APPROACH FOR 'STEEL BRIDGES

~ Japan Association of ii.ii - Steel Bridge Construction

D Contents
Chapter 1 History and Development of Bridges········· 1.1 Old Log Bridges, Stone Bridges 1.2 Utilization of Iron························. . 1.3 Ages of Steel Bridges··· .... 1.4 Modem Bridges 1.5 History of Technological Innovations in Steel Bridges···· ..·············· · 3.4 Transportation and Erection·················· 36 3.4.1 Work Flow····················· ..············;··36 3.4.2 Erection Plan 36 3.4.3 Connection of Members······· 37 3.4.4 Floor Slab Work······· 39 3.4.5 Site Painting 40 3.4.6 Pavement········································ 40 Chapter 4 Characteristics of Steel Bridges························· 1 4 4.1 High Load Capacity ........ ·...... ·...... ·........ 42 4.2 Reliability of Materials··························· 42 4.3 Reliability of Products··············· 43 4.4 High Degree of Structural Freedom······· 43 4.5 Easiness of Maintenance and Repair" ..... 43 4.6 Meeting the Short-Term Construction····· 44 4.7 Harmonization with Landscapes 44 4.8 Reuse of Resources······························· 4 4 Chapter 5 Coming Steel Bridges··········· 5.1 Further Rationalization 5.2 Steel-Concrete Composite Bridge 5.3 Quake-Resistant (Mensin) 5.4 Long-Spanning Bridge 5.5 Environmental Compatibility 46 46 47 48 49 49

1
1 2 2 3 5

Chapter 2 Classification and Types of Bridges ·7 2.1 Classification of Bridges 7 2.2 Components of Bridges and Their Functions 9 2.2.1 Names of Bridge Members 9 2.2.2 Components of Bridges and Their Functions 12 2.3 Outline of the Types of Bridges and Their Characteristics ·15 2.3.1 Plate Girder Bridge 15 2.3.2 Truss Bridge 16 2.3.3 Arch Bridge ·17 2.3.4 Rahmen (Rigid Frame) Bridge·········· 19 2.3.5 Cable Stayed Bridge 19 2.3.6 Suspension Bridge··························· 1 2 2.3.7 Types of Bridges and Standard Spans 22 Chapter 3 How to Build a Bridge ·24 3.1 Basic Plan and Preliminary Design ·24 3.1.1 .Work Flow 24 3.1.2 Preliminary Survey ·····..············.·····24 . 3.1.3 Basic Plan · · ·24 3.1.4 Preliminary Design 24 3.2 Detailed Design 28 3.2.1 Work Flow ·28 3.2.2 Detailed Survey · 28 3.2.3 Alignment Design 28 3.2.4 Structural Analysis 28 3.2.5 Member Design ······························30 3.2.6 Plans (Drawings) 31 3.3 Plant Assembly 31 3.3.1 Work Flow ·31 3.3.2 Material Procurement 31 3.3.3 Full-Size Drawing····························32 3.3.4 Marking·· ..············ 32 3.3.5 Cutting·········································· ·32 3.3.6 Assembly and Welding 33 3.3.7 Curing······· ..······..··························· 34 3.3.8 Trial Shop Assembly ························34 3.3.9 Shop Painting· ·34 3.3.10 Quality Control 36 3.3.11 Recent Innovation 36

Chapter 1
1.1 Old Log Bridges, Stone Bridges

History and Development of Bridges

From ancient times, people constructed primitive bridges made of intertwined vines, logs, slabs of stone, or other stuff that were comparatively easy to acquire for the purpose of securing passages across river or open space. Shown in Photo-I. I. 1 is a suspension bridge made of wild arrowroot vines, which is now preserved in Tokushima Prefecture. Photo-I.I.2 is a view of the famous Kintai Bridge, a wooden arch bridge having four piers made of stone. The ages during which logs or slabs of stone were used for the construction of bridges lasted long, up until cast iron was introduced in the 18th century. Since it was difficult to build a bridge having a long span by logs or slabs of stone, they made a lengthy bridge by providing stone piers or by structuring a series of arches arranged side by side to form a stone arch bridge. Photo-I. I. 1 Kazura Bridge (Suspension Bridge Made of Vines)
The suspension bridges made of intertwined arrowroot or wisteria vines were seen until the beginning of Meiji (1868), but already gone out of sight except the one preserved in Shikoku.

Photo-I.I.2

Kintai Bridge
A wooden bridge having four stone piers, 225 m long and 5.4 m wide. restored in 1953 after washed away by the flood in autumn .1950. Kintai Bridge as we see today was

1.2 Utilization of Iron After iron was put to use as materials for bridges, a decisive step forward in bridge construction has been made in less than 200 years, down to the present day. Cast iron was the first iron stuff used for the bridge construction, followed by wrought iron with a view to making the most of the improved tensile strength. In the second half of the 19th century, structural steel was put to practical use concurrent with the advancement in steelmaking technology. Although the initial structural steel was mere carbon steel, incessant development proceeded starting from "low alloy steel" to which nickel, chrome, manganese and/or copper were added, "steel for welded structure" with improved weldability, to "heat treated high tensile strength steel" of our days. Photo-1.2.1 shows the Iron Bridge consisted of cast iron; an arch bridge having a span of approx. 30 meters, constructed in 1779 in England. There is no record evidencing the construction of an iron bridge before this bridge. In the first half of the 19th century, some of the suspension bridge using cable chains made of wrought iron, and the box-girder bridge made mainly of wrought iron were also constructed. Photo-1.2.2 Kurogane Bridge
Japan's first iron bridge built in 1868 in Nagasaki. It was existent until 1931 but only two photos were left to recall the past.

1.3 Ages of Steel Bridges In the Meiji era (1868-1912), some of the time's epoch-making bridges were constructed, such as Eitai Bridge (a truss bridge with a span of 67.4 m) in 1897 and Sanka Bridge (an arch bridge with a span of 81.8 m) in 1912. After the Taisho era (1912-1926), various types of bridges appeared with the spread of motor vehicles and railroads. On the other hand, a number of provisions for traffic bridges were enacted and in 1919, the Road Structure Regulations as well as the City Street Structural Regulations were established; prescribed were the design of load factors classified by city streets, national and prefectural roads, in addition to the rules for effective road width, architectural limitations and so on.

Photo-1.2.1 The Iron Bridge

The Iron Bridge across the upper reaches of the River Severn, known as the world's oldest iron bridge. There is no record indicating a full-iron bridge built before this bridge. It is still in good order after 200 years since constructed in 1779. Made of cast iron with a span of about 30 meters, it is well preserved as one of the honorable cultural heritages of England. It is still used for pedestrian passage, though closed to vehicles

The first iron bridge built in Japan is Kurogane Bridge in Nagasaki, completed in the fourth year of Keio (1868). (Photo-1.2.2)
2

Photo-1.3.1 Eitai Bridge

One of the famous bridges across the Sumida River. constructed as restoration work after the Great Kanto Earthquake.

The arch bridges also evolved in the direction of elongation of spans, and Eitai Bridge (Photo-1.3.1) constructed in 1926 is the first arch type bridge to exceed 100 meters in length. Ducol steel or high tensile strength manganese steel was used for the bottom chord members of the bridge. Asahi Bridge (Photo-1.3.2) across the Asahi River is a braced-rib arch bridge constructed in 1932. Fifty (50) kg/ cm2 strength of chromium steel members were used for the bottom chord of arch.

Photo-1.3.2

Asahi Bridge
Photo-1.3.2 Asahi Bridge After first constructed in the present position in 1892, it experienced several reconstruction until the existing bridge was built in 1932. 490 N/mm2 in tensile strength steel members imported from Germany were used for the bottom chord ofthe arch.

1.4

Modern Bridges

After the 2nd world war, the demand for bridges increased remarkably, riding a wave of post-war prosperity. Although annual demand around 1955 used to hover near 50,000 tons or so, currently it moves between 600,000and 800,000tons. The growth of bridge construction is attributed to the reinforcement of road network centered around expressways, still, it changed not only in quantity but in appearance

Almost every possible type of bridge has been constructed, be it linear, arched, skewed or of multiplied structure as seen in urban areas. Shown in Photo-1.4.1 is an embodiment of expressway penetrating a high-rise building to which the Three-Dimensional Road System enacted in 1989 was applied. The style and materials for bridges have been sophisticated and diversified as typified by the boxgirder bridges, Nielsen system bridges, cable stayed bridges, and those employing atmospheric corrosion resisting steel
3

Photo-1.4.1 Umeda Viaduct

This bridge, for motor vehicles only, is the first to penetrate a high-rise building, equipped with decoration boards, etc., for scenic consideration.

