eğer cevabınız Hayır ise, gerekçeniz?
 Teknolojik deneyimdeki düşük seviye
 Faydasi konusunda belirsizlik
 Müşterilerce ve ilgililerce çok düşük seviyede kullanılması korkusu
 Güvenlik ve kişisel bilgilerin korunması
 Bu alandaki komplike kuralları bilmemek.
 Yaygin dilin Ingilizce olmasi
 İnternet erişiminin yüksek maliyeti
 Kanunlardaki, mevzuattaki ve vergilerdeki belirsizlik

7. İnternet kullanımı size hangisi için yardım eder (Derece sırası 1, çok önemli & 5, az
önemli)?
Çok önemli Az önemli
1 2 3 4 5
- İşlem maliyetinin azaltılması
- Üretim / servis kalitesini geliştirme
- Yeni üreticilere erişim
- Yeni müşterilere erişim
- e–ticaretteki kişisel rakiplere karşı kendinizi
savunmak
-Büyük firmalarla çalışmak (yerel ve uluslararası)
- Pazar payini artırmak
- Yeni pazarlara girmek
- Firmanın esnekliğini artırmak
- Firmanin inovasyon gucunu arttirmak
- İşin kontrolünün arttirilmasi
- Firmadaki iş imkanlarını arttirmak
- Firmanın imajını geliştirmek
- Kaynak yetersizliği ve teknoloji temini
problemlerine katkı sağlamak

233
IV.cü bölüm Firmanın Profili

8. (Firmanızın hukuki şekli nedir?)

Limited şirket İki veya daha fazla kişinin ortaklığı Şirket

9.[Firmanızın tipi nedir]

Aile Aile değil

10. Toplam işçi sayısı: ____________________

11 . Kuruluş tarihi: ________________________

12. Firmanın bulunduğu yer

Şehir Köy Sanayii Bölgesi

234
 Appendix B-1

Testing Normality

Diamond Five Forces

160
300

140

120

100 200

80

60

100
40
Frequency

Std. Dev = .63

Frequency

20 Mean = 3.35 Std. Dev = .58

0 N = 652.00 Mean = 2.93
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 0 N = 652.00
1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75 4.25 4.75 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50

Diamond Five Forces

Balanced Card IT Impact

100 200

80

60

100

40
Frequency

Frequency

20 Std. Dev = .77 Std. Dev = .93

Mean = 3.34 Mean = 2.95
0 N = 652.00 0 N = 652.00
1.25 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75 4.25 4.75 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 1.25 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75 4.25 4.75

Balanced Card IT Impact

235
 Factor
140

120

100

80

60

40
Frequency

Std. Dev = .68

20
Mean = 3.14

0 N = 652.00
1.25 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75 4.25 4.75
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Factor

Demand
Cluster
300
100

80

200
60

40

100
Frequency

20
Frequency

Std. Dev = .83

Std. Dev = .69 Mean = 3.33
Mean = 3.78 N = 652.00
0
0 N = 652.00 1.25 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75 4.25 4.75
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Demand Cluster

Innovation Finance
120
160

140
100

120
80
100

60 80

60
40

40
Frequency

Frequency

20 Std. Dev = 1.12 Std. Dev = .90

Mean = 3.03 20
Mean = 3.14
0 N = 652.00 0 N = 652.00
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Innovation Finance

236
 Employees
Customer 200
200

100
100

Frequency
Frequency

Std. Dev = .82 Std. Dev = .86

Mean = 3.58 Mean = 3.64

0 N = 652.00 0 N = 652.00
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Customer Employees

Note: It is noticed that there is a skewed (to the left or to the right) in the above figures. It
means that the distribution is not normal. Therefore, one of the conditions for using the
parametric is not achieved. That is why, the non-parametric test were used.

237
 Appendix B-2

Testing Homogeneity of Variance

Factor Conditions
Levene
Item Statistic Sig.
Acquiring capital 13.610 .00
Acquiring information 18.703 .00
Political and economic uncertainties 3.849 .02
Bureaucratic rules and regulations 10.907 .00
Infrastructure availability 12.359 .00
Infrastructure cost 3.232 .04
Inconsistent raw material quality 29.589 .00
Technical qualifications 4.322 .01
The market accessibility 25.964 .00

Demand Conditions
Levene
Item Statistic Sig.
Local demand 21.525 .00
International demand 5.612 .00
Product image in the international markets 14.723 .00
Customer awareness with regard to product quality standards 14.362 .00
Sophisticated customers visit many manufacturers before
3.529 .03
purchasing
Df1 = 2, DF2 = 649 (652-2-1)

Related and Supporting Industries

Levene
Item Statistic Sig.
Supplier buyer relationships have depended on the family and
29.821 .00
personal ties
The relationship with local banks 9.895 .00
The relationship with insurance firms 25.411 .00
The relationship with research and training centers and
10.628 .00
universities
The relationship with local manufacturers 11.341 .00
The relationship with public institutes 2.737 .06
The relationship with governmental institutes 11.090 .00
The relationship with stone cutting firms in the same region 12.713 .00
The relationship with firms from other sectors (design/
9.524 .00
marketing)
Df1 = 2, DF2 = 649 (652-2-1)

238
Five Forces
Levene
Item Statistic Sig.
The intensity of rivals 16.772 .00
The power of buyers 3.400 .03
The power of suppliers 1.180 .30
The threat of substitutes 45.097 .00
The threat of new entry 12.957 .00
Df1 = 2, DF2 = 649 (652-2-1)

Balanced Scored Card

Levene
Item Statistic Sig.
Percentage of new products of total turnover .479 .61
Time necessary to develop new generation of products 15.540 .00
Customer satisfaction 2.830 .06
Your market share .152 .85
Customer keep on .975 .37
Your employees satisfaction 23.580 .00
Employees keep on 25.896 .00
Productivity of your employees 12.285 .00
Return on Investment .791 .45
Profitability 1.016 .36
Revenue growth 6.311 .00
Cost reduction .729 .48
Exportation .336 .71
Df1 = 2, DF2 = 649 (652

239
Competitive Elements
Levene
Item Statistic Sig.
Reduce transaction costs 5.911 .00
Improve quality of product/service 8.732 .00
Reach new suppliers 2.557 .07
Reach new customers 5.139 .00
Defend your self against competitors engaging in e–
10.116 .00
commerce
Work with large firms (local and international) 12.145 .00
Increase market share 8.323 .00
Enter new markets 4.665 .01
Increase the flexibility of your firm 13.333 .00
Increase your ability to innovate 5.920 .00
Improve control of your business process organization 18.172 .00
Increase job creation in your firm 11.842 .00
Improve the image of your firm 8.185 .00
Contribute to solving your problem of lack resources and
9.683 .00
access to technology
Df1 = 2, DF2 = 649 (652

Totals
Levene
Item Statistic Sig.
Diamond 61.751 .00
Five Forces .887 .41
Balanced Scored Card 2.140 .11
IT Impact 4.017 .01
Factor Conditions 1.703 .18
Demand Conditions .993 .37
Related and supporting Industries 41.740 .00
Innovation 7.908 .00
Customer Satisfaction .920 .39
Internal Business 12.239 .00
Financial measures 7hg.913 .00
Df1 = 2, DF2 = 649

Note: The significant differences between the three groups indicate that there are no
equal variances as a pre-requisite to use the parametric tests. Therefore, the non-
parametric tests were used.

240
 Appendix B-3
Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Factor Conditions
Element Factor
Acquiring capital .80
Acquiring information .73
Political and economic uncertainties .69
Bureaucratic rules and regulations .70
Infrastructure availability .63
Infrastructure costs .69
Inconsistent raw material quality .71
Technical qualifications .66
The market accessibility .60

Demand Conditions
Element Factor
Local demand .50
International demand .66
Product image in the international markets .52
Customer awareness with regard to product quality standards .54
Sophisticated customers visit many manufacturers before purchasing .64

Related and Supporting Industries

Element Factor
Supplier buyer relationships have depended on the family and .76
personal ties
The relationship with local banks .64
The relationship with insurance firms .69
The relationship with research and training centers and universities .58
The relationship with local manufacturers .71
The relationship with public institutes .59
The relationship with governmental institutes .67
The relationship with stone cutting firms in the same region .67
The relationship with firms from other sectors (design/ marketing) .55

Five Forces
Element Factor
The intensity of rivals .65
The power of buyers .70
The power of suppliers .70
The threat of substitutes .72
The threat of new entry .58

241
Balanced Scored Card
Element Factor
Percentage of new products of total turnover .78
Time necessary to develop new generation of products .78
Customer satisfaction .74
Your market share .76
Customer keep on .80
Your employees satisfaction .83
Employees keep on .82
Productivity of your employees .80
Return on Investment .82
Profitability .83
Revenue growth .72
Cost reduction .75
Exportation .76

The ICT and Competitive Element

Element Factor
Improve quality of product/service .74
Reach new suppliers .73
Reach new customers .80
Defend your self against competitors engaging in e–commerce .80
Work with large firms (local and international) .73
Increase market share .82
Enter new markets .84
Increase the flexibility of your firm .80
Increase your ability to innovate ..80
Improve control of your business process organization .77
Increase job creation in your firm .74
Improve the image of your firm .74
Contribute to solving your problem of lack resources and access to .68
technology

Note: The above table shows that the confirmatory factors are more that 0.5. It means that
there is an internal consistency of each construct. This result supports the result of the
Cronbach Alpha (discussed in chapter three).

242
 Appendix B-4

The Profile of the Ten Jordanian SMEs

Firm One

The firm was established in 1978 as a family business in Amman. It covers a good share
of the local market. It exports, irregularly, to the US, Britain, and the Gulf States. The
firm's main product is the antique which is highly demanded in the US and Europe. The
firm introduced the Internet in 2000.

Firm Two

The firm was established in 1996 as a family business in Amman. It covers a good share
of the local market. It exports, irregularly, to the US, and Britain. The firm has its own
extraction and its main product is the yellow stone which is highly demanded in the US
and Europe. The firm introduced the Internet in 1999.

Firm Three

The firm was established in 1973 as a family business in Amman. It exports, on a regular
basis, to the US, Britain, Italy, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, and the Gulf States. The firm
introduced the Internet in 1999.

Firm Four

The firm was established in 1997 as a family business in Amman. It exports to the US,
Britain, and the Gulf States. The firm's main product is the antique which is highly
demanded in the US and Europe. The firm introduces the Internet in 2000.

Firm Five

The firm was established in 1996 as a partnership-owned in Amman. It covers a good

share of the local market and export, on a regular basis, to the US, Israel and the Gulf
States. The firm has its own extraction and its main product is the shinny- rigid stone
which is highly demanded in the US and Europe. The firm introduced the Internet in
2001. The owner of the firm shows that the sales have been increased by 20-40% as a
result of the Internet by selling to overseas customers. .

243
Firm Six

The firm was established in 1980 as a family business in Amman. It covers a good share
of the local market. The firm has its own extraction and its main product is the creamy
pinky stone which is highly demanded in the US and Europe. The firm started to expand
its exports as a result of e-commerce (1998).

Firm Seven

The firm was established in 1999 as a family business in Amman. It covers a good share
of the local market. The firm does not conduct its own extraction. Its main product is the
antiquated stone which is highly demanded in the US and Europe. The firm started to
expand its exports as a result of e-commerce (2001).

Firm Eight

The firm was established in 1998 as a partnership business in Karak. The firm has some
shares in one of the local extractions in Karak. Its main products are the cream pink and
antiquated stones which are in high demand in the US and Europe. The firm introduced
the Internet in 1998.

Firm Nine

The firm was established in 1987 as a family business in Amman. The firm has its own
extraction and its main product is the yellow stone, which is in high demand in Korea and
Asian Countries. The firm started to expand its exports as a result of e-commerce (1998).

Firm Ten

The firm was established in 1983 as a family business in Amman. In 2000 it became of a
private shared company. The firm has its own extraction and its main market is Israel and
Iraq. The Internet has been introduced in 2000.

244
 Appendix B-5

Semi-Structured Interview Protocol - SMEs

I. Purpose

This protocol is used as a guidance of conducting semi-structured interview. It defines

procedures and general rules that have to be followed by the researcher.

II. Key Features of the interview

1.The factors of competitive advantage of an SME
2.The macro-environment and industry structure of an SME working in the natural
stone sector
3.Strategies that are capitalizing on the Internet
4.The explosion of the ICT, in particular, the Internet.

III. Organization of the Protocol

This study is organized in three sections:
1. Section one focuses on the factors of competitive advantage of an SME
2. Section two focuses on the challenges of e-commerce for an SME
3. Section three focuses on how the ICT transforms strategy, its impact on the
value chain and five forces

IV. Procedures
A. The schedule of field visits
 Review of preliminary information of the firm
 Verification of access to the company data and executives
 Special documents needed associated with information technology, and
competitive advantage (sources of information)
B. Interviews, direct observations and other sources of information
 Access to the owner(s) of the company (interview)

245
  Access to managers and related persons involved in information
technology and strategy formulation
 Access to company documents, and archival records
C. Field participant observations on the job place, industrial processes, and
production facilities

V. Questions
A. Definition of factors of competitive advantage of an SME
Topics:
1. The emerging global economy poses both challenges and opportunities for
SMEs in developing countries.
2. Find out the macro-environment, industry structure, strategies and factors of
competitive advantage of an SME
B. The challenges of the ICT for an SME

VI. Analysis Plan and Reports

A. Summary report
B. Descriptive information
C. Explanatory information

246
 Appendix B-6

Semi-Structured Interview – Institutes

The following questions have been asked during the semi-structured interview:

Definition of the SMEs working in processing the natural stone sector

What are the elements of the competitive advantage

Evaluate the competitiveness of the SMEs that work in processing the natural
stone sector

What is the global trend of the natural stone sector

Give us your feedback on the analysis of data (if it was available before the
interview)

When, why and to what extent has choosing one of the generic strategy been
associated with higher levels of competitiveness

Do you have any available statistics or relevant studies (please provide us)

What is the impact of the ICT on the competitive elements of your firm and
industry level

247
 Appendix C

General Information (Jordan, Turkey and Italy)

Jordan is strategically positioned at the convergence of Europe, Asia and Africa. It came
under the control of the Sumerian, Mesopotamian, and other empires such as the Greek,
Roman, Persian, and Ottoman. What was in 1920 called Trans-Jordan became the
Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan after the British Mandate ended in 1946 (Oxford Business
Group 2003). Table (1) summarizes general information concerning area, population,
main cities, language, currency, border countries and life expectancy at birth.

