CONTENTS

 INTRODUCTION
 COMPONENTS OF THE CLIMATE SYSTEM
 HUMAN PERTURBATIONS TO THE ATMOSPHERE
 CHANGES IN EARTH’S SURFACE TEMPERATURE
AND PRECIPITATION
 STEPS TAKEN TO MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE
 DEFINITION OF KYOTO PROTOCOL
 PRINCIPLES OF KYOTO PROTOCAL
 OPPOSITION TO KYOTO
 INDIA’S INITIATIVES
 CONCLUSION
 REFERENCES
 INTRODUCTON
Climate is usually defined as the “average weather”, or
more rigorously, as the statistical description of the weather in
terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over
periods of several decades. These quantities are most often
surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind,
but in a wider sense the “climate” is the description of the state
of the climate system.

Components of climate system are:

(a) The atmosphere,
(b) The oceans,
(c) The terrestrial and marine biospheres,
(d) The cryosphere (sea ice, seasonal snow cover, mountain
glaciers and continental scale ice sheets), and
(e) The land surface.
 INTRODUCTION (cont..)

 These components interact with each other, and through

this collective interaction, determine the Earth’s surface climate.

 These interactions occur through flows of energy in various

forms, through exchanges of water, through flows of various
other radiatively important trace gases, including CO2 (carbon
dioxide) and CH4 (methane), and through the cycling of
nutrients.

 The climate system is powered by the input of solar

energy, which is balanced by the emission of infrared (“heat”)
energy back to space.

 Solar energy is the ultimate driving force for the motion of

the atmosphere and ocean, the fluxes of heat and water, and of
biological activity.
 Components of the climate system influence global and
regional climate in a number of distinct ways:

 By influencing the composition of the Earth’s atmosphere,

thereby modulating the absorption and transmission of solar
energy and the emission of infrared energy back to space.

 Through alterations in surface properties and in the amount

and nature of cloud cover, which have both regional and global
effects on climate, and

 By redistributing heat horizontally and vertically from one

region to another through atmospheric motions and ocean
currents.
Figure represents a schematic picture of the climate system.
 Human Perturbations to the Composition of the
Atmosphere
 Humans are altering the concentration of greenhouse gases
and aerosols, both of which influence, and are influenced by,
climate. The greenhouse gases reduce the net loss of infrared heat
to space.
 The main naturally-occurring greenhouse gases are water
vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone (O3), methane (CH4),
and nitrous oxide (N2O).
 Water vapour is the strongest contributor to the natural
greenhouse effect, but it is the most directly linked to climate and
therefore least directly controlled by human activity.
 Ozone also differs from the other greenhouse gases in that it is
not directly emitted into the atmosphere; rather, it is produced
through photochemical reactions involving other substances —
referred to as “precursors” — which are directly emitted.
Observed Changes in Earth’s Surface Temperature
and Precipitation

 Over the 20th century there has been a consistent, large scale
warming of both the land and ocean surface and it is likely that most
the observed warming over the last 50 years has been due to the
increase in green house gas concentration.

 The global mean surface temperature has increased by 0.6˚C

(0.4-0.8˚C) over the last 100 years, with 1998 being warmest year
and the 1990s very likely being the warmest decade.

 Precipitation has very likely increased during the 20th century by

5-10% over most mid and high latitudes of Northern hemisphere
continents, but in contrast rainfall has likely decreased by 3% on
average over much of the subtropical land areas.
The figure shows trends represented by the area of the circle, with red
representing increases and blue decreases.
The figure shows the period Figure indicates the trends
2071-2100 relative to 1961-90. represented by area of the circle, with
green representing increases and
brown decreases.
Steps Taken to mitigate Climate Change

 Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an agreement made under the

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). Countries that ratify this protocol commit to
reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other
greenhouse gases, or engage in emissions trading if they
maintain or increase emissions of these gases.

The Kyoto Protocol now covers more than 160 countries

globally and over 55% of global greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions.
 AT ITS HEART, THE KYOTO PROTOCOL ESTABLISHES THE
FOLLOWING PRINCIPLES

 Kyoto is underwritten by governments and is governed by global

legislation enacted under the UN’s aegis.
 Governments are separated into two general categories: developed
countries, Annex I and developing countries, referred to as Non-
Annex I countries.
 Any Annex I country that fails to meet its Kyoto obligation will be
penalized by having to submit 1.3 emission allowances in a second
commitment period for every ton of GHG emissions they exceed
their cap in the first commitment period (i.e, 2008-2012).
 By 2008-2012, Annex I countries have to reduce their GHG
emissions by an average of 5% below their 1990 levels. While the
average emissions reduction is 5%, national limitations range from
8% reductions for the European Union to a 10% emissions
increase for Iceland. Reduction limitations expire in 2013.
 Kyoto includes "flexible mechanisms" which allow Annex I
economies to meet their GHG emission limitation by purchasing
GHG emission reductions from elsewhere.
 Only CDM Executive Board-accredited Certified Emission
Reductions (CER) can be bought and sold in this manner.
 Opposition to Kyoto

 The two major countries currently opposed to the treaty

are the United States and Australia.

 Some public policy experts who are skeptical of global

warming see Kyoto as a scheme to either retard the growth of
the world's industrial democracies or to transfer wealth to the
third world in what they claim is a global socialism initiative.

 The costs of the Kyoto Protocol as outweighing the

benefits, some believing the standards which Kyoto sets to be
too optimistic, others seeing a highly inequitable and
inefficient agreement which would do little to curb greenhouse
gas emissions.
 India’s initiatives
 In the last few years several measures relating to
environmental issues have been introduced. They have targeted
increasing significantly, the capacity of renewable energy
installations.

 Improving the air quality in major cities (the world's largest

fleet of vehicles fuelled by compressed natural gas has been
introduced in New Delhi).

 Other similar measures have been implemented by

committing additional resources and realigning new investments,
thus putting economic development on a climate-friendly path.
 Conclusion
The impacts should vary among regions, but they can not
yet be predicted accurately, especially for small-scale
areas. However, it is expected that,

 The more the greenhouse gases are emitted, the higher

the tendency for the earth to warm,
 The greater and faster the warming, the more the
adverse effects will dominate,
 And the higher the possibility, although probably remote,
of large-scale and possibly irreversible impacts.

Therefore, although an acceptable level for greenhouse

gases has not yet been determined, reducing emissions
should reduce the risk of adverse effects. Many options for
emission reductions are available; their costs need to be
balanced with the risks left for future generations.
 References

 Books:
Environmental Control System by Fuller Moore, Mc-Graw Hill
international.
Atmospheric science and Environment by S.N.Ghos, Allied Publishers
Ltd.

 Journals:
Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, University of California
Journal of Environment and Development Volume 13, Sage
Publication.

 Websites:
http://www.parliament.uk/documents/upload/POSTpn245.pdf
http://www.ipcc.ch/present/graphics.htm
http://search.bnet.com/search/clean+development+mechanism.html