Box-girders have various embodiments in the field of bridges with spans exceeding 50 meters, especially in curved bridges by virtue of easy-to-control bending and twisting stiffness. Recently, application to the spans of substantial length, as much as 250 meters long, is made possible by adopting the architecture of steel slab box-girder bridge. Some of the bridges employ starknaked atmospheric corrosion resisting steel with a view to solving the problem of repainting, and there also are unpainted steel bridges provided with the rust stabilized treatment. The bridge style attracting the keenest attention of late would be the cable stayed bridge. It has long spans ranging from about 200 to 500 meters in the maximum and, with its intrinsic simplicity in appearance, is anticipated to be fairly frequently adopted hereafter. (Photoes 1.4.2and 1.4.3) More and more the so-called hyper bridges are constructed along the coastal roads and across the Inland Sea (HonshuShikoku), almost renewing the past records of span length one by one. At the present stage, the past records are being actually renewed in the areas of cable stayed bridges and suspension bridges, apart from the steel slab boxgirder bridge having a span of 250 meters or the cantilever (Gerber girder) bridge having a central span of 510 meters.

Photo-1.4.2 Tsurumi Tsubasa Bridge

Constructed along the coastal line of Metropolitan Expressway, the world's longest continuous three-span steel cable stayed bridge as a singledeck bridge. The stiffening girders feature flat box type and the main towers are formed to upsidedown Y's giving a stylish impression

The record of the longest span, including those under construction, is 890 meters by Tatara Bridge in the category of cable stayed bridges, and 1990 meters across the Akashi Straits in the category of suspension bridges. (Photo-1.4.4) The Honshu-Shikoku Bridges are under construction strenuously and a number of large-scale bridges are completed year after year.

Photo-1.4.3 Meikoh-Central Bridge

A continuous three-span steel cable stayed bridge constructed along the on-the-sea section of the Coastal Road of Ise Bay, the largest in scale among the three biggest bridges of Nagoya Port area.

Photo-1.4.4 Akashi Kaikyo Bridge

A three-span two-hinge stiffening truss suspension bridge, is the world's largest and longest suspension bridge.

1.5

History of Technological Innovations in Steel Bridges

As mentioned by now, the history of steel bridges in Japan ranges over 130 years, during which the pursuit in terms of economy and rationalization can be said remarkable and a lot many valuable experiments have been implemented. Apart from the conventional materials such as steel members and high tension bolts, various technological development has been headed forward including the innovative bridge models as well as measures for corrosion prevention. Materials for bridges date back to the age of cast iron, followed by wrought iron, then shifted to steel, further into the age of atmospheric corrosion resisting

steel and various types of structural steel including 690 N/mm2 and 780 N/mm2 tensile strength steel. The design methodology also has evolved thus far, not only making it possible to analyze complex structural problems with the aid of computer, but the automatic operation of design process at an accelerated pace. On the other hand, light-weight and labor-saving as well as rationalization in manufacturing and erection of bridge members have been propelled since the introduction of welding process and high-tension bolts as means for assembly and connection. The welding process was first applied to an overbridge at West Kagoshima Station in 1930, and plate girders and trusses were converted to welded

structure after the full-scale welding process of floor system was generalized by 1935. Thus the conventional riveting processes rapidly declined from what used to be the leading role in the past method of connecting bridge members. Use of high-tension bolts has become preferred to rivets as the means for on-site coupling of members. It was in 1954, in the work-site truss bridge for the construction of Takayama Line OR), that the hightension bolts were first used in an actual working bridge. Following the initial embodiment mentioned above, the high-tension bolts have become commonplace in the on-site connections of bridge members by around 1970. There also were many attempts to create new types of bridges. The combination of steel with its high tensile strength and concrete with its compression strength provided ideal composite girders; which have been experimentally adopted since around 1951 until becoming popular in today's bridges having spans not exceeding 50 meters or so.

The steel floor slab was first used for bridge construction around 1955. The use of this specific material enabled substantial reduction in the bridge dead-weight, thereby increasing the application to the large-scale bridge construction including continuous steel slab girder bridges. Modern and original bridge styles, such as Nielsen system bridges using cables, steel cable stayed bridges and suspension bridges, have also been constructed one after another. Other than these, H-beam bridges to which large-sized H-beams are applied, preflection beam composite girder bridges and so on, have newly been developed and actually constructed. In the on-site construction, too, scale-elevation and full-mechanization have been the trend of development and substantially sophisticated. In particular, a large-scale block construction method using large-sized crane vessels and barges is the distinctive characteristic, greatly contributing to the promptness, labor-saving, and safety at the construction sites. (Photo-1.5.1)

Photo-1.5.1 Rokko Island Bridge

Lifting capacities of three floating cranes were 4100t, 3600t and 3000t, respectively. was about 7300 tons and the height from the surface of the sea was about 35 meters. The weight lifted

Chapter 2
2.1 Classification of Bridges

Classification and Types of Bridges

(4) Classification by the positions of road surfaces (Figure-2.1.1) Deck Bridge A bridge whose road surface is positioned on the plate girder. Half-Through Bridge (Midheight-Deck Bridge) A bridge whose road surface is positioned around the middle of the bridge structure. Through Bridge A bridge whose road surface is positioned on the lower part of the bridge structure. Double Deck Bridge A bridge equipped with two-storied road surfaces. (5) Classification by the plane geometry of bridges (Figure-2.1.2) Straight Bridge A bridge built straight. Curved Bridge A bridge built with curvature. Square Bridge A bridge whose bearing support line is perpendicular to the bridge axis. Skew Bridge A bridge whose bearing support line is aslant the bridge axis

Bridges are classified according to the uses, sites, and materials used as shown below. (1) Classification by uses Road Bridge (Highway Bridge) A bridge carrying one or more roadways Railroad Bridge A bridge carrying one or more railroads Pedestrian Bridge A bridge for pedestrian only (sometimes including cyclists) Aqueduct Bridge A bridge carrying the aqueduct(s) for waterworks, generation of electricity, and irrigation Combined Bridge A bridge simultaneously carrying a road and a railroad, or a road and an aqueduct, and so on. (2) Classification by sites Over-the-water Bridge A bridge to secure passage across a river, a marsh, a lake or the sea. Viaduct A bridge to secure passage through a city area or a mountainous area. Overbridges: Over-the-road Bridge A bridge to secure passage over an existing road. Over-the-railroad Bridge A bridge to secure passage over an existing railroad. (3) Classification by materials Wooden Bridge A bridge made principally of wood. Stone Bridge A bridge made principally of stone. Steel Bridge A bridge made principally of steel. Concrete Bridge A bridge made of principally of concrete. * Known as RC Bridge if reinforced by steel rods. * Known as PC Bridge if prestressed by steel members. Composite/Combined Bridge A bridge having innovative structure in which advantages/ disadvantages of steel and concrete are positively compensated. It shows immense effect on cost performance, too.

Deck Bridge

Half-Through

Road Surface

~CI

LT'e&~

Figure-2.1.1

Classification by the Positions of Road Surfaces

Plate Girder Bridge

Square Bridge

Skew Bridge

Curved Bridge

Truss Bridge

Straight Bridge \ The Left Bank

r.L------------~~\
\

Downstream

Arch Bridge

Figure-2.1.2

Classification by the Plane Geometry of Bridges

(6) Classification by supporting methods (Figure-2.1.3) Simple Girder Bridge A bridge whose girders (main trusses) are simply supported across each of the spans. Continuous Girder Bridge A bridge whose girders (main trusses) extend over two or more spans. Cantilever Bridge (Gerber Girder Bridge) A bridge whose continuous girders are provided with hinges at appropriate intervals.

Rahmen (Rigid Frame) Bridge

!~========~Jl k~=====A~====~2Cr===~!
Simple Girder Bridge Continuous Girder Bridge

Cable Stayed Bridge

,,~

HID:
-

Cantilever (Gerber Girder) Bridge

Figure-2.1.3 Classification by Supporting Methods (7) Classification by Style (Figure-2.1.4) The most commonly used classification based on the bridge superstructure. Plate Girder Bridge A bridge composed of beam structure known as girder. Truss Bridge A bridge composed of truss structure. Arch Bridge A bridge composed of arch structure comprising arch ribs Suspension Bridge

Figure-2.1.4 Classification by Styles

Rahmen Bridge (Rigid Frame Bridge) A bridge composed ofT- or IT -frames. Cable Stayed Bridge A bridge configured with cables stretched aslant between the tower and the girder. Suspension Bridge A bridge configured with cables stretched in-between towers to suspend stiffening girders. 2.2 Components of Bridges and Their Functions

(8) Others Bridges are divided into two categories - fixed and movable. The latter is provided with opening and shutting capability and subdivided into the swing bridge, the lift bridge and the bascule bridge based on the mechanisms used. Additionally, there are bridges used for monorails and other new transportation systems.