Table 1. General Information – Jordan (2004)

Area 89,342 sq km
Population; Pop. Growth 5.4 million; 2.5% (70% is below age 30)
Capital Amman
Main Cities Zarqa, Aqaba, Irbid, Salt, Karak and Mafraq
Official Language Arabic, although English is widely spoken in business
Currency The Jordanian Dinar (JD), equivalent to US $ 1.41
Border Countries Iraq, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and West Bank (PNA)
Life expectancy at birth Male: 70.96 years; female: 74.84 years
Source: CIA 2005; JMOP 2005

Jordan is the world's fifth leading world producer of phosphate rock and the sixth leading
producer of potash. It also produces such industrial minerals as bromine, feldspar,
gypsum, kaolin, salt and silical sand and such building materials as cement, dimension
stone, limestone, and marble. Natural gas and petroleum products are producing for
domestic consumption. Additionally, iron, sulfar, and titanium are found in Jordan.

In recent years, Canadian, Japanese, American, Austrian and South Korean companies
have explored for oil in Jordan, and according to Jordan's Natural Resources Authority,
the country's resources still remain relatively unused. In 1987, natural gas was discovered
in Jordan, and experts have estimated that Jordan holds between 150-400 billion cubic
feet of natural gas (Oxford Business Group 2003). The five wells currently operating
have an annual capacity of over 5.5 billion cubic feet. Natural gas turbines currently
power a portion of Jordan's electrical needs, and gas could eventually be used to generate

248
all of the country's electrical power, in the process replacing up to 40% of fuel imports
(Oxford Business Group 2003).

In the 13th century, the Ottoman Empire became the dominant power in Asia Minor (now
the Asian part of Turkey). Later, the Ottoman Empire expanded to include an area from
Morocco to Persia and westwards into Balkans. From the 17th century, however, the
Empire began to decline. Turkey was created in 1923 from the about to collapse Ottoman
Empire. After that, the country instituted material laws to replace traditional religious
faith. In 1945 Turkey joined the UN, and then in 1952 it became a member of the NATO.
Table (2) summarizes the general information concerning area, population, etc.

Table 2. General Information – Turkey (2003)

Area 814,548 sq km (790,200 in Asia, 24,378 in Europe)
Population 68 million
Capital Ankara
Main Cities Adana, Antalya, Istanbul, Izmir, Karabuk, Karaman
Official Language Turkish (official), Kurdish, Arabic, Armenian, Greek
Currency Turkish liras per US dollar - 1,500,900
Border Countries Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Iran, Iraq,
Syria.
Life expectancy at birth Male: 69.15 years; female: 74.01 years
Source: CIA 2004

Since 1815, a strong movement grew in Italy asking for unification and freedom and be
free from the Austrian control. Italy became a nation-state in 1861 and established its
parliamentary government in the early 1920s when Bento Mussolini established a fascist
dictatorship (Porter 1998). Mussolini’s alliance with Germany led to Italy's defeat in
World War II. A democratic republic replaced the monarchy in 1946 and an economic
recovery followed (CIA 2002). Changes of administrations were frequent. From 1947 to
the early 1990s, Italy had no less than 57 governments. Since 1992, a new era for the
Italian policies opened the way for a radical modernization of the country’s economic and
social structure. Table (3) summarizes general information concerning the area,
population, etc.

249
 Table 3. General Information – Italy (2004)
Area 301,230 sq km
Population 58 million
Capital Rome
Main Cities Milan, Bologna, Turín, Palermo, Venice, Florence, Naples
Official Language Italian, and small German, French, and Slovene speaking
Currency Euro (EUR), euros per US dollar: 1.1324
Border Countries Austria, France, Vatican, San Marino, Switzerland
Life expectancy at birth Male: 76.08 years; female: 82.63 years
Source: CIA 2005

250
 Appendix D-1

Mean Rank

(Jordan, Turkey, and Italy)

Factor Conditions – Mean Rank

No Element Country + Mean Rank
1 Acquiring capital Jordan 143.40
Italy 417.16
Turkey 319.59
2 Acquiring information Jordan 132.84
Italy 443.94
Turkey 288.92
3 Political and economic uncertainties Jordan 346.96
Italy 337.35
Turkey 297.82
4 Bureaucratic rules and regulations Jordan 175.71
Italy 431.151
Turkey 278.20
5 Infrastructure availability Jordan 206.14
Italy 456.33
Turkey 223.36
6 Infrastructure costs Jordan 215.37
Italy 420.77
Turkey 267.21
7 Inconsistent raw material quality Jordan 141.80
Italy 359.70
Turkey 401.30
8 Technical qualifications Jordan 110.43
Italy 414.22
Turkey 345.38
9 The market accessibility Jordan 281.38
Italy 384.61
Turkey 274.58
+ Number of respondents (Jordan = 140, Italy = 299, and Turkey = 213)

251
Demand Conditions – Mean Rank
No Element Country+ Mean Rank
1 Local demand Jordan 267.39
Italy 417.98
Turkey 236.94
2 International demand Jordan 87.12
Italy 382.21
Turkey 405.64
3 Product image in the international markets Jordan 251.68
Italy 388.79
Turkey 288.24
4 Customer awareness with regard to product quality Jordan 223.46
standards Italy 377.71
Turkey 322.34
5 Sophisticated customers visit many manufacturers Jordan 228.02
before purchasing Italy 342.11
Turkey 369.32
+ Number of respondents (Jordan = 140, Italy = 299, and Turkey = 213)

Five Competitive Forces – Mean Rank

No Element Country Mean Rank
1 The intensity of rivals Jordan 180.83
Italy 386.28
Turkey 338.34
2 The power of buyers Jordan 180.52
Italy 347.33
Turkey 393.21
3 The power of suppliers Jordan 170.82
Italy 359.23
Turkey 382.88
4 The threat of substitutes Jordan 438.43
Italy 256.41
Turkey 351.32
5 The threat of new entry Jordan 302.92
Italy 346.61
Turkey 313.77
+ Number of respondents (Jordan = 140, Italy = 299, and Turkey = 213)

252
Related and Supporting Industries – Mean Rank
No Element Country+ Mean Rank
1 Supplier buyer relationships have depended on the Jordan 327.53
family and personal ties Italy 310.14
Turkey 348.79
2 The relationship with local banks Jordan 90.38
Italy 357.85
Turkey 437.69
3 The relationship with insurance firms Jordan 132.76
Italy 403.78
Turkey 345.36
4 The relationship with research and training centers Jordan 99.17
and universities Italy 417.88
Turkey 347.64
5 The relationship with local manufacturers Jordan 152.35
Italy 386.33
Turkey 356.97
6 The relationship with public institutes Jordan 185.78
Italy 390.74
Turkey 328.81
7 The relationship with governmental institutes Jordan 211.33
Italy 435.30
Turkey 249.48
8 The relationship with stone cutting firms in the Jordan 220.59
same region Italy 428.01
Turkey 253.62
9 The relationship with firms from other sectors Jordan 110.19
(design/ marketing) Italy 410.67
Turkey 350.53
+ Number of respondents (Jordan = 140, Italy = 299, and Turkey = 213)

253
Balanced Scored Card – Mean Rank
No Element Country + Mean Rank
1 Percentage of new products of total turnover Jordan 226.80
Italy 399.59
Turkey 289.43
2 Time necessary to develop new generation of Jordan 222.71
products Italy 412.53
Turkey 273.95
3 Customer satisfaction Jordan 218.94
Italy 362.22
Turkey 347.05
4 Your market share Jordan 217.26
Italy 365.41
Turkey 343.69
5 Customer keep on Jordan 227.80
Italy 361.14
Turkey 342.75
6 Your employees satisfaction Jordan 275.48
Italy 333.10
Turkey 350.77
7 Employees keep on Jordan 286.21
Italy 333.93
Turkey 342.55
8 Productivity of your employees Jordan 259.46
Italy 337.90
Turkey 354.56
9 Return on Investment Jordan 213.72
Italy 372.84
Turkey 335.58
10 Profitability Jordan 167.77
Italy 397.22
Turkey 331.55
11 Revenue growth Jordan 186.94
Italy 401.17
Turkey 313.41
12 Cost reduction Jordan 283.95
Italy 337.62
Turkey 338.86
13 Exportation Jordan 174.22
Italy 396.65
Turkey 328.11
+ Number of respondents (Jordan = 140, Italy = 299, and Turkey = 213)

254
Computer Usage – Mean Rank
No Area Country + Mean Rank
1 Printing Jordan 292.29
Italy 294.41
Turkey 297.50
2 Accounting Jordan 229.39
Italy 307.70
Turkey 314.90
3 Inventory Control Jordan 219.92
Italy 326.92
Turkey 291.60
4 Payroll Jordan 224.14
Italy 354.19
Turkey 248.05
5 Sales Jordan 256.36
Italy 342.55
Turkey 246.40
6 Production Jordan 236.24
Italy 332.30
Turkey 273.80
+ Number of respondents (Jordan = 113, Italy = 286, and Turkey = 190)

Commercial Usage of the Internet – Mean Rank

No Area Country + Mean Rank
1 Communicating Jordan 226.57
Italy 245.52
Turkey 246.50
2 Information Jordan 240.65
Italy 242.52
Turkey 243.50
3 Advertising Jordan 206.27
Italy 251.77
Turkey 247.68
4 Buying Jordan 261.42
Italy 240.48
Turkey 235.16
5 Selling Jordan 218.05
Italy 265.20
Turkey 218.98
6 Banking Jordan 222.78
Italy 249.77
Turkey 241.67
7 Interaction Jordan 224.93
Italy 250.86
Turkey 238.66
+ Number of respondents (Jordan = 85, Italy = 248, and Turkey = 151)

255
Reasons of Not Using the Internet – Mean Rank
No Reasons Country + Mean Rank
1 Level of Expertise Jordan 74.72
Italy 88.85
Turkey 89.60
2 Benefits Uncertainty Jordan 100.43
Italy 71.56
Turkey 81.02
3 Low Use of E-Commerce Jordan 94.09
Italy 70.88
Turkey 87.19
4 Security of Payment Jordan 100.59
Italy 74.09
Turkey 78.79
5 Complex Rules Jordan 107.51
Italy 65.82
Turkey 79.45
6 Predominance of English Jordan 81.82
Italy 77.18
Turkey 92.90
7 High Cost Jordan 98.35
Italy 67.47
Turkey 86.23
8 Legal, Regulatory and Tax Environment Jordan 94.62
Italy 58.35
Turkey 97.03
+ Number of respondents (Jordan = 55, Italy = 51, and Turkey = 62)

256
The ICT and Competitive Element– Mean Rank
No Variable Country + Mean Rank
1 Reduce transaction costs Jordan 226.01
Italy 391.95
Turkey 300.66
2 Improve quality of product/service Jordan 235.11
Italy 399.36
Turkey 284.29
3 Reach new suppliers Jordan 198.87
Italy 394.24
Turkey 315.29
4 Reach new customers Jordan 190.40
Italy 402.87
Turkey 308.76
5 Defend your self against competitors engaging in Jordan 257.15
e–commerce Italy 350.32
Turkey 338.64
6 Work with large firms (local and international) Jordan 266.88
Italy 332.73
Turkey 356.94
7 Increase market share Jordan 219.01
Italy 353.16
Turkey 359.72
8 Enter new markets Jordan 207.84
Italy 366.88
Turkey 347.81
9 Increase the flexibility of your firm Jordan 265.55
Italy 345.76
Turkey 339.52
10 Increase your ability to innovate Jordan 240.04
Italy 362.10
Turkey 333.35
11 Improve control of your business process Jordan 277.36
organization Italy 351.59
Turkey 323.58
12 Increase job creation in your firm Jordan 275.00
Italy 354.18
Turkey 321.50
13 Improve the image of your firm Jordan 214.66
Italy 370.36
Turkey 338.45
14 Contribute to solving your problem of lack Jordan 268.31
resources and access to technology Italy 340.13
Turkey 345.61
+ Number of respondents (Jordan = 85, Italy = 248, and Turkey = 151)

257
 Appendix D-2

Mann-Whitney Test

(Jordan, and Turkey)

Factor Conditions
Element Mann- Z Asymp. Sig.
Whitney U (2-tailed)
Acquiring Capital 6310.0 -9.536 .00*
Acquiring Information 6287.5 -9.591 .00*
Political and economic uncertainties 12697.0 -2.441 .01*
Bureaucratic rules and regulations 9870.0 -5.621 .00*
Infrastructure availability 14218.0 -.790 .43
Infrastructure costs 12363.5 -2.947 .00*
Inconsistent raw material quality 2963.0 -13.075 .00*
Technical qualifications 2606.5 -13.488 .00*
The market accessibility 14364.0 -.614 .53
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05)

Demand Conditions
Element Mann- Z Asymp. Sig.
Whitney U (2-tailed)
Local demand 13052.5 -2.0 .03*
International demand 1083.0 -15.16 .00*
Product image in the international markets 13492.0 -1.59 .11
Consumer awareness with regard to product 10629.0 -4.8 .00*
quality standards
Sophisticated customers visit many 8679.0 -6.97 .00*
manufacturers before purchasing
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05)

Five Forces
Element Mann- Z Asymp. Sig.
Whitney U (2-tailed)
Intensity of rivals 6947.5 -8.884 .00*
Power of buyers 5399.0 -10.508 .00*
Power of suppliers 5401.5 -10.473 .00*
Threat of substitutes 11691.5 -3.564 .00*
Threat of entry 14310.00 -.665 .50
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05)

258
Related and Supporting Industries
Element Mann- Z Asymp. Sig.
Whitney U (2-tailed)
Supplier buyer relationships have depended 13705 -1.33 .18
on the family and personal ties
Relationship with local banks 607.5 -15.632 .00*
The relationship with insurance firms 4198 -11.86 .00*
Relationship with research and training 2057 -14.12 .00*
centers and universities
Relationship with local manufacturers 5620.5 -10.18 .00*
Relationship with public institutes 7871 -7.816 .00*
Relationship with governmental institutes 13151 -1.9 .04*
Relationship with stone cutting firms in the 12617 -2.5 .01*
same region
Relationship with firms from other sectors 2332 -13.7 .00*
(design/ marketing)
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05)

Balanced Scored Card

Variable Mann- Z Asymp. Sig.
Whitney U (2-tailed)
Percentage of new products of total turnover 11900.5 -3.372 .00*
Time necessary to develop new generation of 12880.0 -2.246 .02*
products
Customer satisfaction 9132.0 -6.491 .00*
Market share 9037.0 -6.574 .00*
Customer keep on 9501.5 -6.141 .00*
Employees satisfaction 11204.0 -4.284 .00*
Employees keep on 12133.5 -3.237 .00*
Productivity of your employees 10359.0 -5.164 .00*
Return on Investment 9296.0 -6.231 .00*
Profitability 7075.0 -8.698 .00*
Revenue growth 8345 -7.33 .00*
Cost reduction 12426 -2.75 .00*
Exportation 7458 -8.18 .00*
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05)

259
The ICT and Competitive Elements
Variable Mann- Z Asymp. Sig.
Whitney U (2-tailed)
Reduce transaction costs 11221 -4.25 .00*
Improve quality of product/service 12875 -2.28 .02*
Reach new suppliers 9395 -6.17 .00*
Reach new customers 9309 -6.22 .00*
Defend your self against competitors 11387 -3.97 .00*
engaging in e–commerce
Work with large firms (local and 10891 -4.52 .00*
international)
Increase market share 8824.0 -6.750 .00*
Enter new markets 8765.0 -6.805 .00*
Increase the flexibility of your firm 11801.0 -3.521 .00*
Increase ability to innovate 10739.0 -4.689 .00*
Improve control of business process 13000 -2.19 .02*
organization
Increase job creation in your firm 13033 -2.16 .03*
Improve the image of your firm 9325.5 -6.23 .00*
Contribute to solving your problem of lack 11460.5 -3.92 .00*
resources and access to technology
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05)

260
The ICT Usage, Benefits and Obstacles
Element Mann- Z Asymp. Sig.
Whitney U (2-tailed)
Printing 10545.0 -1.837 .06
Accounting 7618.0 -7.541 .00*
Inventory control 8122.0 -4.183 .00*
Payroll 9863.5 -1.395 .16
Sales 10372.0 -.590 .55
Production 9366.0 -3.071 .00*
Communications 5889.0 -3.572 .00*
Information 6342.0 -1.333 .18
Advertisement 5319.5 -2.604 .00*
Sales 6393.0 -.072 .94
Buying 5721.0 -1.610 .10
Financial transactions 5916.5 -1.636 .10
Interaction 6053.5 -1.291 .19
Expertise 1403.0 -2.23 .02*
Benefit uncertainty 1311.0 -2.484 .01*
Use of Internet 1565.0 -.949 .34
Security 1262.5 -2.836 .00*
Complex rules governing this area 1135.5 -3.591 .00*
Predominance of English 1480.0 -1.458 .14
Cost 1459.0 -1.552 .12
Legal, regulatory and tax environment 1656.0 -.362 .71
Reduce transaction costs 11221.0 -4.251 .00*
Improve quality of product/service 12875.0 -2.281 .02*
Reach new suppliers 9395.0 -6.178 .00*
Reach new customers 9309.0 -6.222 .00*
Defend your self against competitors 11387.0 -3.970 .00*
engaging in e–commerce,
Work with large firms (local and 10891.5 -4.524 .00*
international)
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05)

261
 Appendix D-3

Mann-Whitney Test

(Jordan 2003 and Jordan 2006)

In the first survey ,conducted in 2003, only 62 questionnaires were returned back while
in the second survey ,was conducted in 2006, 140 questionnaires were received. In order
to measure the dynamism of the sector, the same questions have been used in the two
surveys. Mainly, there are two reasons for the significant increase in the number of the
received questionnaires in the second survey:

√ The hesitation of filling the questionnaire by the owners/ managers of the SMEs
has been reduced; they faced no problem with the tax agencies by providing the
data in the first time. As well, they became familiar with the questionnaire.
√ The researcher became more professional in conducting the field research.

In order to test the significant differences between the different items in the two surveys
and because not all of the conditions for using the parametric test are met, the Mann-
Whitney Test is used.

Factor Conditions

The table below shows that there are significant differences in some of the factor
conditions, in acquiring information, bureaucratic rules and regulations, infrastructure
cost, inconsistent raw material, technical qualifications, and market accessibility. The
mean rank explains if the significant difference is positive or negative; in case there is an
increase in the mean rank means that there is an improvement in that element and vice
versa.

262
Factor Conditions – Mann-Whitney Test

Mann-Whitney U Z Asymp. Sig

(2-tailed)
Acquiring capital 3847.0 -1.367 .17
Acquiring information 3210.0 -3.102 .00*
Political and economic uncertainties 3690.0 -1.772 .07
Bureaucratic rules and regulations 2461.5 -5.206 .00*
Infrastructure availability 3944.0 -1.10 .27
Infrastructure costs 3363.0 -2.721 .00*
Inconsistent raw material quality 2612.5 -4.8 .00*
Technical qualifications 1756.5 -7.07 .00*
The market accessibility 1682.0 -7.29 .00*
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05)

An unexpected result was found. The data shows that there is an improvement on the
market accessibility of the Jordanian products, and this is due to the openness of the
economy (signing different international trade agreements). While, there are significant
deterioration on technical qualifications, infrastructure cost, consistency of raw material,
bureaucratic rules and regulations, and acquiring information.

Factor Conditions – Mean Rank

No Element Country + Mean Rank
1 Acquiring capital Jordan 2003 109.45
Jordan 2006 97.98
2 Acquiring information Jordan 2003 119.73
Jordan 2006 93.43
3 Political and economic uncertainties Jordan 2003 91.02
Jordan 2006 106.14
4 Bureaucratic rules and regulations Jordan 2003 131.80
Jordan 2006 88.08
5 Infrastructure availability Jordan 2003 107.89
Jordan 2006 98.67
6 Infrastructure costs Jordan 2003 117.26
Jordan 2006 94.52
7 Inconsistent raw material quality Jordan 2003 129.36
Jordan 2006 89.16
8 Technical qualifications Jordan 2003 143.17
Jordan 2006 83.05
9 The market accessibility Jordan 2003 58.63
Jordan 2006 120.49
+ Number of respondents (Jordan 2003 = 62, Jordan 2006 = 140)

263
As a conclusion, there is a decline in most of the factor conditions. This result does not
clarify the significant increase in the exported quantity of the Jordanian natural stone.

Demand Conditions

The data (table below) shows that there are significant differences in the local and
international demand, product image, and customer awareness.

Demand Conditions – Mann-Whitney Test

Mann-Whitney U Z Asymp. Sig

(2-tailed)
Local demand 2489 -5.1 .00*
International demand 1455 -7,9 .00*
Product image in the international 3448.5 -2.48 .01*
markets
Customer awareness with regard to 3377.5 -2.6 .00*
product quality standards
Sophisticated customers visit many 3670.5 -1.85 .06
manufacturers before purchasing
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05)

The table below shows that there are improvements in the local and international demand,
customer awareness, and product image. This result clarifies the significant increase in
the exported quantities (as shown in figure 1.5).

Demand Conditions – Mean Rank

No Element Country+ Mean Rank
1 Local demand Jordan 2003 71.65
Jordan 2006 114,72
2 International demand Jordan 2003 80.89
Jordan 2006 148.03
3 Product image in the international markets Jordan 2003 87.12
Jordan 2006 107.87
4 Customer awareness with regard to product quality Jordan 2003 85.98
standards Jordan 2006 108.38
5 Sophisticated customers visit many manufacturers Jordan 2003 90.70
before purchasing Jordan 2006 106.28
+ Number of respondents (Jordan 2003= 62, Jordan 2006 = 140)

264
Related and Supporting Industries

The table shows that there are significant differences in the relationship between the
SMEs working in processing the natural stone sector and banks, insurance firms, research
and training centers, local manufacturers, public institutes, and firms from other sectors.

Related and Supporting Industries – Mann-Whitney Test

Mann-Whitney U Z Asymp. Sig

(2-tailed)
Supplier buyer relationships have 4285 -.15 .87
depended on the family and personal
ties
The relationship with local banks 2657.5 -4.8 .00*
The relationship with insurance firms 2729 -4.61 .00*
The relationship with research and 2162 -6.16 .00*
training centers and universities
The relationship with local 2820.5 -4.1 .00*
manufacturers
The relationship with public institutes 2940 -3.83 .00*
The relationship with governmental 4306 -.097 .92
institutes
The relationship with stone cutting 4219.5 -.39 .72
firms in the same region
The relationship with firms from other 2939 -3.9 .00*
sectors (design/ marketing)
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05)

Unfortunately, there are deteriorations in the relationship between the SMEs and the
related and supporting industries as shown in the following table. This result may assure
that establishing the Qualifying Industrial Zones (QIZ) did not help building related
industries. As mentioned in the text, the Middle East experienced a new kind of Free
Economic Zone (FEZ) called Qualified Industrial Zones. The US-Israel Implementation
Act defines QIZ as the territory of Israel and Jordan or Israel and Egypt designated
locally as an enclave where merchandise may enter without payment of duty or excise
taxes. The QIZ program allows the Jordanian kingdoms’ business community to export to
the US free of duties and restrictions, eliminating tariffs and other commercial barriers,

265
providing the sum of the cost or value of material produced in the West Bank, Gaza Strip,
in other QIZs, or in Israel, plus, the direct costs of processing operations is not less than
35% of the price paid by the US buyer. The QIZs have not produced backward linkage to
any significant extent. The QIZ sector remains heavily dependent on importing
intermediate goods, materials, and accessories. Ninety to ninety-five per cent of fabrics
used in QIZ production are imported. Companies operating in the QIZ are labor
intensive, low-tech assembly firms, with scant access to advanced technology. Thus, the
transfer of technology is practically confined to the labor aspect alone. Thus, the FEZ
creates little synergy between firms located in the free zone and the existing business
infrastructure in the local community.

Related and Supporting Industries – Mean Rank

No Element Country+ Mean Rank
1 Supplier buyer relationships have depended on the Jordan 2003 100.61
family and personal ties Jordan 2006 101.89
2 The relationship with local banks Jordan 2003 128.64
Jordan 2006 89.48
3 The relationship with insurance firms Jordan 2003 127.48
Jordan 2006 89.99
4 The relationship with research and training centers Jordan 2003 136.63
and universities Jordan 2006 85.94
5 The relationship with local manufacturers Jordan 2003 126.01
Jordan 2006 90.65
6 The relationship with public institutes Jordan 2003 124.08
Jordan 2006 91.50
7 The relationship with governmental institutes Jordan 2003 100.95
Jordan 2006 101.74
8 The relationship with stone cutting firms in the Jordan 2003 99.56
same region Jordan 2006 102.36
9 The relationship with firms from other sectors Jordan 2003 124.10
(design/ marketing) Jordan 2006 91.49
+ Number of respondents (Jordan 2003= 62, Jordan 2006 = 140)

266
Balanced Scored Card

The table below shows that there are significant differences in the SMEs' performance
within the necessary time to develop new generations of products, customer satisfaction,
and customer keep on.

Balanced Scored Card

Mann-Whitney U Z Asymp. Sig
(2-tailed)
Percentage of new products of total 3702.0 -1.757 .07
turnover
Time necessary to develop new 3224.5 -3.091 .02*
generation of products
Customer satisfaction 3322.5 -2.875 .00*
Your market share 3698.5 -1.763 .07
Customer keep on 3413.0 -2.580 .01*
Your employees satisfaction 3842.0 -1.416 .15
Employees keep on 3900.5 -1.26 .20
Productivity of your employees 3744.0 -1.67 .09
Return on Investment 3948.5 -1.07 .28
Profitability 4242.0 -.27 .78
Revenue growth 3875.0 -1.37 .17
Cost reduction 4088.0 -.69 .49
Exportation 3769.5 -1.59 .11
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05)

The data shows that there are deteriorations within the necessary time to develop new
generation of products, customer satisfaction, and customer keep on.