2.2.1 Names of Bridge Members The commonly used names of the bridge components Figure-2.2.2.

are roughly summarized

as shown in Figure-2.2.1

and

Bridge Length Span (Effective Span) Span (Clear Span) Span (Effective Span) Span (Clear Span)

Expansion Joints

Structural Body Substructure [ Pile Foundation

Bridge Fall Preventin H.W.L

Bearing Support

Pier Abutment

Abutment

Figure-2.2.1

Common Names of Bridge Members

Drain Funnel Guardrail for Vehicles

Figure-2.2.2 Superstructure

Names of Road Surface Members Substructure Structure compnsmg abutments, piers and their bases to transfer the load from the superstructure to the foundation/ground.

Generic term for girder components mounted on the abutments and piers, comprising floor slabs, main trusses (girders), floor systems, cross beams, sway bracings, lateral bracings, etc.

Bridge Length The distance between both abutments' parapet wall fronts. Span (Effective) Distance between the centers of bearing supports along longitudinal direction. Span (Clear) Distance between the centers of abutments, or of piers. Determined depending on the geographical or environmental conditions such as designed max. flowrate and ground property. H.W.L Design high water level. Clear Headway Under Girder To be determined in consideration of the height of the driftwood or other floating matter in case of a flood (pursuant to the River Control Facilities and Structure Act, Art. 41, 42). Bearing Support In addition to the function of relaying the load applied to the superstructure to the substructure, a bearing support regulates and smoothens out the discrepancy due to thermal expansion and/or spin or movement due to live load. Roughly divided into "fixed" and "movable." Also broken down into the categories of steel bearing support and rubber bearing support depending upon the materials used.

Shown in Figure-2.2.3 are the steel bearing support (sealed rubber bearing support plate: BPB), the shearing type rubber bearing support and the quake-resistant bearing support. For the bearing supports of earthquake-resistant bridges, there are HDR quake-resistant bearing support using high attenuation rubber and LRB quake-resistant bearing support using lead plugs. Expansion Apparatus An apparatus to secure a smooth rolling of automobile wheels or to retain railroad tracks properly for a smooth running of trains, regardless of the displacement at girder ends caused by the expansion/ contraction or spin due to the therml condition, concrete creep phenomena, and dynamic load applied to the bridge structure ..

Anti-

Sliding Stand

Shearing Type Rubber Bearing Support

Steel Bearing Support Quake-Resistant Bearing Support (HDR) Figure-2.2.3 Bearing Supports 10

Rubber

Retro-Placed

Urethane Foam

(a) Rubber Expansion Joints

Face Plate

(b) Steel Expansion Joints

Figure-2.2,4 Expansion Joints

Types of expansion apparatuses can be divided into two categories when classified by materials used; steel expansion apparatus and rubber expansion apparatus. The former is composed of steel and cast iron, and the latter is fabricated with the combination of rubber stuff and steel. (Figure2.2.4) Bridge Fall Preventing System A system to prevent downfall of superstructure due to an earthquake, comprising the girder overhang margin, bridge fall preventing structure, displacement limiting structure and off-set preventing structure. (Figure-2.2.5) Curb (Wheel Guard) Installed along the farthest edges of the road width to prevent vehicle wheels from coming off the bridge surface. Curb Stone Installed along the border of sidewalk and roadway to prevent vehicles from running into the walkway. Vehicle Protecting Fence (Handrail) Installed as a supplementary means for the purpose of protecting vehicles and people from coming off the bridge. Incidentally, the bearing support, expansion apparatus, bridge fall preventing system, drainage, vehicle protecting fence (handrail), etc. are generically named "annexed structure (attachment)" of a bridge and basically attached to every bridge. A bridge occasionally is provided with a supplementary path for inspection known as incidental appendage prepared for maintenance purpose, together with the pipes for waterworks, gas, electricity and communication. Girder
Overhang Margin

Overhang Margin

(a) End Supports

Seat Length Steel Bracket

(b) Girder Crossover Portion

r----------

PC Steel
n
t.J

r-,

Anchor Bar

"'\.

Bearing Pressure Plate Damper

Abutment

Bridge Fall Preventing System Linking Superstructure and Structure

J oint Protector Displacement Limiting Structure

Figure-2.2.5

Bridge Fall Preventing System

11

Drainage Equipment These are basically for the preservation of regular roadway functions as well as management and maintenance of the bridge, thus, the satisfactory traffic service and prevention of corrosion must be steadily adhered through proper drainage of the bridge structure, and so on. (See Figure-2.2.6)

Expansion Apparatus Quake-resistant Connection

••••••
Pavement

Drain Hole Hole as Cast ~ 30mm semicircle Expansion Joint Drain Pipe
---.I

I
I I
I

Drain Funnel

Figure-2.2.6

Drainage Equipment

2.2.2

Components of Bridges and Their Functions

(1) Superstructure 1) Floor Slab and Floor System The floor slab is installed to accommodate and convey the load directly applied to the floor surface to be distributed through the floor system to the main truss structure. The kinds of floor slabs employed in roadway bridges are shown in Figure-2.2.7.
Concrete __ Floor Slab Floor Slab

RC Floor Slab PC Floor Slab (prestressed Concrete Floor Slab)

Steel Deck

Composite Floor Slab (11111 steel-grid floor slab, Robinson composite floor slab, etc.)

Figure-2.2.7 Types of Floor Slabs Among these, the floor slab made of reinforced concrete slab (RC floor slab) and the steel floor slab are the two most frequently used. The RC floor slab is used very often because of the relative easiness of installation besides being economical compared with other types of floor slabs. 12

There are two kinds in the usage of the RC floor slab. The one is the non-composite girder arrangement using slab anchors to give minor connecting stiffness against the steel girder, the other is the composite girder arrangement using shear connectors such as large-sized studs to have the RC floor slab integrated with the steel girder giving large connecting stiffness between the steel girder flange and RC floor slabs. The composite girder has advantages over the non-composite one in that it allows certain reduction on the consumption of steel as well as lowered girder height, while requiring high strength concrete (IJ ck ~ 24 N/mm2 for non-composite, but IJ ck ~ 27 N/mm2 for composite) and careful attention to the quality control become necessary. As part of rationalization in the construction of steel bridges, the use of floor slabs made of PC (prestressed concrete) has rapidly increased because the span length supporting the floor slab can be widen by virtue of newly introduced prestress technique. There are two kinds in PC floor slabs, ie., on-site concrete placing and factory precast concrete slabs. The "I" steel-grid floor slab is a type of grid floor slab using "I" steel instead of the conventional main reinforcement in the case of RC floor slabs. This can provide somewhat thinner slabs compared to the ordinary RC floor slabs because of the enhanced

strength. In addition, the processing accuracy is secured more easily and the lead time assigned to the formwork and steel rod work can be reduced. However, it is fairly expensive compared with the RC floor slabs. Still, as in the case of the RC floor slab, it may be used either as a composite girder or a noncomposite girder because the connection to the steel girder is possible. Alternatively, the steel deck is a solid steel member having stiffened ribs. It is favorable for application in a large span length because deadweight is reduced and the steel deck itself functions as a part of main girder flanges. However, besides being costly compared with the RC floor slab, considerable care is necessary for the selection of materials and method for surface pavement.

The four kinds of floor slab frameworks are shown in Figure-2.2.8. The floor system is the structure to support the load from the floor slab and transfer it to the main girder and to the main truss, often referred to as the stringer, floor beam (or cross beam) and bracket. The structure directly supporting the floor slabs such as the end sway bracing of a plate girder bridge can also assume the function as a floor system.