267
Balanced Scored Card – Mean Rank
No Element Country + Mean Rank
1 Percentage of new products of total turnover Jordan 2003 111.79
Jordan 2006 96.94
2 Time necessary to develop new generation of Jordan 2003 119.49
products Jordan 2006 93.53
3 Customer satisfaction Jordan 2003 117.91
Jordan 2006 94.23
4 Your market share Jordan 2003 111.85
Jordan 2006 96.92
5 Customer keep on Jordan 2003 116.45
Jordan 2006 94.88
6 Your employees satisfaction Jordan 2003 109.53
Jordan 2006 97.94
7 Employees keep on Jordan 2003 108.59
Jordan 2006 98.36
8 Productivity of your employees Jordan 2003 111.11
Jordan 2006 97.24
9 Return on Investment Jordan 2003 95.19
Jordan 2006 104.30
10 Profitability Jordan 2003 103.08
Jordan 2006 100.80
11 Revenue growth Jordan 2003 109.48
Jordan 2006 97.96
12 Cost reduction Jordan 2003 97.44
Jordan 2006 103.30
13 Exportation Jordan 2003 110.70
Jordan 2006 97.43
+ Number of respondents (Jordan 2003 = 62, and Jordan 2006 = 140)

268
Five Forces

The data shows that there are significant differences in the threats of rivals, bargaining
power of buyers, and bargaining power of suppliers and the threat of substitutes.

Five Forces – Mann-Whitney Test

Mann-Whitney U Z Asymp. Sig

(2-tailed)
The intensity of rivals 800.50 -9.584 .00*
The power of buyers 936.00 -9.261 .00*
The power of suppliers 809.50 -9.533 .00*
The threat of substitutes 914.50 -9.222 .00*
The threat of new entry 3887.00 -1.219 .22
* Significant (values are less than or equal 0.05)

The table below shows that the threats of the rivals, power of buyers, and power of
suppliers were decreased while the threat of substitutes was increased. It means that the
industry structure became more attractive, and the industry became more profitable.

Five Competitive Forces – Mean Rank

No Element Country+ Mean
Rank
1 Intensity of rivals Jordan 2003 158.59
Power of buyers Jordan 2006 76.22
2 Power of suppliers Jordan 2003 156.40
Threat of substitutes Jordan 2006 77.19
3 Threat of entry Jordan 2003 158.44
Intensity of rivals Jordan 2006 76.28
4 Power of buyers Jordan 2003 46.25
Power of suppliers Jordan 2006 125.97
5 Threat of substitutes Jordan 2003 94.19
Jordan 2006 104.74
+ Number of respondents (Jordan 2003= 62, Jordan 2006 = 140)

269
Computer and Internet Usage

The data shows that the percentage of respondents using the computer was increased
from (58.1%) in 2003 to (80.7%) in 2006. As well, the percentage of respondents using
the Internet was increased from (35.5%) in 2003 to (60.7%) in 2006.

Computer and Internet Usage - Percentage

Computer Usage
Yes No
Jordan 2003 58.1% 41.9%
Jordan 2006 80.7% 19.3%
Internet Usage
Yes No
Jordan 2003 35.5% 64.5%
Jordan 2006 60.7% 39.3%

Generic Strategies

The data shows that the percentage of the SMEs that are implementing the differentiation
strategy was (37%) in 2003 and became (29.3%) in 2006. While, the percentage of the
SMEs implementing the low cost strategy was (25.7%) in 2003 and it became (47.1%) in
2006. Furthermore, the data shows that the percentage of the SMEs focusing in specific
niche in the market was (45.1%) in 2003 and the percentage became (43.6%) in 2006.

Generic Strategies
Generic Strategy
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Jordan 2003 % 17.7 1.6 4.8 1.6 17.7 17.7 22.6 16.1
Jordan 2006 % 27.1 5 10.7 4.3 22.9 1.4 20.7 7.9

Unfortunately, more SMEs moved towards implementing the low cost strategy. It means
that these firms are competing with each other based on the price rather than innovation
and differentiation. This result may clarify the decrease in the different elements of the
balanced scored card.

270
 Appendix E
Tukey HSD – Generic Strategies and Competitive Advantage

In order to test the influence of the different scenarios of the generic strategies, the Tukey
test is used. The Tukey test is a procedure based on the studentized range distribution,
using critical values q. like the F distribution, the q distribution is characterized by two
parameters that specify which particular distribution applies (Saunders et al 2000).

Tukey HSD31 – Generic Strategy and Competitive Advantage

Strategy N 1 2 3 4
7 72 34.93
5 91 39.51
1 105 54.92
3 95 56.31
6 62 67.80
8 116 72.71 72.71
4 56 73.90 7.90
2 55 75.00
Sig. .36 .99 .07 .96

The Tukey test divides the eight scenarios into 4 groups. Group four consists of the
strategies 2, 4 and 8. These strategies have the highest influence on the competitive
advantage. Group three consists of the strategies 4, 8 and 6. Group 2 consists of the
strategies 3 and 1 while group 1 consists of the strategies 5 and 7. Group 1 has the lowest
influence on the competitive strategy since they are focusing on offering standard
products at no low cost.

31
Transformation process has been conducted by converting very negative to 0, negative to 25, accepted
into 50, positive to 75, and very positive to 100.

271
 Appendix F

Test Statistics32

The two main approaches to research are deductive and inductive. In the deductive
approach, theory, hypotheses and design of research strategy are developed to test the
hypotheses. In the inductive approach data are collected and a theory as a result of the
data analysis is developed. In this research study the deductive approach is used.

In order to apply the deductive approach, the following steps are followed:

√ Deducting a hypothesis (a testable proposition about the relationship between

two or more events or concepts) from the theory
√ Expressing the hypothesis in operational terms which propose a relationship
between two scientific variables
√ Testing this operational hypothesis. This will involve an empirical inquiry
√ Examining the specific outcomes of the inquiry. It will either tend to confirm
the theory or indicate the need for its modification
√ If necessary, modifying the theory in the light of the findings.

It is important to test the hypotheses that inductively emerge from the data by seeking
alternative explanations and negative examples that do not conform to the pattern or
relationship being tested. By rigorously testing the propositions against the data, looking
for alternative explanations and seeking to explain why negative cases occur, there will
be an opportunity to move towards the development of valid and well-grounded
conclusions. Thus, the validity of the conclusions will be verified by the ability to
withstand alternative explanations and the nature of negative cases.

32
The main reference for the test statistics is "Statistics for Modern Business Decisions" for Lapin, 1993.

272
 Appendix F-1

Test Statistic - One Way Analysis of Variance (One-Way ANOVA)

Each sample may be represented by symbol X ij

, where i refer to the row or observation

number and j refers to the column. This matrix format provides the experimental layout.
In each column, the values are the sample observations made from the corresponding
populations.

The following expression is used to compute the sample mean for the jth column:

=
∑i X ij
X j
r

Where all the observations in the jth column are summed and divided by r, where r is the
number of observations per treatment or the number of rows. To facilitate testing the null
hypothesis, the data are pooled in calculating the grand mean:

∑ j ∑i X ij
X=
rc

Where c is the number of columns. The resultant total is divided by the combined sample
size.

The analysis of variance procedure considers the collective sums of individual squared
deviations. These express the amount of variation about the respective means that is
exhibited by the sample values.

Using the sum of squares, the relation may be expressed as:

Total variation (SSTO) = Treatments variation (SSTR) + Error variation (SSE)

Where SSTR = r ∑( X j − X )

273
SSTR is called the explained variation because it is obtained from differences in the
sample means.

SSE = (
∑∑ X ij − X j )2
= SSTO - SSTR

SSE means the unexplained variation because it measures differences between sample
values that are due to chance variation.

As a test statistic, there is a need for a summary measure to express how much the sample
results deviate from what is expected when the null hypothesis is true. This may be
achieved by comparing the explained and the unexplained variations. To find this ratio,
there is a need to find treatment mean square and error mean square.

SSTR
Treatment mean square = MSTR =
c −1

SSE
Error mean square = MSE =
(r − 1)c

MSTR
The test statistic for analysis of variance F =
MSE

For the null hypothesis, we expect values of F to be close to 1, because MSTR and MSE
are both unbiased estimators of common population variance. To formulate a decision
rule, there is a need to establish a sampling distribution for the test statistic. From this, the
critical path value could be determined to tell whether the calculated value F is large
enough to reject the null hypothesis. The probability distribution to do this is called F
distribution.

274
 Appendix F-2

Test Statistic - The Kruskal-Wallis Test

The primary difference between the F test and the Kruskal-Wallis test is that the latter is
based on a test statistic computed from ranks determined for pooled sample observations.
Its null hypothesis is that the rank assigned to a particular observation has an equal
chance of being any number between 1 and n, regardless of the sample group to which it
belongs.

At a significance level of α= 0.05, the researcher test the null hypothesis that there are no
significant differences between major groups. The alternative hypothesis is that there are
significant differences between groups. For this test statistic, there is a need to compare
variabies in the ranks within each column. The sum of ranks for each category T j
is

computed. A sum of the squares of these sums is then obtained. The following expression
is used to calculate the Kruskal-Wallis test statistic:

12  T j 
2

K= − 3(n + 1)
n(n + 1)  n j 
 

Where n = ∑n j

The sampling distribution of K is approximately a chi-square distribution with m-1

degrees of freedom, where m is the number of categories. To find the critical value, we
use chi-square distribution which provides critical values for specified tail areas.

275
 Appendix F-3

Test Statistic - The Mann-Whitney Test

The Mann-Whitney test is used to compare two populations using independent samples.
In this test, the combined sample data are ranked, and then the sum W of the sample A
ranks is calculated. The test statistic is:

U= +
(n A
+ 1)n A
−W
nn A B
2

The normal curve serves as the approximate sampling distribution of U test. The normal
deviate for the sample results is provided by:

U − n A nB
Z= 2
n A nB n A + nB + 1)
(
12

All null hypotheses tested under this procedure share a common assumption that the
samples were selected from identical means. The test is therefore based on the principle
that the two samples may be treated as if they came from a common population. The data
for the two samples may be combined under the various null hypotheses. The observed
values in the pooled sample are then ranked from smallest to largest, the smallest value is
assigned a rank of 1, the next smallest value is ranked 2, and so forth. The samples are
then separated and the sums of the ranks are calculated for each sample.

276
 Appendix G

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics enable to describe and compare viable numerically. This can be
seen by plotting either a frequency polygon or a histogram for continuous data or a
frequency polygon or bar chart for discrete data. If the diagram shows a bunching to the
left and a long tail to the right then data are positively skewed. If the converse is true, the
data are negatively skewed. Statistics to describe a variable focus on two aspects are
central tendency and dispersion

Describing the central tendency

When describing data for both samples and populations quantitatively it is usual to
provide some general impression of values that could be seen as common, middling or
average. Three ways of measuring the central tendency most used are:

√ values which occurs most frequently (mode)

√ middle value or mod-point after the data have been ranked (median)
√ value which includes all data values in its calculation (mean)

Describing the dispersion

It is important to describe how the data values are dispersed around the central tendency.
Two of the most frequently used ways of describing the dispersion are:

√ difference within the middle 50 percent of values (inter-quartile range)

√ extent to which values differ from the mean (standard deviation)

The tables below shows the mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values,
and skewness of the factor conditions, demand conditions, related and supporting
industries, five competitive forces, balanced scored card and the impact of the ICT on
the competitive elements of the SMEs working in the natural stone sector in Jordan,
Turkey and Italy.

277
 Appendix G - 1

Descriptive Statistics – Factor Conditions

Italy has a higher mean (3.61) and standard deviation (0.47) in comparison with Turkey
and Jordan. As well, Italy has the highest range (maximum value – minimum value =
3.33). The skewness shows that the data in Jordan skewed to the right while the data in
Turkey and Italy skewed to the left.

Table 1 – Factor Conditions

Jordan Turkey Italy Total
Mean 2.30 3.01 3.61 3.13
Std. Deviation .44 .42 .47 .67
Minimum 1.22 1.89 1.67 1.22
Maximum 3.56 4.33 5.00 5.00
Skewness .39 -.20 -.19 -.20

Factor
50

40

30
Jordan
20
c
ny

10
e

Std. Dev = .44

eu
q

Mean = 2.30
F
r

0 N = 140.00
1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50

Factor

Factor
80

60

40
Turkey
cy

20
uen

Std. Dev = .42

eq

Mean = 3.01
F
r

0 N = 213.00
2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25

Factor

Factor
120

100

80

60
Italy
40
ec
ny

20 Std. Dev = .47

eu
q

Mean = 3.61
F
r

0 N = 299.00
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Factor

278
 Appendix G - 2

Descriptive Statistics – Demand Conditions

Jordan has a lower mean (3.04) and standard deviation (0.51) in comparison with Turkey
and Italy. On the contrary, Jordan has the highest range (3.00). The skewness shows that
the data in Jordan, Turkey and Italy skewed to the left.

Table 2 – Demand Conditions

Jordan Turkey Italy Total
Mean 3.04 3.80 4.12 3.77
Std. Deviation .51 .54 .58 .69
Minimum 1.4 2.20 2.20 1.40
Maximum 4.4 5.00 5.00 5.00
Skewness -.26 -.21 -.80 -.37

Demand
60

50

40

30 Jordan
20
ec
ny

10 Std. Dev = .51

u
q

Mean = 3.04
re
F

0 N = 140.00
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50

Demand

Demand
80

60

40

Turkey
y

20
ec
n

Std. Dev = .54

u
q

Mean = 3.80
re
F

0 N = 213.00
2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Demand

Demand
120

100

80
Italy
60

40
ec
ny

20 Std. Dev = .58

u
q

Mean = 4.12
re
F

0 N = 299.00
2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Demand

279
 Appendix G - 3

Descriptive Statistics – Related and Supporting Industries

Jordan has a lower mean (2.25) and standard deviation (0.40) in comparison with Turkey
and Italy. As well, Jordan has the lowest range (2.45). The skewness shows that the data
in Jordan and Turkey skewed to the right while the data in Italy skewed to the left.

Table 3 – Related and Supporting Industries

Jordan Turkey Italy Total
Mean 2.25 3.41 3.78 3.33
Std. Deviation .40 .49 .72 .83
Minimum 1.33 1.89 2.00 1.33
Maximum 3.78 5.00 5.00 5.00
Skewness .25 .21 -.64 -.18

Cluster
40

30

20 Jordan
cy

10
en

Std. Dev = .40

reu
q

Mean = 2.25
F

0 N = 140.00
1.25 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50

Cluster

Cluster
70

60

50

40

30 Turkey
y

20
ec
n

Std. Dev = .49

u
q

10
re

Mean = 3.41
F

0 N = 213.00
2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75 4.25 4.75

Cluster

Cluster
60

50

40

Italy Ita
30

20
ec
ny

Std. Dev = .72

u

10
eq

Mean = 3.78
F
r

0 N = 299.00
2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75 4.25 4.75

Cluster

280
 Appendix G - 4

Descriptive Statistics – Five Forces

Jordan has a lower mean (2.50) and standard deviation (.53) in comparison with Turkey
and Italy. While Italy has the lowest range (2.6). The skewness shows that the data in
Jordan and Italy skewed to the right while the data in Turkey skewed to the left.

Table 4 – Five Forces

Jordan Turkey Italy Total
Mean 2.50 3.11 2.99 2.93
Std. Deviation .53 .55 .54 .58
Minimum 1.4 1.60 1.80 1.40
Maximum 4.2 4.60 4.40 4.60
Skewness .99 -.36 .27 .13

Five Forces
60

50

40

Jordan
30

20
ec
ny

10 Std. Dev = .53

u
q

Mean = 2.55
re
F

0 N = 140.00
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00

Five Forces

Five Forces
100

80

60

Turkey
40
c
ny

20
e

Std. Dev = .55

u
q

Mean = 3.11
re
F

0 N = 213.00
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50

Five Forces

Five Forces
140

120

100

80

60 Italy
40
ec
ny

Std. Dev = .54

u

20
q

Mean = 2.99
re
F

0 N = 299.00
2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50

Five Forces

281
 Appendix G - 5

Descriptive Statistics – Balanced Scored Card

Jordan has a lower mean (2.78) in comparison with Turkey and Italy while Italy has the
lowest standard deviation (0.66). Turkey and Italy have the lowest range (3.08). The
skewness shows that the data in Jordan skewed to the right while the data in Turkey and
Italy skewed to the left.

Table 5 – Balanced Scored Card

Jordan Turkey Italy Total
Mean 2.78 3.36 3.59 3.33
Std. Deviation .71 .75 .66 .76
Minimum 1.15 1.77 1.92 1.15
Maximum 4.92 4.85 5.00 5.00
Skewness .51 -.12 -.47 -.20

Balanced Card
40

30

Jordan
20
cy

10
uen

Std. Dev = .71

eq

Mean = 2.78
F
r

0 N = 140.00
1.25 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75 4.25 4.75
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Balanced Card

Balanced Card
30

20

10 Turkey
uec
ny

Std. Dev = .75

eq

Mean = 3.36
F
r

0 N = 213.00
1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75 4.25 4.75
2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50

Balanced Card

Balanced Card
60

50

40
Italy
30

20
uec
ny

10 Std. Dev = .66

eq

Mean = 3.59
F
r

0 N = 299.00
2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75 4.25 4.75

Balanced Card

282
 Innovation

Jordan has a lower mean (2.39) in comparison with Turkey and Italy. The range in the
three countries is the same (4.00). The skewness shows that the data in Jordan and
Turkey skewed to the right while the data in Italy skewed to the left.

Table 6 – Innovation
Jordan Turkey Italy Total
Mean 2.39 2.74 3.54 3..03
Std. Deviation .96 1.12 .94 1.11
Minimum 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Maximum 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
Skewness .92 .36 -.50 .02

Innovation
70

60

50

40
Jordan
30

20
ec
ny

Std. Dev = .96

u

10
q

Mean = 2.39
re
F

0 N = 140.00
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Innovation

Innovation
60

50

40

30

20
Turkey
ec
ny

10 Std. Dev = 1.12

u
q

Mean = 2.74
re
F

0 N = 213.00
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Innovation

Innovation
80

60

40 Italy
y

20
ec
n

Std. Dev = .94

u
q

Mean = 3.54
re
F

0 N = 299.00
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Innovation

283
 Customer Satisfaction

Jordan has a lower mean (3.05) and a highest standard deviation (0.81) in comparison
with Turkey and Italy. As well, Jordan has the highest range (4.00). The skewness shows
that the data in Jordan skewed to the right while the data in Turkey and Italy skewed to
the left.

Table 7 – Customer Satisfaction

Jordan Turkey Italy Total
Mean 3.05 3.67 3.77 3.58
Std. Deviation .81 .77 .75 .82
Minimum 1.00 1.67 1.33 1.00
Maximum 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
Skewness .15 -.33 -.56 -.36

Customer
50

40

Jordan
30

20
c
ny

10
e

Std. Dev = .81

u
q

Mean = 3.05
re
F

0 N = 140.00
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Customer

Customer
70

60

50

40

30
Turkey
20
ec
ny

Std. Dev = .77

u

10
q

Mean = 3.67
re
F

0 N = 213.00
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Customer

Customer
100

80

60

40
Italy
c
ny

20
e

Std. Dev = .75

u
q

Mean = 3.77
re
F

0 N = 299.00
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Customer

284
 Employee Satisfaction

Jordan has a lower mean (3.41) and standard deviation (0.67) in comparison with Turkey
and Italy. Jordan and Italy have the same range (4.00). The skewness shows that the data
in Jordan, Turkey and Turkey skewed to the left.

Table 8 – Employee Satisfaction

Jordan Turkey Italy Total
Mean 3.41 3.78 3.64 3.63
Std. Deviation .67 .75 .99 .86
Minimum 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00
Maximum 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
Skewness -.17 -.26 -.85 -.63

Employees
60

50

40

30
Jordan
20
n
ecy

10 Std. Dev = .67

qu

Mean = 3.41
Fre

0 N = 140.00
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Employees

Employees
80

60

40
Turkey
y

20
n
ec

Std. Dev = .75

qu

Mean = 3.78
Fre

0 N = 213.00
2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Employees

Employees
80

60

40
Italy
y

20
ec
n

Std. Dev = .99

u
q

Mean = 3.64
re
F

0 N = 299.00
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Employees

285
 Financial Indicators

Jordan has a lower mean and a maximum standard deviation in comparison with Turkey
and Italy. Jordan and Italy have lowest ranges (3.80) in comparison with Turkey. The
skewness shows that the data in Jordan skewed to the right while the data in Turkey and
Italy skewed to the left.

Table 9 – Financial Indicators

Jordan Turkey Italy Total
Mean 2.39 3.17 3.47 3.13
Std. Deviation .89 .85 .71 .89
Minimum 1.00 1.00 1.20 1.00
Maximum 4.80 5.00 5.00 5.00
Skewness .58 -.03 -.37 -.26

Finance
50

40

30
Jordan
20
c
ny

10
e

Std. Dev = .89

u
q

Mean = 2.39
re
F

0 N = 140.00
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Finance

Finance
120

100

80

60
Turkey
40
ec
ny

20 Std. Dev = .71

u
q

Mean = 3.47
re
F

0 N = 299.00
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Finance

Finance
60

50

40

30

20
Italy
ec
ny

10 Std. Dev = .85

reu
q

Mean = 3.17
F

0 N = 213.00
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Finance

286
 Appendix G - 6

Descriptive Statistics – The ICT Impact

Jordan has a lower mean (2.38) and standard deviation (0.64) in comparison with Turkey
and Italy. As well, Jordan has the lowest range (2.14). The skewness shows that the data
in Jordan, Turkey and Italy skewed to the left.

Table 10
Jordan Turkey Italy Total
Mean 2.38 2.98 3.20 2.95
Std. Deviation .64 .89 .95 .92
Minimum 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Maximum 3.14 4.36 4.93 4.93
Skewness -.58 -.56 -.91 -.47

IT Impact
60

50

40
Jordan
30

20
ec
ny

10 Std. Dev = .64

u
q

Mean = 2.38
re
F

0 N = 140.00
1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25

IT Impact

IT Impact
60

50

40

30
Turkey
20
ec
ny

Std. Dev = .89

u

10
q

Mean = 2.98
re
F

0 N = 213.00
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00
1.25 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75 4.25

IT Impact

IT Impact
60

50

40

30

20
Italy
ec
ny

Std. Dev = .95

u

10
req

Mean = 3.20
F

0 N = 299.00
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
1.25 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75 4.25 4.75

IT Impact

287
 Appendix H

Regression Analysis

The primary goal of regression analysis is to obtain predictions of one variable using the
known values of another. These predictions are made by employing an equation such as

Y = a + bX

This regression equation provides the estimate of an unknown variable Y when the value
of another variable X is known. It is worth mentioning that the predictions made from the
regression equation are subject to error and are only estimates of the true values.

Regression analysis begins with a set of data involving pairs of observed values, one
number for each variable. Then, a suitable function is found to provide the predicted
value of Y for a given value of X. The clue to finding an appropriate regression equation
can be found in the general pattern presented by the points in the scatter diagram.

288
 Appendix I -1

Incomparability of Measurement in Survey Research within Countries

(Jordan, Turkey, and Italy)

In order to testify whether there is significant incomparability within the same country,
the following test is conducted. M1 presents the mean of each question by calculating the
average of other questions that measure the same concept after excluding the question
under investigation, assuming these questions do not have DIF. M2 presents the mean of
the investigated question. As an example, the mean of acquiring capital is calculated by
the average of the other factor conditions while M2 is the mean of acquiring capital.

The data shows that there is a deviation between M1 and M2. This deviation is due to the
inter-personal incomparability within the country. As well, the data shows that Jordanians
reply less in most cases. Tables below present the means and deviations of the factor
conditions, demand conditions, related and supporting industries, five forces, balanced
scored card, and impact of the ICT on competitive elements.

Table 1. Factor Conditions

Jordan Turkey Italy
M1 M2 Dev M1 M2 Dev M1 M2 Dev
Capital 2.3 2.98 -0.68 3.38 2.96 0.42 3.93 3.57 0.36
Information 2.25 1.41 0.84 3.33 2.97 0.36 4.17 3.54 0.63
Political & economic 2.53 2.69 -0.16 2.26 3.10 -0.84 2.5 3.75 -1.25
Bureaucratic rules 1.71 2.37 -0.66 2.37 3.09 -0.72 3.38 3.64 -0.26
Infra. availability 2.48 2.27 0.21 2.59 3.06 -0.47 3.9 3.57 0.33
Infrastructure cost 2.38 2.28 0.1 2.67 3.05 -0.38 3.46 3.63 -0.17
Raw material quality 1.56 2.39 -0.83 3.39 2.96 0.43 3.09 3.68 -0.59
Qualifications 1.84 2.35 -0.51 3.61 2.93 0.68 3.98 3.56 0.42
Market accessibility 3.63 2.13 1.5 3.51 2.95 0.56 4.13 3.54 0.59
M1 is the mean of the factor conditions
M2 is the mean of the factor conditions excluding the question under the investigation
(do not have DIF).
Dev is the deviation between M1 and M2 that measures interpersonal incomparability.

289
Table 2. Demand Conditions
Jordan Turkey Italy
M1 M2 Dev M1 M2 Dev M1 M2 Dev
Local demand 3.51 2.91 0.6 3.28 2.92 0.36 4.27 4.07 0.2
International demand 1.69 3.37 -1.68 4.31 3.66 0.65 4.23 4.08 0.15
Product image 3.58 2.9 0.68 3.71 3.81 -0.1 4.28 4.07 0.21
Customer awareness 3.18 3 0.18 3.67 3.82 -0.15 4.01 4.14 -0.13
Sophistication 3.23 2.98 0.25 4.01 3.74 0.27 3.79 4.19 -0.4
M1 is the mean of the demand conditions
M2 is the mean of the demand conditions excluding the question under the investigation
(do not have DIF).
Dev is the deviation between M1 and M2 that measures interpersonal incomparability.