Precast Concrete Plate

(a) Reinforced Concrete Floor Slab (RC Floor Slab)

(b) Precast Concrete Floor Slab

Distributing Reinforcement

Main Girder

(c) Steel Deck

(d) "I" Steel-Grid Floor Slab

Figure-2.2.8

Structure of Floor Slab

13

2) Main Member The main member is the structure to support all loadage applied to the bridge. The structure can be the main girder for a plate girder bridge, or the top/bottom chords with diagonal/vertical members for a truss bridge. 3) Cross Beam, Sway Bracing, Lateral Bracing The cross beam, sway bracing and lateral bracing are the structure to support the horizontal loads such as wind pressure and earthquake sway, and at the same time retain the bridge geometry. These members are installed within the main truss, more particularly, the cross beam and sway bracing are arranged normal to the bridge face and the lateral bracings is arranged parallel to the bridge face. The cross beam for load distribution and the sway bracing also for load distribution, installed in a girder bridge having a large number of main girders, are provided with the structure to contribute to the load distribution between the respective main girders. 4) Bearing Support The bearing support is provided with the function to convey all forces acting on the bridge to the substructure and to accommodate thermal expansion due to temperature variations and displacement due to earthquake, further, to remove the spin caused by bridge deflection, etc. (2) Substructure The substructure is generally configured by the combination of abutments and piers, and is divided into the body portion and foundation. The abutments are positioned at both ends of a bridge and jointed to the rear mounts to transfer the loads from the superstructure, the ground pressure and surface traffic load acting on the mounting junctions down to the foundation. Piers will be provided when the superstructure extends over two or more spans for the purpose of transferring the superstructure loadage to the foundation. 1) Abutment The names of abutment parts are shown in Figure2.2.9. The types of abutments are selected based on the conditions of the bridge sites, the suitability of the ground for foundation, and the kinds of the superstructures. The general correlations between the abutment type and the body height, where no special restriction is necessary for the selection of types, are shown in Table-2.2.1. The correlations between the pier type and the body height are shown in Table2.2.2.

Table-2.2.1

Correlation Between Abutment Type and Body Height

Height (m) Remarks

Abutment Type

10
Gravity Type Semi-Gravity Type Inverted T Type Counterforted Type Rahmen Type Box Type Hollow Type

20

30

~
·····i

~1
~ ~ ~

.. !_ !

-i

12

-------- -

-----

a.
..... -

1[1
__ ow

----_.-

m 77777)1
.

Footing

Figure-2.2.9 Names of Abutment Parts Table-2.2.2 Correlation Between Pier Type and Body Height
Height (m) Pier Type and over Remarks
ForPC Floor Slab

10
Dual Column Type Rahmen Type (Single Layer) Rahmen Type (Two Layer) Wall Type Column Type "I"Type

20
15 -----

30

~5

@
1~

WallType 25

=r:
~

@
C==O

14

Bridge Seat Also referred to as girder seat. This is the portion where the bearing support is installed to support superstructure. Care must be exercised to secure a sufficient gap between the bearing support edge in the direction of the bridge axis and the substructure top edge wall, that is, be sure to prevent the concrete parapet wall in the seat front from being shear broken and to prevent the bearing support from coming off the seat. Parapet A wall to support the ground pressure or the surface load acting above the bridge seat plane, and is provided with an expansion apparatus connected to the bridge structure. Body Bodily substance to accommodate the load from superstructure and to stop the ground pressure from behind (often generically referred to as "abutment body" including the parapet, seat, footing, and so forth). Footing A structure to transfer all the loads acting on the abutment and to resist the reaction from the ground.
2.3 Outline of the Types of Bridges and Their Characteristics

In Figure-2.3.1, an example of a plate girder bridge is shown.

"I" Girder

Box Girder

Figure-2.3.1 An Example of Cross-Sectional Configuration of Plate Girder Bridge 2) Characteristic of I girder bridge The I girder is easy to fabricate besides being the most light-weighted in steel members, and is economical. It is suited for a straight application owing to the small torsional rigidity (stiffness) imparted to each main girder. In tum, care must be exercised when handling lengthy members because "buckling" is likely during transit or construction. If the span is long enough when the dual main girder structure is used for a narrow bridge (L and B ratio is 18 or more, where "L" is the span length and "B" is the girder clearance as defined in the Handbook of Railroad Bridge Design), the scrutinization on the safety factor regarding the bridge total buckling, together with the detailed stress analysis, will become necessary. The general economical limit of the web height of an I bridge could be about 1/17 to 1/22 of the span length depending upon the space between the main girders and the materials used. 3) Characteristic of box girder bridge The box girder bridge is provided with large torsional rigidity as well as bending rigidity and is suited for long span bridges and curved bridges. Since the construction utilizing a large-scale block system is feasible and sufficient under-the-girder space is secured thanks to the lowered girder height (10 to 20%lower than the I girder), it can display a sense of stability and attractiveness in appearance. On the other hand, it is more complex in design and building process compared with the I-girder structure and lacks a lot in the freedom of crosssectional variation, therefore, the cost of construction will be relatively high if applied to a bridge with short spans. (2) Configuration Shown in Figure-2.3.2 is the general configuration of straight I girder comprising a plurality of main girders (upper/lower flanges, webs, reinforcements, 15

2.3.1 Plate Girder Bridge

The most common type of bridge. The style is simple in dynamics, and has a thin member structure comprising upper/lower flanges that mainly resist the beam bending moment and web that mainly resist the shearing force. This type of bridge structure is the most commonly used in this country. (1) Kinds of plate girder bridges 1) There are three types of plate girder bridges; H-steel girder bridge, I-girder bridge, and box girder bridge. The floor slabs are divided into two categories; concrete floor slabs and steel floor slabs. The H-steel girder has the maximum girder height up to 912 mm and is inexpensive in terms of the unit weight because mass-produced, and besides, the transportation and on-site building are easily conducted allowing an applicable span length up to around 25 meters. The I girder and the box girder are used most frequently. Their cross-sectional configurations comprising upper/lower flanges and a web are formed through welding process. The on-site joints are generally bolted by high strength bolts. The applicable span is about 60 meters per I girder and about 80 meters per box girder with RC floor slabs, while up to about 150 meters is feasible when steel slabs are used.

and diaphragm), cross beams for load distribution, sway bracings, lateral bracings and so on. The dead loads such as floor slabs and the live loads by vehicles passing are conveyed to the bearing supports via the floor slabs and main girders. The upper flower flanges mainly resist the .bending moment, the webs mainly resist the shear, and the stiffeners on the supports form a column structure combined with the webs; thus the alternating stresses are conveyed to the bearing supports.

The intermediate stiffeners are provided with prescribed rigidity enabling the webs to endure the load up to the yield point of flanges, and therefore are arranged at proper intervals. The diaphragms are effective in retaining the cross-sectional geometry as well as in transferring the locally concentrated loads to the girders smoothly. The cross beams, sway bracings and lateral bracings are installed for the purpose of maintaining the crosssectional form and proper stiffness, and at the same time transfer the lateral loads to the bearing supports smoothly.
Cross Beam

Intermediate

Sway Bracing

End Sway Bracing

Figure-2.3.2
2.3.2 Truss Bridge

Configuration of "I" Girder Bridge The Warren type is the most frequently used for simple trusses with span length ranging from 50 to 90 meters or for continuous trusses because of its concise structural format, easiness of fabrication, and light-weight.

A truss is a structure consisting alone by axial tensile members and axial compression members with a view to imparting a resisting property as a whole. This structure enables a bridge to raise the height of main truss without drastically increasing the web members as in the case of the plate girder bridge. Consequently, the structure allows to construct a bridge with long spans having greater load durability with relatively small quantity of steel by virtue of the combined use of small and light-weight members. On the other hand, it has certain disadvantages typified by the issues of spatial occupancy and visibility for drivers, requiring careful consideration when selecting the bridge type. (1) Kinds and Characteristics A number of truss styles have been experimented since the beginning of 19th century when the analysis of truss structures started. Among them, the Warren truss is one of the recognized representatives of the truss architecture. (Figure-2.3.3)

/\7\1\1\1\7\ ROr
4
(a) Parallel Chord Warren Truss

Surface

(b)

Parallel Chord Warren Truss Equipped with Vertical Members

~ aX
(c) Curved Chord Warren Truss Equipped with Vertical Members

Figure-2.3.3

Types of Truss Bridges

16

Although the parallel chord truss is commonly used, the curbed chord truss can reduce the quantity of steel used compared with the former because the latter can cope with the variation of the bending moment by the variation of the height of the main truss. In turn, the latter will be expensive when the span is relatively short (80 meters or less) due to complicated structure of members and panel points. The most economical truss height is 1/7 - 1/10 time the span in the case of the parallel chord truss or 1/5.5 - 1/8 time the span in the case of the curved chord truss
Upper Chord Member Upper Lateral Bracing

(2) Configuration Shown in Figure-2.3.4 is the general formation of the through-truss structure, comprising the main truss (upper/lower chords, diagonal members), floor system (floor beams, stringers), portal bracing, upper/lower lateral bracings and support members. The dead loads such as floor slabs and the live loads by vehicle passing, etc., are conveyed to the bearing supports in the order of floor slabs ---+ stringers ---+ floor beams ---+ main girders.

Support Member

Bearing Support

Figure-2.3.4 Configuration of Through Truss Bridge The upper/lower lateral bracings are the structure to resist the horizontal loads such as wind pressure and earthquake load, and they simultaneously assume the role of three-dimensional deployment of the loadresisting function through the coexistence with portal bracings and support members, thereby enhancing the rigidity of structure in its entirety, with the resultant improved safety factors against the total buckling. 2.3.3 Arch Bridge The arch bridge is the oldest and was known to prehistoric people. It has graceful curves typified by the Roman aqueducts or the two-arched bridge (Megane-Bashi) in Nagasaki. Through the evolution from stone or logs to steel, the arch bridge has become versatile in styles, and the original names' have been given to the respective styles. (1) Kinds and Characteristics The arch bridge has many styles but largely divided into the three categories as shown in 1) - 3) below. (Figure-2.3.5) 1) Arch bridge The arch ribs are designed based on bending, shearing and axial forces.
M (Bending Moment), S (Shearing Force), N (Axial Force)

Tie 1) Arch Bridge

2)

Langer Girder Bridge

3)

Ai~

M,S,N Lohse Girder Bridge (lncluding Nielsen Bridge)

Figure-2.3.5 Classification of Arch

17

2) Langer Girder Bridge The arch ribs are designed based on axial force alone. Stiffening girders are designed based on bending, shearing and axial forces. 3) Lohse Girder Bridge The arch ribs and stiffening girders are designed based on bending, shearing and axial forces. Shown in Figure 2.3.6 is the structure of arch bridge and shown in Photo-2.3.1 are the embodiments of deck arch bridges and through arch bridges.
Upper Lateral Bracing Strut

Hanger Floor Beam Lower Lateral Bracing Stiffening Girder Bearing Support

Figure-2.3.6

Configuration of Arch Bridge

[Through Bridges]

[Deck Bridges]

Langer Girder Bridge

Inverted Langer Girder Bridge

Lohse Girder Bridge

Inverted Lohse Girder Bridge

Photo-2.3.1

Examples of Arch Bridges (Through Bridge, Deck Bridge)

Nielsen Bridge 18

2.3.4

Rahmen (Rigid Frame) Bridge

The rahmen bridge is considered to be a variation of a continuous girder bridge consisting of a series of members to which bending moment, axial force and shearing force are applied simultaneously. It is often of the so-called "statically indeterminate structure," and the structural characteristics of those equipped with slanting legs resembles the arch bridge. Figure-2.3.7 shows the general types of Rahmen bridges, and Figure-2.3.8 the configuration of a braced Rahmen bridge.

(a) Braced Rahmen

I ;I

L ". ..I..

, •• >

.I» ..,1

(b) V-leg Rahmen

(c) Continuous Multi-Span Rahmen Figure-2.3.7 Types of Rahmen Bridges

Pin Bearing Support

Figure-2.3.8 Configuration of Braced Rahmen

2.3.5

Cable Stayed Bridge

The cable stayed bridge is a plate girder bridge of which the several halfway portions of a span are stretched diagonally upwards with cables and therefore considered to be nothing but a kind of continuous girders from the architectural point of view. Recently the construction of cable stayed bridges goes on increasing and at the same time growing in size thanks to the quickened and detailed simulation using computers combined with the improvement in the cable strength and reliability. As a result, this type of bridges has gained an important position in the modem bridge architecture and provides room for further development and advancement in future.

From the economic point of view, the cable stayed bridge could be positioned between the plate girder bridge and the suspension bridge. However, various ideas have been proposed and actually implemented to make this style of bridge applicable even to the span length which used to be restricted for suspension bridges. The stretches of cable as seen from the side of bridge are something like depicted in Figure-2.3.9 for the most part and can be divided into two types, namely, the cable-saving type and multi-cable type. The characteristics of the representative cables used for the cable stayed bridge are shown in Table2.3.1.

19

Table-2.3.1

Characteristics of Cable
Parallel Wire Cable Non-Grout Type Cable

(a) Harp Style

Original Solid Wire and Geometry Tensile Strength (Nz'mm-) Young's Modulus (Nz'mm-')

Galvanized Steel Wires Tied up in a Bundle 1570 20X105 Galvanized Original Solid Wire
+

Corrosion Protection
(b) Fan Style

Polyethylene Cover

Cross-section

(c) Fan Style (Multi-Cable Type)

Figure-2.3.9 Cable Arrangement The types of cross-sectional geometry of the main girders used in the cable stayed bridge are shown in Figure-2.3.10. In the case of the single-deck cable, the type (a) or (b) is used, but the type (a) is selected more often taking economic incidence into consideration. In the case of the double-deck cable, type (b) or type (c) is used in general. For any sake, this kind of structures are likely to deflect easily, so that the wind stability must be taken into consideration when determining the girder geometry. In addition to the above truss structure type main girders are also used. The forms of towers are selected after due deliberation on the factors of appearance, economy and wind stability. Some examples of the tower forms are shown in Figure-2.3.11. The configuration of the cable stayed bridge is shown in Figure-2.3.12.

/1\

~:::J:!X;::P
(a) Box Girder Type

,
I I
I

I I

,,:::: I::~:] :,:,.,::,-7

(b) Box Girder Type

(a)

(b)

(c)

i~"[J 000 00
Goo (c) Dual-Box Girder Type

\
o~ \
I

1
(d)

(e)

(f)

Figure-2.3.10 20

Cross-Sections of Main Girders

Figure-2.3.1l

Tower Forms

Main Tower

Beam

Main Girder

Figure-2.3.12 Configuration of Cable Stayed Bridge

2.3.6

Suspension Bridge

The suspension bridge is one of the bridge styles handed down from ancient times by mankind. After the wire ropes have become widely used, almost all of the bridges with spans exceeding 500 meters were constructed by the long-spanned suspension method. Since the suspension bridge is composed of the extremely deflecting structure compared with the rigid structures that are adopted in the truss, arch and plate girder bridges, a reasonable amount of deliberation should be exercised on the aerodynamic stability if the suspension bridge is constructed at the site likely to suffer from strong winds. The general configuration of suspension bridge is shown in Figure-2.3.13, and the cross-sections of stiffening girders are shown in Figure-2.3.14.

Diagonal Member

Stiffening Girder (Truss)

Figure-2.3.13

Configuration of Suspension Bridge 21

Although the cross-sectional geometry adopted in the suspension bridge was traditionally of a truss structure in this country, the flat box cross-section is becoming the usual practice of late.
2.3.7 Types of Bridges and Standard Spans

Based on the past achievements, correlations between the types of bridges and the standard spans are shown in Figure-2.3.15.

---=~;;::o;;"".~1 IIIII
Figure-2.3.14

II II

~2:;=--

Cross-Section of Stiffening Girder

22

8 o--~r_--_+----,_----t_--_i----_r----+_--~r_--_+----'_----r
~

0 ot-----r_--_+----,_----t_--_,----_r----+_---,~ro~ ~oo ... 2 ro~ &:~ ~.g:g ~~

§--~r----+----,-----t----i-----r----+---r-~if
~

t-----r----+~:'-'c~:,-----t----4-----+if +_----r-~_+~
"O,~

8,~

~:g

~o~

.s

...