Table 3. Related and Supporting Industries

Jordan Turkey Italy
M1 M2 Dev M1 M2 Dev M1 M2 Dev
Supplier- buyer 3.61 2.07 1.54 3.58 3.39 0.19 3.42 3.82 -0.4
Local banks 1.61 2.32 -0.71 4.24 3.3 0.94 3.74 3.78 -0.04
Insurance firms 1.98 2.28 -0.3 3.36 3.41 -0.05 3.7 3.79 -0.09
Research and training 1.53 2.33 -0.8 3.45 3.4 0.05 3.9 3.76 0.14
Local manufacturers 2.37 2.23 0.14 3.71 3.37 0.34 3.88 3.76 0.12
Public institutes 2.58 2.2 0.38 3.44 3.4 0.04 3.78 3.78 0
Gov. institutes 2.29 2.24 0.05 2.52 3.52 -1 3.77 3.78 -0.01
Stone cutting firms 2.63 2.2 0.43 2.9 3.47 -0.57 3.97 3.75 0.22
Other sectors 1.63 2.32 -0.69 3.51 3.39 0.12 3.88 3.76 0.12
(design/ marketing)
M1 is the mean of the related and supporting industries
M2 is the mean of the related and supporting industries excluding the question under the
investigation (do not have DIF).
Dev is the deviation between M1 and M2 that measures interpersonal incomparability.

Table 4. Five Forces

Jordan Turkey Italy
M1 M2 Dev M1 M2 Dev M1 M2 Dev
Intensity of rivals 1.94 2.7 -0.76 2.86 3.17 -0.31 3.2 2.93 0.27
Power of buyers 1.8 2.73 -0.93 3.03 3.12 -0.09 2.76 3.04 -0.28
Power of suppliers 1.8 2.73 -0.93 3.02 3.13 -0.11 2.87 3.01 -0.14
Threat of substitutes 4.04 2.17 1.87 3.36 3.04 0.32 2.66 3.06 -0.4
Threat of new entry 3.17 2.39 0.78 3.27 3.07 0.2 3.45 2.87 0.58
M1 is the mean of the five forces
M2 is the mean of the five forces excluding the question under the investigation (do not
have DIF).
Dev is the deviation between M1 and M2 that measures interpersonal incomparability.

290
Table 5. Balanced Scored Card
Jordan Turkey Italy
M1 M2 Dev M1 M2 Dev M1 M2 Dev
New products 2.57 2.21 0.36 2.95 2.54 0.41 3.59 3.48 0.11
Timing 2.21 2.57 -0.36 2.54 2.95 -0.41 3.48 3.59 -0.11
Customer satisfaction 3.12 3 0.12 3.75 3.63 0.12 3.83 3.73 0.1
Your market share 2.86 3.13 -0.27 3.54 3.74 -0.2 3.67 3.81 -0.14
Customer keep on 3.15 2.99 0.16 3.73 3.64 0.09 3.8 3.75 0.05
Emp. satisfaction 3.44 3.4 0.04 3.81 3.76 0.05 3.64 3.64 0
Employees keep on 3.54 3.35 0.19 3.8 3.77 0.03 3.67 3.63 0.04
Emp. Productivity 3.26 3.49 -0.23 3.73 3.8 -0.07 3.61 3.65 -0.04
Return on Investment 2.8 2.28 0.52 3.5 3.08 0.42 3.71 3.41 0.3
Profitability 2.36 2.39 -0.03 3.34 3.12 0.22 3.71 3.41 0.3
Revenue growth 2.28 2.41 -0.13 3.06 3.19 -0.13 3.55 3.45 0.1
Cost reduction 2.59 2.33 0.26 2.92 3.22 -0.3 2.9 3.61 -0.71
Exportation 1.91 2.5 -0.59 3.02 3.2 -0.18 3.48 3.46 0.02
M1 is the mean of the balanced scored card
M2 is the mean of the balanced scored card excluding the question under the
investigation (do not have DIF).
Dev is the deviation between M1 and M2 that measures interpersonal incomparability.

Table 6. Impact of the ICT

Jordan Turkey Italy
M1 M2 Dev M1 M2 Dev M1 M2 Dev
Transaction costs 2.07 2.4 -0.33 2.59 3.01 -0.42 3.23 3.19 0.04
Quality 2.36 2.37 -0.01 2.71 3 -0.29 3.48 3.17 0.31
New suppliers 2.06 2.4 -0.34 2.86 3 -0.14 3.39 3.18 0.21
New customers 2.05 2.4 -0.35 2.91 2.98 -0.07 3.57 3.16 0.41
Defense 2.51 2.36 0.15 3.05 2.97 0.08 3.1 3.2 -0.1
Large firms 2.49 2.36 0.13 3.1 2.97 0.13 2.9 3.21 -0.31
Market share 2.09 2.36 -0.27 3.06 2.97 0.09 2.96 3.21 -0.25
New markets 2.11 2.4 -0.29 3.08 2.97 0.11 3.17 3.19 -0.02
Flexibility 2.66 2.4 0.26 3.11 2.97 0.14 3.11 3.2 -0.09
Innovation 2.49 2.36 0.13 3.1 2.97 0.13 3.26 3.19 0.07
Control 2.73 2.35 0.38 3.02 2.98 0.04 3.16 3.19 -0.03
Job creation 2.76 2.34 0.42 3.04 2.97 0.07 3.17 3.19 -0.02
Firm's image 2.3 2.38 -0.08 3.07 2.97 0.1 3.24 3.19 0.05
Lack resources 261 2.36 258.64 3.08 2.97 0.11 3 3.2 -0.2
M1 is the mean of impact of the ICT on the competitive elements.
M2 is the mean of impact of the ICT on the competitive elements excluding the question
under the investigation (do not have DIF).
Dev is the deviation between M1 and M2 that measures interpersonal incomparability.

291
 Appendix I -2

Incomparability of Measurement in Survey Research between Countries (Jordan,

Turkey, and Italy)

In order to testify whether there is a variation in responses, each survey question has been
evaluated in turn by comparing it with an average of all the others that measure the same
concept assuming that all the other questions do not have DIF on average, as each
question moves in and out of the gold standard comparison group, is internally
inconsistent (King 23004).

As an example, the average is calculated by finding means of the factor conditions

excluding the question under investigation in the three countries. Mean presents the
average of each question in each country. The deviation presents the incomparability
between the three countries.

Table 1. Factor Conditions

Jordan Turkey Italy
Average* Mean Dev. Mean Dev. Mean Dev.
Acquiring capital 3.1 2.3 -0.8 3.38 0.28 3.93 0.83
Acquiring
information 3.1 2.25 -0.85 3.33 0.23 4.17 1.07
Political and
economic
uncertainties 3.22 2.53 -0.69 2.26 -0.96 2.5 -0.72
Bureaucratic rules
and regulations 3.19 1.71 -1.48 2.37 -0.82 3.38 0.19
Infrastructure
availability 3.13 2.48 -0.65 2.59 -0.54 3.9 0.77
Infrastructure cost 3.15 2.38 -0.77 2.67 -0.48 3.46 0.31
Inconsistent raw
material quality 3.16 1.56 -1.6 3.39 0.23 3.09 -0.07
Technical
qualifications 3.1 1.84 -1.26 3.61 0.51 3.98 0.88
The market
accessibility 3.04 3.63 0.59 3.51 0.47 4.13 1.09
* The average is calculated by finding the average of the factor conditions after
excluding the question that is under examination in order to avoid any incomparability

292
Table 2. Demand Conditions
Jordan Turkey Italy
Average* Mean Dev. Mean Dev. Mean Dev.
Local demand 3.77 3.51 -0.26 3.28 -0.49 4.27 0.5
International
demand 3.79 1.69 -2.1 4.31 0.52 4.23 0.44
Product image in the
international
markets 3.73 3.58 -0.15 3.71 -0.02 4.28 0.55
Customer awareness
with regard to
product quality
standards 3.79 3.18 -0.61 3.67 -0.12 4.01 0.22
Sophisticated
customers visit
many manufacturers
before purchasing 3.78 3.23 -0.55 4.01 0.23 3.79 0.01
* The average is calculated by finding the average of the demand conditions after
excluding the question that is under examination in order to avoid any
incomparability.

Table 3. Five Forces

Jordan Turkey Italy
Average* Mean Dev. Mean Dev. Mean Dev.
The intensity of
rivals 2.96 1.94 -1.02 2.86 -0.1 3.2 0.24
The power of buyers 3 1.8 -1.2 3.03 0.03 2.76 -0.24
The power of
suppliers 2.99 1.8 -1.19 3.02 0.03 2.87 -0.12
The threat of
substitutes 2.87 4.04 1.17 3.36 0.49 2.66 -0.21
The threat of new
entry 2.83 3.17 0.34 3.27 0.44 3.45 0.62
* The average is calculated by finding the average of the five forces after excluding
the question that is under examination in order to avoid any incomparability.

293
Table 4. Related and Supporting Industries
Jordan Turkey Italy
Average* Mean Dev. Mean Dev. Mean Dev.
Supplier buyer
relationships have
depended on the
family and personal
ties 3.3 3.61 0.31 3.58 0.28 3.42 0.12
The relationship
with local banks 3.31 1.61 -1.7 4.24 0.93 3.74 0.43
The relationship
with insurance firms 3.34 1.98 -1.36 3.36 0.02 3.7 0.36
The relationship
with research and
training centers and
universities 3.34 1.53 -1.81 3.45 0.11 3.9 0.56
The relationship
with local
manufacturers 3.1 2.37 -0.73 3.71 0.61 3.88 0.78
The relationship
with public
institutes 3.32 2.58 -0.74 3.44 0.12 3.78 0.46
The relationship
with governmental
institutes 3.36 2.29 -1.07 2.52 -0.84 3.77 0.41
The relationship
with stone cutting
firms in the same
region 3.33 2.63 -0.7 2.9 -0.43 3.97 0.64
The relationship
with firms from
other sectors
(design/ marketing) 3.33 1.63 -1.7 3.51 0.18 3.88 0.55
* The average is calculated by finding the average of the related and supporting
industries after excluding the question that is under examination in order to avoid any
incomparability.

294
Table 5. Balanced Scored Card
Jordan Turkey Italy
Average* Mean Dev. Mean Dev. Mean Dev.
Percentage of new
products of total
turnover 2.9 2.57 -0.33 2.95 0.05 3.59 0.69
Time necessary to
develop new
generation of
products 3.16 2.21 -0.95 2.54 -0.62 3.48 0.32
Customer
satisfaction 3.55 3.12 -0.43 3.75 0.2 3.83 0.28
Your market share 3.64 2.86 -0.78 3.54 -0.1 3.67 0.03
Customer keep on 3.55 3.15 -0.4 3.73 0.18 3.8 0.25
Your employees
satisfaction 3.63 3.44 -0.19 3.81 0.18 3.64 0.01
Employees keep on 3.61 3.54 -0.07 3.8 0.19 3.67 0.06
Productivity of your
employees 3.66 3.26 -0.4 3.73 0.07 3.61 -0.05
Return on
Investment 3.06 2.8 -0.26 3.5 0.44 3.71 0.65
Profitability 3.09 2.36 -0.73 3.34 0.25 3.71 0.62
Revenue growth 3.14 2.28 -0.86 3.06 -0.08 3.55 0.41
Cost reduction 3.21 2.59 -0.62 2.92 -0.29 2.9 -0.31
Exportation 3.17 1.91 -1.26 3.02 -0.15 3.48 0.31
* The average is calculated by finding the average of the balanced scored card after
excluding the question that is under examination in order to avoid any
incomparability.

295
Table 6. Impact of the ICT
Jordan Turkey Italy
Average* Mean Dev. Mean Dev. Mean Dev.
Reduce transaction
costs 2.96 2.07 -0.89 2.59 -0.37 3.23 0.27
Improve quality of
product/service 2.94 2.36 -0.58 2.71 -0.23 3.48 0.54
Reach new
suppliers 2.95 2.06 -0.89 2.86 -0.09 3.39 0.44
Reach new
customers 2.94 2.05 -0.89 2.91 -0.03 3.57 0.63
Defend your self
against competitors
engaging in e–
commerce 2.95 2.51 -0.44 3.05 0.1 3.1 0.15
Work with large
firms (local and
international) 2.95 2.49 -0.46 3.1 0.15 2.9 -0.05
Increase market
share 2.96 2.09 -0.87 3.06 0.1 2.96 0
Enter new markets 2.95 2.11 -0.84 3.08 0.13 3.17 0.22
Increase the
flexibility of your
firm 2.94 2.66 -0.28 3.11 0.17 3.11 0.17
Increase your
ability to innovate 2.94 2.49 -0.45 3.1 0.16 3.26 0.32
Improve control of
your business
process
organization 2.94 2.73 -0.21 3.02 0.08 3.16 0.22
Increase job
creation in your
firm 2.94 2.76 -0.18 3.04 0.1 3.17 0.23
Improve the image
of your firm 2.94 2.3 -0.64 3.07 0.13 3.24 0.3
Contribute to
solving your
problem of lack
resources and
access to
technology 2.95 261 258.05 3.08 0.13 3 0.05
* The average is calculated by finding the average of the ICT impact of different
competitive elements after excluding the question that is under examination in order
to avoid any incomparability.

296
 Appendix I -3

One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test

The One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test procedure compares the observed

cumulative distribution function for a variable with a specified theoretical distribution,
which may be normal, uniform, Poisson, or exponential. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov is
computed from the largest difference (in absolute value) between the observed and
theoretical cumulative distribution functions. This goodness-of-fit test tests whether the
observations could reasonably have come from the specified distribution. In order to
testify whether there are significant differences in the deviations from the mean or not, a
five-step procedure is applied:

√ Formulating the null and alternative hypotheses

Null Hypothesis: Actual results fit with expected result

√ Selecting the test statistic and procedure

The non-parametric Kolmogotov-Smirnov one sample test is used.

√ Establishing the significance level

A significant level α = 0.05.