~ --~r----+----,-----t----i-----r----+---~H-o~)-i;(l-+J

.+-----IH---+----+----+-t
0

too
~

ro
~

Z~O~

rot'- 0 ~ ~ ~ r---~"O '8 ~ ~ 'C ..c: 'C

bill!)

~~~

g--r_r---_+----,_----t_--_i----_r----+_--r_~--_+----+~
o
'C ~ I_--_i----_r----+_--r_----_t----+----!-;H,c-. +----+~

+~~t_--_i----_r----+_~~:

rJjg

if ~ +-~---+----+-----r-

§ E
~.

CD

:E
~

~I----i-----r----+---~r----t----+~

+-_-:-1_---+

~ ~
"O~

if

~1-----+---1----+----t----t----+~
§I----i-----r----+---r------t----+i

+;.-.;_I-----+~
:Ii

;e ~

0:;

:E
~

0~ r.------:-

&' ~+_7-+-I__-_+0

----i--:----:---:-

~~-+--~--O--~~_r~

] 5S

§--~r_--_+----,_----t_--_i----_r----+~

-+----r---1-7-~-~~. ~o .. :::E;::

"

o ~ ;::I_--_i----_r----+_--~----_t----+~'_'~-+-

§1__---+---1----+----t----t----+---1~
~I----i-----r----+---r------t----+----to

~I----i-----r----+---~-----t----+----t-

§---t----t----+---1I----+----+----+---~ gl__---+---1----+----t----t----+7-T1~I----i-----r----+---r------t----+ ~I----i-----r----+-r-~-+~-t----+

gf----_+-----t.--.+_

·~l

:i~·~:~~~··~· ~~~~~~~~~~~
23

Chapter 3
3.1 3.1.1 Basic Plan and Preliminary Design Work Flow
1)

How to Build a Bridge

3.1.2 Preliminary Survey

Not only a great deal of time and labor is required but lots of procedural steps must be committed before the completion of a bridge whose construction has been planned based on the route planning defined in the road and railroad traffic management plan. The basic plan and preliminary design are created prior to the implementation design prepared for starting up of the project. The work flow in this situation is shown in Figure-3.1.1.

Preliminary Survey (1) Geographical Survey (2) Geological Survey (3) Soil-Quality Survey (4) River/Flood Plan Survey (5) Related Traffic Survey (6) Field Survey (7) Meteorological Survey

In order to materialize a bridge construction plan, it must be practicable both in technology and in economy. The survey at the planning stage is therefore construed as the data collecting activities to support the feasibility of the program. The survey is classified into two category -preliminary and detailed. The former is conducted as part of route planning and the latter is conducted to obtain information required for the implementation design. In the preliminary survey, the following investigation activities are usually performed. (1) Geographical Survey (2) Geological and Soil-QualitySurvey (3) RiverIFlood Plan Survey (4) Related Traffic Survey (5) Field Survey (6) Meteorological Survey
3.1.3 Basic Plan

The basic plan is framed prior to the preliminary design for the purpose of determining the site of bridge construction, bridge class, structural standard, basic arrangement and other conditions required for the preparation of preliminary design, provided that the construction of a bridge is recognized to be necessary based of the road or railroad management plan.
3.1.4 Preliminary Design

Detailed Survey

Figure-3.1.1 The Flow of Basic Plan and Preliminary Design

The primary purpose of preliminary design is to choose the very best of the bridge style, span distribution and main structural dimensions. The procedure starts from the planning of several architectural types with varied span distributions. Then, the structural property, economy, constructibility, operability and aesthetic content of each type are studied to create the comparative chart as shown in Figure-3.1.2 (1), (2), (3) (comparison of three plans). The best proposal then will be adopted based on the comprehensive assessment. For the bridges considered important from the aesthetic point of view, perspective drawings are prepared to help select the bridge style. Although perspective drawings were traditionally hand-drawn, CG (computer graphics) technique of these days is capable of changing viewpoints and coloration including the commonly used photo montage.

24

1. Langer Girder Plan

Side View Cross-Sectional View

Quantity and Cost of Construction Item Main Structure(t) Accessories Transportation Erection (t) Floor Slab (m2) Pavement (m'') Sundry Expenses Total (t) (t) Q'ty 346.0 24.2 370 370 259.7 825 Unit Price (¥1000) 529
-

Quantity and Cost of Construction Cost of Construction (¥1000) 183,034 14,324 5,550 51,800 18,179 1,238 19,192 293,317
Drivability, Maintenance/Repair 1. Drivability is inferior due to the oppressive feeling formed by the seemingly narrow through bridge passage. 2. Use of weathering steel is desirable to save the cost of maintenance but particular care should be exercised at the design/implementation stages. Evaluation

Item

Q'ty 165m2 1,549 m2 1,100 m2 391m2

Unit Price (¥1000) 64.4 42.8 44.3 59.1

Cost of Construction (¥1000) 10.629 66,356 48,736 23,111 148,832

AI
Pl P2

15 140 70 1.5

A2
Total

Grand Total

442,149 (¥1000)

Structural Property 1. Ratio of span and intertruss gap (L/b=121.6/7.2=16.9) is the smallest of the three plans and designed theoretically the most rational to meet the lateral load. 2. Deflection is small thanks to the continuous structure. Also excellent in quake-resistance. iJ L/L=1/1192<1/600: Central Span

Constructibility 1. Term will be prolonged due to the large scale/number of bases for substructural work. 2. Arch members' bending rigidity is low, requiring extra attention to the members during construction.
3. Members near midway

Appearance and Others 1. Appearance is somewhat inferior to plan 2 since arch is interpolated by lines. 2. Cost of superstructural construction is estimated based on the weathering steel chemically treated.

supports tend to increase in weight/measure requiring caution in transit and erection.

Fig. 3.1.2 (1)

Example of Comparative Design, Plan 1

25

2. Through Lohse Girder Plan

Side View
142,400

Cross-Sectional View

[email protected]

Quantity and Cost of Construction Item Main Structure Accessories Transportation Erection (t) Floor Slab (m2) Pavement (m2) (t) (t) (t) Q'ty 375 26.5 401 401 245.1 700 Unit Price (¥1000) 551 Cost of Construction (¥1000) 206,625 16,221 6,015 56,140 17,157 1,050 20,091 323,299 Item

Quantity and Cost of Construction Q'ty 1,038m2 1,663 m2 Unit Price (¥1000) 60.7 36.6 Cost of Construction (¥1000) 62,975 60,784 123,759 Grand Total 447,058 (¥1000)

A1 A2
Total

15 140 70 1.5

Sundry Expenses Total

Structural Property 1. Stability of slopes is enhanced by the architecture to transfer arch lateral forces to the substructure to thrust the slope faces. 2. Since the allowances for the deflections of arch members have been made, bending moment by live loads may increase by the factor of 2 at stiffening girders and 1.67 at the arch members compared with the value by regular calculation 3. As the near edge hanger are subject to excessive bending moment due to temperature changes, the use of pivoting pins or cables is encouraged. 4. Ratio of span and inter-truss gap (L/b=19.1) is large and so the deliberation on the horizontal stability is indispensable. 5. Thickness of floor slab will increase as much as 2cm due to the appended moment caused by the difference in the stiffness of the slab supporting girders. is L/L=l/800>1/600

Constructibility 1. Term will be reduced considering the "large scale but small number" of bases for substructural work. 2. Arch members are provided with enough bending rigidity and can be erected independently of other members. 3. Scatter of weight per member of superstructure is comparatively low.

Drivability, Maintenance/Repair 1. Drivability is inferior by reasons similar to plan 1. 2. Use of weathering steel is desirable to save the cost of maintenance but particular care should be paid at design/ implementation stages.

Appearance and Others 1. Appearance will be graceful in harmony with the landform. 2. Cost of superstructural construction is estimated based on the weathering steel chemically treated. 3. Comparatively sophisticated technology is required for both design and erection.

Evaluation

Fig. 3.1.2 (2)

Example of Comparative Design, Plan 2

26

3. PC Hinged Continuous Girder Bridge

Side View Cross-Sectional View

6.200
600

11
II

Mfa d600
r-[:}
I

Thickness of Asphalt Pavement: 60m -98mmm

I

II

J~

.._

1.~~ --

150· 0

4.000

950

150

Quantity and Cost of Construction Item Upper Girder Concrete (m2) Bridge Surface Concrete (m/) Accessories (t) Q'ty Unit Price (¥1000) 180 Cost of Construction (¥1000) 185,760 Item

Quantity and Cost of Construction Q'ty Unit Price (¥1000) 61.5 Cost of Construction (¥1000) 28,490

1,032

A1
Pl P2

463m2

74 21.3 825

70

5,180 12,055

1,400m2 1,163 m2 463m2

58.7 60.3 61.5

82,174 70,113 28,490 209,267

Pavement (m-) Sundry Expenses Total

2.0

1,650 51,161 255,806

A2
Total

Structural Property 1. Central hinge type was adopted with a view to structurally distributing the horizontal forces of earthquake to the abutments at both ends. The dimensions of piers normal to the bridge axis are therefore expanded. 2. The span arrangement is determined so as not to develop excessive negative reaction forces at both abutments. Abutment negative reaction force. Rd = -26.7t Ri+l = -39.5 2:R = -66.2t (; L/L=1/1477: Central Span

ConstructibiIity 1. Term will be the longest of the three plans due to the large scale of bases for substructural work. 2. Construction may involve certain difficulty because the bridge width is narrow and building site is high.

DrivabiIity, Maintenance/Repair 1. Drivability is superior because of open view featuring a deck bridge. 2. Central hinge portion is likely to hang down due to creep, drying shrinkage, etc. 3. Maintenance cost is reduced.