√ Computing the value of test statistics

The Kolmogotov-Smirnov test statistic: D = max F a

( x) − F ( x)
e

Where D is the maximum frequency deviation.

Deviation = F a ( x) - F e (x)
F a
( x) is the actual cumulative frequency
F e
(x) = is the expected cumulative frequency

297
 √ Making the decision

Accept Null Hypothesis if D ≤ Dα

Reject Null Hypothesis if D 〉 Dα

Table 1. K-S One-Sample Test – Factor Conditions

K-S Deviation Sig. (2
tailed)
Acquiring capital 5.2 .20 0.00
Acquiring information 6.2 .24 0.00
Political and economic uncertainties 4.6 .18 0.00
Bureaucratic rules and regulations 4.2 .16 0.00
Infrastructure availability 4.7 .18 0.00
Infrastructure cost 5.1 .20 0.00
Inconsistent raw material quality 4.5 .17 0.00
Technical qualifications 5.5 .21 0.00
The market accessibility 6.6 .26 0.00
N= 652

Table 2. K-S One-Sample Test – Demand Conditions

K-S Deviation Sig. (2
tailed)
Local demand 6.1 .24 0.00
International demand 6.2 .24 0.00
Product image in the international markets 6.2 .24 0.00
Customer awareness with regard to product 0.00
quality standards 6.9 .27
Sophisticated customers 5.3 .21 0.00
N = 652

298
Table 3. K-S One-Sample Test – Related and Supporting Industries
K-S Deviation Sig. (2
tailed)
Supplier buyer relationships 5.5 ..27 0.00
The relationship with local banks 5.2 .20 0.00
The relationship with insurance firms 4.8 .19 0.00
The relationship with research and training 5.8 .22 0.00
The relationship with local manufacturers 6.1 .24 0.00
The relationship with public institutes 5.1 .20 0.00
The relationship with governmental institutes 4.7 .18 0.00
The relationship with stone cutting firms 5.2 .20 0.00
The relationship with firms from other sectors 5.3 .22 0.00
N = 652

Table 4. K-S One-Sample Test – Five Forces

K-S Deviation Sig. (2
tailed)
The intensity of rivals 5.0 0.19 0.00
The power of buyers 5.0 0.19 0.00
The power of suppliers 5.3 0.20 0.00
The threat of substitutes 4.6 0.18 0.00
The threat of new entry 4.7 0.18 0.00
N = 652

Table 5. K-S One Sample Test – Balanced Scored Card

K-S Deviation Sig. (2
tailed)
Percentage of new products of total turnover 4.6 .18 0.00
Time necessary to develop new products 4.5 .17 0.00
Customer satisfaction 6.0 .23 0.00
Your market share 5.4 .21 0.00
Customer keep on 6.1 .24 0.00
Your employees satisfaction 6.4 .25 0.00
Employees keep on 6.6 .26 0.00
Productivity of your employees 5.8 .22 0.00
Return on Investment 4.9 .19 0.00
Profitability 4.7 .18 0.00
Revenue growth 4.7 .18 0.00
Cost reduction 5.2 .20 0.00
Exportation 4.7 .15 0.00
N = 6525

299
Table 6. K-S One-Sample Test – Impact of the ICT
K-S Deviation Sig. (2
tailed)
Reduce transaction costs 5.5 .21 0.00
Improve quality of product/service 4.6 .18 0.00
Reach new suppliers 5.2 .20 0.00
Reach new customers 4.6 .18 0.00
Defend your self against competitors engaging 0.00
in e–commerce 5.0 .19
Work with large firms (local and international) 5.2 .20 0.00
Increase market share 5.7 .22 0.00
Enter new markets 5.0 .19 0.00
Increase the flexibility of your firm 5.8 .22 0.00
Increase your ability to innovate 5.3 .20 0.00
Improve control of your business process 0.00
organization 5.8 .23
Increase job creation in your firm 6.2 .24 0.00
Improve the image of your firm 5.0 .19 0.00
Contribute to solving your problem of lack 0.00
resources and access to technology 5.8 .22
N = 652

300
 Appendix I -4
Runs Test

The Runs Test procedure tests whether the order of occurrence of two values of a
variable is random. A run is a sequence of like observations. A sample with too many or
too few runs suggests that the sample is not random.

Table 1. Runs Test – Factor Conditions

Number Z Sig. (2
of Runs tailed)
Acquiring capital 143 -8.5 0.00
Acquiring information 142 -8.3 0.00
Political and economic uncertainties 181 -11.4 0.00
Bureaucratic rules and regulations 129 -15.34 0.00
Infrastructure availability 169 -9.4 0.00
Infrastructure cost 208 -7.2 0.00
Inconsistent raw material quality 166 -12.39 0.00
Technical qualifications 96 -15.5 0.00
The market accessibility 93 -3.6 0.00
N= 652, Test Value = 3

Table 2. Runs Test – Demand Conditions

Number Z Sig. (2
of Runs tailed)
Local demand 91 -6.6 0.00
International demand 56 -18.8 0.00
Product image in the international markets 77 -6.6 0.00
Customer awareness with regard to product 0.00
quality standards 117 -6.2
Sophisticated customers 83 -8.1 0.00
N= 652, Test Value = 3

301
Table 3. Runs Test – Related and Supporting Industries
Number Z Sig. (2
of Runs tailed)
Supplier buyer relationships 132 -8.8 0.00
The relationship with local banks 61 -19.1 0.00
The relationship with insurance firms 145 -12.0 0.00
The relationship with research and training 107 -15.8 0.00
The relationship with local manufacturers 139 -8.4 0.00
The relationship with public institutes 174 -5.8 0.00
The relationship with governmental institutes 190 -9.8 0.00
The relationship with stone cutting firms 192 -6.6 0.00
The relationship with firms from other sectors 126 -14.1 0.00
N= 652, Test Value = 3

Table 4. Runs Test – Five Forces

Number Z Sig. (2
of Runs tailed)
The intensity of rivals 198 -9.8 0.00
The power of buyers 218 -8.5 0.00
The power of suppliers 226 -7.3 0.00
The threat of substitutes 161 -12.2 0.00
The threat of new entry 212 -3.4 0.00
N= 652, Test Value = 3

Table 5. Runs Test – Balanced Scored Card

Number Z Sig. (2
of Runs tailed)
Percentage of new products of total turnover 196 -8.0 0.00
Time necessary to develop new products 202 -9.3 0.00
Customer satisfaction 111 -2.1 0.00
Your market share 135 -4.8 0.00
Customer keep on 97 -3.3 0.00
Your employees satisfaction 81 -9.0 0.00
Employees keep on 77 -8.9 0.00
Productivity of your employees 109 6.1 0.00
Return on Investment 149 -5.9 0.00
Profitability 168 -7.2 0.00
Revenue growth 202 -6.4 0.00
Cost reduction 230 -7.3 0.00
Exportation 196 -7.8 0.00
N= 652, Test Value = 3

302
Table 6. Runs Test – Impact of the ICT
Number Z Sig. (2
of Runs tailed)
Reduce transaction costs 207 -7.9 0.00
Improve quality of product/service 196 -8.0 0.00
Reach new suppliers 168 -10.3 0.00
Reach new customers 160 -11.0 0.00
Defend your self against competitors 195 -7.9 0.00
Work with large firms (local and international) 179 -9.9 0.00
Increase market share 177 -10.1 0.00
Enter new markets 181 -9.6 0.00
Increase the flexibility of your firm 181 -7.4 0.00
Increase your ability to innovate 188 -7.2 0.00
Improve control of business process 196 -6.0 0.00
Increase job creation in your firm 168 -7.5 0.00
Improve the image of your firm 176 -9.4 0.00
Contribute to solving lack resources 191 -7.5 0.00
N= 652, Test Value = 3

303
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 GLOSSARY

Analyzing Qualitative Data: qualitative data are based on meanings expressed through
words. They result in the collection of non-standardized data which require classification
and are analyzed through the use of conceptualization. The process of qualitative analysis
involves the development of data categories, allocating units of original data to
appropriate categories, recognizing relationships within and between categories of data,
and developing and testing hypotheses to produce well-grounded conclusions. The
analysis may involve interview and observation.

Analyzing Quantitative Data: data for quantitative analysis can be collected and
subsequently coded at different levels of numerical measurement. Analysis will involve
describing data and exploring relationships using statistics. The analysis may involve
using statistics such as: the mean, the chi square, t-test, and ANOVA.

Balance Scored Card: a framework for setting and monitoring business performance.
Metrics are structured according to customer issues, internal efficiency measures,
financial measures and innovation.

Bologna Charter on SME Policies: Ministers and representatives of many governments

were participating in the Bologna Conference. They are recognizing the increasing
importance of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in economic growth, job
creation, regional and local development, and social cohesion, also through the role
played by women and young entrepreneurs. Also, they are recognizing the globalization,
the acceleration of technological change and innovation create opportunities for SMEs
but also involve transition costs and new challenges and that globalization should lead to
higher living standards for all and that its benefits should be accessible to all on an
equitable basis.

Business Competitiveness Index: is a complement to the medium-term, macroeconomic

approach of the Growth Competitiveness Index. It evaluates the underlying

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microeconomic conditions defining the current sustainable level of productivity in each
country.

Business Environment: can be understood in terms of four interrelated areas: the quality
of factor conditions, the context for firm strategy and rivalry, the quality of local demand
conditions, and the presence of related and supporting industries.

Business Model: a summary of how a company will generate revenue identifying its
product offering, value added services, revenue sources and target customers.

Business to Business: commercial transactions are between an organization and other

organizations.

Business to Customer: commercial transactions are between an organization and

consumers.

Cluster: geographic concentrations of interconnected companies and institutions in a

particular field. Clusters encompass an array of linked industries and other entities
important to competition.”

Competitive Advantage: a firm experiences a competitive advantage when its actions in

an industry create economic value and when few competing firms are engaging in similar
actions. However, optimizing short-term profitability does not necessarily ensure optimal
shareholders returns since shareholder value represents the net present value of expected
future earnings. This research used the concept of the balanced scored card (BSC) as an
indicator for the firm’s competitive advantage.

Competitiveness at the Firm Level: is the ability to provide products and services more
effectively and efficiently than relevant competitors. This includes a sustained success in
the international markets without protection or subsidies. Measures of the
competitiveness at the firm level include firm profitability, measures of cost and quality,
exports, and market share.

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Competitiveness at the Industry Level: is the ability of the nation’s firms to achieve
sustained success versus foreign competitors without protection or subsidies. Measures of
the competitiveness at the industry level include the overall profitability of the nation’s
firms in the industrial sector, the industry's trade balance, the balance of outbound and
inbound foreign direct investment, and the direct measures of cost and quality at industry
level.

Competitiveness at the National Level: the citizens’ ability to achieve a high and
constantly rising standard of living. A high and rising standard of living for all nationals
can be sustained only by the continuous improvement of productivity.

Competitive Factors: it discusses the competitive factors considered by Porter (1979,

1980, 1985, 1990). In particular, it discusses the factor conditions, demand conditions,
related and supporting industries and Porter’s five competitive forces.

Competitiveness Team: The team was established as a research-oriented unit at the

Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation (MoPIC) in 1997 as part of a regional
project funded by the Dutch Government. The team began with an initial mandate of
creating a micro-level database of Jordanian industry through studying various economic
activities and clusters. In January 1998, the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID) took over funding of the project until December 31, 2000. Since
that date, the team has been involved in assessing, evaluating and improving the
competitiveness of various industries and economic clusters in Jordan. USAID funding
has twice been extended for JNCT up until June 2005.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis: seeks to determine if the number of factors and the
loadings of measured (indicator) variables on them conform to what is expected on the
basis of pre-established theory. The indicator variables are selected on the basis of prior
theory, and the factor analysis is used to see if they load as predicted on the expected
number of factors

Cross-Sectional Study: the study of a particular phenomenon at a particular time.

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Demand Conditions: nations gain competitive advantage in industries where
sophisticated and demanding buyers put pressure on firms to innovate faster than their
foreign competitors. Thus, it is the characters of the home demand, not its size that is
likely to be more critical

Descriptive Study: the objective of descriptive research is to portray an accurate profile

of persons, events or situations.

Dimension Stone: natural rock material quarried for the purpose of obtaining blocks or
slabs that meet specifications as to size (width, length, and thickness) and shape. The
principle rock types are granite, limestone, marble sandstone and slate.

Disintermediation: the removal of intermediaries such as distributors or brokers that

formerly linked a company to its customers.

Dynamism: represents system change. Key aspect of dynamism are how much change
can occur, how much is known before the change, and both where and how the change is
controlled.

E-business: all electronically mediated information exchanges, both within an

organization and with external stakeholders supporting the range of business processes.

E-commerce: all electronically mediated information exchanges between an organization

and its external stakeholders.

E-government: the use of Internet technologies to provide government services to

citizens.

E-procurement: the electronic integration and management of all procurement activities

including purchase request, authorization, ordering, delivery and payment between a
purchaser and a supplier.

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Explanatory Study: studies which establish causal relationships between variables may
be termed explanatory studies. The emphasis here is on studying a situation or a problem
in order to explain the relationships between variables.

Exploratory Study: are a valuable means of finding out what is happening to seek new
insights. It is a particularly useful approach if we wish to clarify our understanding of a
problem.

Factor Conditions: refer to the factors of production, such as skilled labor, land, natural
resources, infrastructure, and capital necessary to compete within a given industry. These
factors can be classified into basic factors and advanced factors as generalized and
specialized factors. The most significant and sustainable competitive advantages are
attained when a nation possesses advanced and specialized factors. Moreover, when firms
face selective disadvantages, they must innovate and upgrade to compete in order to gain
a competitive advantage over their rivals.

Factor-Driven Stage: is characterized either by natural-resource-based activities

(primary extraction) or by labor-intensive manufacturing.

Five Competitive Forces: these competitive forces are the entry of new competitors, the
threat of substitutes, the bargaining power of buyers, the bargaining power of suppliers,
and the rivalry among the existing competitors.

Generalisability: the extent to which the research results are generalisable, that is the
findings may be equally applicable to other research settings, such as other organizations.

Generic Strategies: the three generic strategies firms can posses: the cost leadership,
differentiation and focus.

Growth Competitiveness Index: is composed of three components: the quality of the

macroeconomic environment, the state of country’s public institutions, and, given the
increasing the importance of technology in the development process, a country’s
technological readiness.

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Hypothesis: a testable proposition about the relationship between two or more events or
concepts.

Individual Relationship: the individual relationships have been determined in the

research as the relation of the SME working in the natural stone sector with the banks,
insurance firms, universities, public institutes, other stone cutting firms, firms from other
sectors, and with suppliers.

Innovation-Driven Stage: arrives when a country is human-capital abundant and active

in research and development.

Internet: the Internet refers to the physical network that links computers across the
globe. It consists of the infrastructure of network servers and communication links
between them that are used to hold and transport information between the client OCs and
web servers.

Investment-Driven Stage: is associated with the manufacturing of intermediate and

capital goods and infrastructural building.

Kruskal-Wallis Test: is the non-parametric alternative to a one-way between-groups

analysis of variance. It allows comparing the scores on some continuous variables for
three or more groups. Scores are converted to ranks and the mean rank for each group is
compared

Levene Test: to test if k samples have equal variances. Equal variances across samples
are called homogeneity of variance.

Mann-Whitney Test: non-parametric alternative to the t-test for independent samples.

Instead of comparing means of the two groups as in the case of the t-test, the Mann-
Whitney Test compares medians. It converts the scores on the continuous variable to
ranks, across the two groups. Then it evaluates whether the ranks for the two groups
differ significantly.

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Multi-Method Approach: combining quantitative and qualitative methods and to use
primary and secondary data. There are two major advantages to employing multi-
methods in the same study. First, different methods can be used for different purposes in
a study. The second advantage is that it enables triangulation to take place. Triangulation
refers to the use of different data collection methods within one study in order to ensure
that the data are telling what we think they are telling us.

Natural Stone Sector: is a general term employed to cover all types of rock of whatever
origin found in the earth’s crust (Stone 2003). The materials in the natural stone sector
could be classified in four categories: Marble, colored natural stones, travertine and
onyxes, and hard stones.

Positioning: influencing the customer's perception of a product within a marketplace.

Primary Activities: are those involved in the ongoing production, marketing, delivery,
and servicing of the product.

Qualifying Industrial Zones (QIZs): under a trade agreement with the USA, products
manufactured in a QIZ can be imported to the USA free of duty and tax. To quality for
QIZ status, all products are reviewed by a committee of Jordanian and Israeli advisors, in
collaboration with a US representative. The committee seeks to establish that at least 35%
of the product's value has been contributed by a QIZ-based manufacturer. Material
sourced from Israel and the Palestinian territories can also count toward this calculation.
Once a product is granted QIZ approval, the manufacturer's export earnings are free of
income and social services taxes. The enterprise can also enjoy duty-free importation of
raw materials, fixed assets and spare parts. There are currently six QIZs in the country,
the largest of which is in Irbid.

REACH Initiative: Regulatory Framework, Enabling Environment and Infrastructure,

Advancement of National IT Programs, Capital and Finance, and Human Resource
Development

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Reintermediation: the creation of new intermediaries between customers and suppliers
providing services such as supplier search and product evaluation.

Related and Supporting Industries: industries, especially those providing specialized

inputs, machinery and services, are sources of technology, ideas and skilled human
resources. Suppliers and end-users located in close proximity benefit from shorter lines of
communication, a quick and constant flow of information, and an ongoing exchange of
ideas and know-how. Social capital is an essential part of the glue that holds clusters
together. The existence of the social capital depends on the ability of the people to
associate with each other

Reliability: can be addressed by posing the following two questions:

• Will the measure yield the same results on different occasions? (deductive
approach)
• Will similar observations be made by different researches on different occasions
?(inductive approach)

Semi-Structured Interviews: are non-standardized. The researcher will have a list of

themes and questions to be covered although these may vary from interview to interview.

SPSS: is a software package used for conducting statistical analyses, manipulating data,
and generating tables and graphs that summarize data. Statistical analyses range from
basic descriptive statistics, such as averages and frequencies, to advanced inferential
statistics, such as regression models, analysis of variance, and factor analysis. SPSS also
contains several tools for manipulating data, including functions for recoding data and
computing new variables as well as merging and aggregating datasets. SPSS also has a
number of ways to summarize and display data in the form of tables and graphs.

Strategy: definition of the future direction and actions of a company defined as

approaches to achieve specific objectives.

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Structured Interviews: using questionnaires based on a predetermined and standardized
or identical set of questions.

Support Activities: are those that provide purchased inputs, technology, human
resources or the overall infrastructure functions supporting the other activities

Tukey Test: this procedure is based on the studentized distribution, using critical values
q. Like the F distribution, the q distribution is characterized by two parameters that
specify which particular distribution applies.

Types of Businesses: under the Companies Law in Jordan, businesses can be in the form
of joint ventures, partnerships, limited liability companies, public shareholding
companies, offshore companies and branch offices. All applications to register a new
business must be submitted to the Controller of Companies, which operates under the
supervision of the Ministry of Industry and Trade.

Validity: is concerned with whether the findings are really about what they appear to be
about.

Value Chain: a model for analysis of how supply chain activities can add value to
products and services delivered to the customer.

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 Het competitieve voordeel van kleine en middelgrote ondernemingen: een case
studie naar de Jordaanse natuursteen industrie

Dit proefschrift bestudeert de manier waarop kleine en middelgrote ondernemingen die

werkzaam zijn in de verwerking van natuursteen in Jordanië zich opwaarderen van de
fase van comparatief voordeel gebaseerd op absolute kostenvoordelen in de richting van
meer dynamische, innovatie gebaseerde voordelen. De studie bekijkt met name hoe sterk
ontwikkeld de factorbeschikbaarheid voorwaarden, de vraag, de invloed van gerelateerde
en toeleverende industrieën waren, en andere factoren waarmee Jordanië in vergelijking
met Turkije en Italië, geconfronteerd werd. Daarenboven, analyseert de studie de invloed
van generieke strategieën en de invloed van informatie en communicatie technologie
(ICT) op de concurrentiekracht van kleine en middelgrote bedrijven (MKBs).

Een gedetailleeerde analyse van de data toont aan dat de Jordaanse MKBs achterliggen
ten opzichte van hun Turkse en Italiaanse evenpartners in termen van zowel kennis,
scholingsniveau als de noodzakelijke kapitaalinvesteringen om gemakkelijk toegang te
kirjgen tot, en voordeel te halen, uit moderne technologie en in het bijzonder ICT. De drie
landen verschillen ook in belangrijke mate van elkaar in factorbeschikbaarheden,
vraagvoorwaarden en de aanwezigheid van toeleverende industrieën. De uitgesproken
voorkeur voor individuele relaties vormt niet de de hoofdreden dat de meeste MKBs in
Jordanië éénmans- of partnerbedrijven blijven en zich niet als onderneming ontwikkelen.
De belangrijkste reden moet gevonden worden in de regels en administratieve lasten die
gepaard gaan met het vormen van ondernemingen in Jodanië zoals eigendomsrechten, de
bescherming van investeerders en het starten en sluiten van bedrijven in interactie met de
specifieke Jordaanse culturele achtergrond.

Gebaseerd op een analyse van de sterktes, zwaktes, opportuniteiten en bedreigingen van

de MKBs die actief waren in de natuursteen industrie in Jordanië worden een aantal
aanbevelingen geformuleerd. Deze zestal aanbevelingen bevatten ondermeer: het
actualiseren en vereenvoudigen van wetten en regelgeving; de opwaardering van de

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noodzakelijke gespecialiseerde infrastructuur; de promotie van ondernemingsschap en de
opwaardering van personeel; de oprichting van kredietinstellingen ter ondersteuning van
het MKB; de promotie van ICT in de natuursteen industrie; en de uitbouw van een
dynamische industriële cluster. Deze doelen kunnen op drie niveaus gerealiseerd worden:
op het niveau van het MKB, op het niveau van de natuursteen industrie en de
ondersteunende sectoren; alsmede op het niveau van de overheid.

Samen met macro-economische beleidsmaatregelen, zou een geconcentreed beleid in de

richting van de MKBs in Jordanië gevoerd moeten worden. De resultaten van de studie
tonen een aantal belangrijke tekortkomingen en onvolmaaktheden aan in relatie tot de
eigenaars van MKBs en individuele bedrijven die moeten beholpen worden wil men het
potentieel van deze belangrijke steunpilaar van de Jordaanse economie volledig benutten.
Private instellingen, en in het bijzonder bedrijfs- en managementscholen alsmede
ontwikkelingscentra zouden op dit gebied adviesfuncties moeten verrichten. Maar dit
vereist dat MKB eigenaars, en individuele ondernemers meer algemeen, ook hulp willen
zoeken. Jammer genoeg, zoeken weinigen van hen deze hulp in een actieve
kennisondersteuning van hun activiteiten. Hiervoor zijn verschillende redenen. De
belangrijkste is het lage onderwijs- en scholingsniveau en het gebrek aan een modern
bedrijfsperspectief aan hun kant. Het is dan ook noodzakelijk dat een extensief
trainingsprogramma ontwikkeld en uitgevoerd wordt voor zowel de huidige actieve
ondernmers als voor potentiële ondernemers. De curricula van deze opleidingen zouden
zo ontwikkeld moeten worden dat zij passen bij de specifieke behoeften van de Jordaanse
bedrijfseigenaars en managers.

Er is ook een dringende noodzaak de Jordaanse bedrijfleiders en managers te wijzen op

het belang van ICT voor een moderne bedrijfsvoering en de rol van de computer in het
vereenvoudigen en het gemakkelijker en transparanter maken van bedrijfstransacties
alsmede het verbeteren van communicatie. Bedrijfseigenaars die hun bedrijf overdragen
aan andere familieleden zouden verzocht moeten worden de nieuwe eigenaars voor te
bereiden voor de job van bedrijfsleider aan de hand van een gepaste training. Als dat niet
mogelijk is, zouden zij moeten aangespoord worden om professionele hulp te zoeken van
lokale experten en advisuers.

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Voorgesteld wordt dat de natuursteen industrie zich verder als een moderne kennis cluster
ontwikkeld in Jordanië. Het bestuur van deze cluster zou dan geleid kunnen worden door
de verantwoordelijke ministeries en autoriteiten die in een consensus mode met
betrokken kennispartijen (professionele organisaties, onderwijs- en tarininginstellingen,
technische en financiële ondersteunende organisaties) tot een gemeesnchappelijke
priortisering van beleid en uitvoering zoudenb kunnen komen. Het bestuur zou
verantwoordelijk zijn voor het uitzetten van de brede strategische richtingen en het
evalueren van de prestaties van het management. Het management zou dan
verantwoordelijk zijn voor het bewerkstelligen van de productiviteit in de sector,
innovatie en het behoduen van voldoende concurrentie tussen de verschillende
participanten, b.v. aan de hand van kostenreducties van gemeenschappelijke input
factoren, het ontwikkelen van een kritische massa door het ontwikkelen en ter
beschikking hebben van een gemeenschappelijke poel van gespecialiseerde kennis en
scholing, expertise en producten met toegevoegde. De cluster zal de economische
funderingen van de Jordaanse natuursteen industrie kunnen versterken aan de hand van
een beter geschoolde arbeidskracht, een sterkere onderzoek- en ontwikkelingscapaciteit
en betere infrastructuur, en nieuwe sociale kapitaal assets creëren zoals daar zijn:
vertrouwen, synergie, samenwerking, die allemaal essentieel zijn voor het verbeteren van
het concurrentievermogen van de sector.

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 CURRICULUM VITAE

Suhail Sami Sultan was born in 1972 in Hebron, Palestine. In 1995, he received a
Bachelor of Science degree in Industrial Engineering from the University of Jordan. In
1997, he graduated from Maastricht School of Management, Netherlands with a master
degree in Business Administration. His master thesis focused on the competitiveness of
the SMEs working in Palestine. Between 1997 and 2001, he worked as a lecturer at
Palestine Polytechnic University in addition to his work as a management consultant with
many international organizations. In 2001, he started his Ph.D. at Maastricht School of
Management in collaboration with the United Nations University- Maastricht Economic
and Social Research and Training Centre on Innovation and Technology (UNU-MERIT)
which is based at the Economics Faculty of Maastricht University, Netherlands. In 2002,
he received a Master of Philosophy degree from Maastricht School of Management.
Between 2002 and 2004 he worked as a head of the Administrative Sciences Department
at Palestine Polytechnic University. From August 2005 until September 2006, he was
running a World Bank and EU project hosted by the Ministry of Education and Higher
Education in Palestine. This project aimed at improving the quality and innovation at the
tertiary education institutes in Palestine. Since September 2006, he has joined Palestine
Polytechnic University as a director of Planning and Development as well he is running a
small management consulting firm in Palestine.

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