Appearance and Others 1. Appearance is stylish and refreshing. 2. Excavating volume is large and can affect the original landform to a certain extent. 3. P2will be caught in the slope of the gorge due to the unavoidable span arrangement. 4. Cost of construction can be reduced if good aggregate for superstructure is available in the neighborhood.

Evaluation

Fig. 3.1.2 (3)

Example of Comparative Design, Plan 3 27

3.2 3.2.1

Detailed Design Work Flow

The implementation design is executed to commence the construction of the bridge whose style has been determined in the preliminary design. In Figure-3.2.1, the flow of work and the achievements or the design documents are shown.

(2) Determination of Basic Dimensions of Bridge Floor The basic dimensions of the bridge floor, namely the length, width configuration, pier angles, crosssectional gradients in all directions and designed surface height are determined in this process. (3) Determination of Pier Arrangement The basic axis lines to determine the bridge geometry or the arrangement of the framework lines, namely the span, the main girder length and the cross beam length are determined here.
3.2.4 Structural Analysis 5)

Detailed Survey (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Geographical Survey Geological Survey Soil-Quality Survey Environmental Survey Transportation Survey Experimental! Analytical Survey and so on.

Linear Calculation Sheet Design Calculation Sheet Drawing and Quantitative Calculation Sheet

Structural analysis is a process for investigating and clarifying the behavior of a bridge under loads due to gravity, winds, earthquakes, temperature changes, etc. In other words, it is a process for obtaining section forces and deformations such as bending moment, shearing force, deflections and reaction force, which are caused in the structural members of a bridge when the specific design loads have acted on these members. Usually, this analysis is practiced according to the procedure shown in Figure-3.2.2 given below.
. ............. J

I Alignment

calculation

I.

Figure-3.2.1 Flow of Detailed Design

3.2.2 Detailed Survey

Modeling of structural t sysem

F:
-'

Modeling of frame shapes Determination of boundary conditio~s of members. Assumption of the sectional f b properties 0 mem ers Modeling of load conditions Determination of load strength Determination of loading points Determination of programs used Preparation of input data Management of output results Plotting of section forces Forming of table of reaction forces Summing of deflections by dead loads and live loads

The implementation design is conducted prior to the plant fabrication for the bridge whose style has been determined in the preliminary design. The detailed survey is the supplementary survey to prescribe the design conditions usually performed in the following areas. (1) Geographical Survey (2) Geological Survey (3) Environmental Survey (4) Construction Survey (5) Experimental/Analytical Survey
3.2.3 Alignment Design

L- __

Modeling of loads
---,

:.
:.

Numerical analysis

1 J

F::'.

F
=i=
.

Summing of section forces and deformation

············-1-···············:
I
Member design

Figure-3.2.2 Typical Procedure for Structural Analysis (1) Modeling of Structural System The structural members of a bridge are replaced with the components of frameworks such as beams and trusses to which theory of mechanics is applicable. Generally speaking, it is a common practice to use a plane frame model as shown in Figure-3.2.3 , but a 3-D frame model as shown in Figure-3.2.4 may be used if necessary.

The alignment calculation is the most basic of the design activities and is important not only as the basis for the successive design assignments but also as the benchmarks for fabrication and construction. (1) Verification of Route Alignment Plane alignment, run-through linearity and surface cross-sectional gradients of the planned bridge route are verified.

28

Tahle-3.2.1

Modeling of Live Loads on a Road Bridge Method of Loading

Load Model and Strength

Directions of Transversal Axis Normal to Bridge Axis Width Occupied Per Set ofT-loading 275 <, 10tf 10tf

Loading Face

777777
20 tf

--=-J[_ .
Coefficients L~4 1.0 L>4
L 7 32 + 8

~I
(Unit cm)

__Q!l_1-----;1~~1'-'-7"'-5 -f-j.....QQ

Method of Loading at the Design Stage of Main Girders

Span (m) B Live Load

(Where Max. is 1.5.)

ALive Load

1.0

1.0

Isodistributed Load pi Isodistributed Load pa

111111111

II III
•
I

Load Length D

PtIJIIllI)
'01,.1.101.1
Po

111111111111
•

:
I

Load Length D
___,

Y' 0>a
~

unUIIIUUfftti

aw'

'"

15.

Curve of Shearing Impact Due to the Section A Method of Applying the Isodistributed Load PI (In the Direction of Bridge Axis) Directions of Bridge Axis Mairi Loadage Applying Width

Main Loadage (Width 5.5 m) Isodistributed Load pi Load Length D(m) B Live Load A Live Load Load (kgf/m'') Isodistributed Load pz Load (kgf/ m2) Loadage Loading

J F' ii Ii" ,itJd

~i___3-,
...I

(5.5 m or less)

Subordinate Loadage Appl:g Width

I I IiI
•

Bend- ShearL:;;;80 80<L;>;130 L>130 ing ing 1,000 1,200 350 430-L 300 50%of Main Loadage 50%of Main Loadage

Reaction Curve of Main Girder A

;--.

10

Ib--"'= ....... p,"--"'::=-.

~21 .• l-. y
r •• '"'"~~

Non-Lo ding Portion

--

1,000 1,200

350

430-L

300

L : Span Length (m)

L-Load Applying Method (Normal to Bridge Axis)

29

Load Model and Strength

wkgf/rn2

Method of Loading

'"0
«:l
Q)

.s
i)';
Q)

r-4unfiiJlt
I.Sidewalk, ~m) Floor Slab, Floor System Main Girder, Main Truss L~80 500 350

Sideway Total Width

I
80<L~130 500 430-L L>170 500 300

~ ~

r«m Sideway
~

i1

Sideway Total Width

tDD]

II

Total Width

'"0

(J)

i1

'""]

(a) Modeling of Girder Bridge Plane Truss

- II I I I I I
Figure-3.2.4 3-D Frame Model

Plane Grid Girder

L.

(b) Modeling of Truss Bridge

Figure-3.2.3 Plane Frame Model

(2) Modeling of Loads Since the gist for modeling the loads has already been disclosed in the published documents such as Standard Specifications for Highway Bridgew, we would follow the process described in these documents in determining the magnitude and loading point for each of the loads. The primary loads consist of dead loads and live loads, while the secondary loads include those of winds and earthquakes. Table3.2.1 illustrates the modeling of live loads acting on a road bridge. (3) Numerical Analysis Based on the applicable theory of mechanics such as stress method and deformation method, the modeled loads are applied to the aforementioned frame models. Analyses of this kind are usually performed with computers since it will be extremely laborious and time consuming if practiced manually.

Summing of Section Forces and Deformation Amounts Calculation results are presented graphically in the form of section force diagram for evaluation in terms of stresses/deformations of members and submitted to the member design in the next stage, namely the dimensioning of cross members.
3.2.5 Member Design

(4)

The main task of member design is to obtain the degree of stress on each member cross-section based on the forces applied to the respective members that have derived from the structural analyses, and then to determine the optimal material and dimensions. In the primary member, the sequence of design usually corresponds to the flow of the forces acting. Other than the cross-sectional designing of members, separate designing tasks described below must be carried out in succession.

30

(1) Deflection Check Cross-sectional dimensions of a member concern not only with the stresses but also with the deflections. Deflections to be checked are those caused by live loads. Informatively, the deflection tolerances are stipulated in the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. On the other hand, the deflections due to dead loads are made due allowances for the cambers caused during manufacture. (2) Design of Ioints Since the block dimensions of members are restricted because of the necessity for transit from the factory to the site, each structural member is fabricated into segments of appropriate dimensions (height, width and length). In general, friction jointing by tension bolts is adopted for the site joints. (3) Examination of Stresses During Erection In case the launching erection method, the inclined hanging method utilizing cable erection, or the large block method based on floating crane is adopted, it is necessary to check the degrees of stresses on the member sections under erection and to successfully reflect the results of the checking on the design of members after examining the safety of the members during erection. (4) Design of Auxiliary Equipment Although treated lightly now and then, the design of auxiliary equipment, such as expansion units, hand rails, drainage, inspection access aisles, earthquakeproof coupling devices is important in that it will entail the causes of trouble unless full consideration is given to their connection and compatibility with the main structural members at the stage of member design.
3.2.6 Plans (Drawings)

General Drawing linear Diagram

-----

Table-3.2.2 Types of Drawings

Contents of Drawing Bridge Total Plan View, Side View, Cross-Section Frame Geometry, Frame Grid Coordinates (X, Y, Z) Degree of Stress on Structural Members, Tolerable Degree of Stress, Cross -Sectional Dimensions Planned Heights of Members for Each Erection Particulars of Main Girders, Cross Beams, and Lateral Bracings Arrangement Plans and Detailed Diagrams for Expansion Apparatus, Drainage, and Handrails Floor Slab Plan, Cross-Section, Bar Arrangement Plan and Work Diagram Total Quantitative list of Steel, Concrete, Reinforcements, etc. Order and Method of Erection

Section Force Diagram

Camber Diagram Detailed Structural Diagram Detailed Accessory Diagram Floor Slab Diagram Bill of Materials Guideline Plan for Erection

3.3 3.3.1

Plant Assembly Work Flow

On completion of the implementation design, the production shifts to the plant fabrication. Although the order/sequence of fabrication is varied depending upon the enterprises involved, plants and types of bridge, etc., the work flow can be represented by the flowchart given in Figure-3.3.1.

Plans as comprehensive compilation are the final results of the implementation design based on the linear calculation, structural analysis and member design, and are produced in the form of drawings and calculation sheets. (1) Drawings Drawings are the materials used for planning of fabrication, erection, and for actual assembling processes in plant and construction site. The kinds of drawings are as shown in Table-3.2.2.
3.3.2

Figure-3.3.1 Work Flow of Plant Assembly

Material Procurement

The materials are ordered based on the cutting plan to evaluate the minimum quantity of steel required for the fabrication of necessary members. At this stage, margins for machining and assembly are reserved.
31

In general, the steel is ordered from steel millers through sole agents. The delivery time is varied depending on the materials ordered. Usually two to three months are necessary. The steel delivered is accompanied with a mill sheet (certificate of steel standard) with entries of necessary information such as dimensions, chemical composition, and tensile strength. In the material inspection, the mill sheet is checked against the numbers impressed on the edges of steel members. A tensile test or an impact test will be conducted if so required by the client.
3.3.3 Full-Size Drawing

The marking process is automated or omitted now and then in conformance with progress in plant automation. There are electronic photo marking machines and NC rnarking machines for automatic marking operation (See Photo-3.3.1) in addition to the NC gas cutters and drillers for no-marking machining.
3.3.5 Cutting

Full-size drawing/processing refers to preparation for the splines (rulers), templates, working drawings and bills of materials required for marking, machining and assembly. It is based on the correct dimensions of the members determined according to the plans which are plotted as of the end product or completed bridge shape and measurement. In doing so, the bridge crosswise gradient factors, manufacturing warp (camber), welding distortion/contraction and cutting margins must be taken into account. At the inspection of full-size operations, the actual member dimensions, component connection, and manufacturing camber are validated using these data. The developmental calculation in full-size process is currently conducted by computers, that is, the NC full-size operations utilizing the automatic drafting machine is the mainstream of today's style of collecting the production data/information. The inspection in terms of the NC full-size is conducted on the CAD display for the verification of dimensions, geometry and drilling positions.
3.3.4 Marking

(1) Cutting Methods of cutting the steel members are largely divided into fusion cutting and mechanical cutting. Oxy-fuel gas cutting and plasma cutting are classified in the former and applied to the cutting of common steel, while the latter or mechanical cutting is applied to the cutting of thin plates and shaped steel. There are kinds of gas cutting machines as shown in Table3.3.1, among which the automatic gas cutting machines (Photo-3.3.2) are most commonly used

Photo-3.3.2 Automatic Gas Cutting Machine Table-3.3.1 Types of Gas Cutting Machines
Classification Types Manual Cutter Manual SemiAutomatic Cutter Special Cutter Automatic Gas Cutter Flame Planer Automatic Pattern Cutter Eye Tracer Other Exclusive Cutter N/C Application General Cutting General Cutting Underwater Cutting, Powder Cutting, etc. Straight Cutting of Short Members Parallel Cutting of Long Members Cutting of Curvature and Small Members Cutting of Curvature and Small Members Cutting of Pipes and Shape Steel General Cutting

Marking refers to the process of marking or drawing the cutting lines and drilling hole patterns on the steel plate surfaces as well as identification marks for members. The role of this process is to give definite instructions on machining and assembly to the succeeding production lines.

Figure-3.3.1 NC Marking Machine 32

(2) Drilling, Punching, Reaming Since high-tension bolts are generally used for job-site connections of a steel bridge, the hole making for this purpose is one of the most important machining operations that will affect the precision of the end products. The methods for making holes are broken down into three categories as shown bellow. - Punching: Holes are made by piercing/shearing - Drilling: Holes are made with drills - Reaming: Holes are reamed with reamers (3) Bending Bending process can be classified largely into two classes-cold working processed at room temperature and hot working processed at a hightemperature of 750 to 950°C, and the process is again divided largely into press bending and roller bending In general, cold working is used for steel bridges. Since the cold working can develop considerable local distortion or cracks, the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridge prescribes the inner radius of bending to be more than 15 times as large as the thickness of plate.

The defects are sorted as shown in Table (a) based on the influence on the joint strength. The defects of category 1 and category 4 are sub-divided into classes 1-4 according to the number of defects (Table (b» or length of faults, and the defects in category 3 are designated to class 4. The grade of defects is prescribed in the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridge such that the minimum passing grade for the weldment subject to tensile stress is stipulated to come into class 2 and up, and for those subject to compression stress is stipulated to come into class 3 and up, respectively.

Photo-3.3.3 Plate Connection by Submerged Arc Welding Table-3.3.2 Types and Classification of Defects by Radiographic Examination
(a) Types of Defects Category of Defects Types of Defects Round blown-hole or similar defects Slender slag inclusion, pipe, inferior penetration, inferior fusion or similar defects Cracks and similar defects Tungsten inclusion

(1) Press Bending

(2) Roller Bending

Figure-3.3.2 Bending Methods

3.3.6

Assembly and Welding

Category 1 Category 2

The assembly of members in a plant consists of combination and temporary welding connection of flanges/webs, and constitutes the important process to determine the precision of the members. The combined members are jointed by welding. In the construction of a steel bridge, shielded metal-arc welding (manual welding), C02 gasshielded arc welding (semi-automatic welding) and submerged arc welding (Photo-3.3.3) are generally used. The multi-electrode welder is also used for the sake of high-efficiency of the rib weldment for steel floor slabs and so on. In the welding process, particular care should be paid to the welding conditions, welding materials, welder's skill and welding environment to prevent defects of weldment itself and damage due to welding. In Table-3.3.2, the kinds and classification of defects of weldment as defined in]IS Z 3104 are presented.

Category 3 Category 4

(b) Classification of Defects of Category 1 and 4

(Unit: mm) Perspective of Test 10X10 Classification t ~10 Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 1 3 6 10X20 10X30

Thickness of Base Metal (t) 10 < t ~25 2 6 12 25 < t ~50 4 12 24 50 <t ~100 5 15 30 t>100 6 18 36

Those exceeding class 3 in number of defects

33

3.3.7

Curing

Even if very careful attention is paid to the welding process to prevent the development of distortion due to welding operations, certain degrees of lateral shrinkage, longitudinal shrinkage, angular displacement, and spinning distortion are unavoidable. Once such deformations have developed, they must be removed through the rectification process such as press (Photo-3.3.4) or gas flame heating. When applying the linear heating by gas flame heating, meticulous care is needed for the surface temperature of the steel material and the cooling method to be applied. Otherwise, the steel property may be spoiled.

Photo-3.3.5 Three-dimensional Temporary Assembly

3.3.9

Shop Painting

Shop painting is generally implemented on completion of the inspection on the temporary assembly and after disassembling the members. It generally comprises the following three operations. (1) Regulation of Undercoat There are two methods, namely, 1) the raw plates blast method or primary corrosion protection performed with shot blast and primer treatment immediately after cold-rolled at a hot or cold rolling mill, and 2) the product blast method or blasting after welding assembly performed with mill scale (black rust) left as is. Primary corrosion protection Since the surface of steel after shot blasted is very active and easily corroded, quick-drying paint (shop primer) is generally applied for the purpose of giving rust-prevention prior to the formal painting process mentioned below.
(2)

Photo-3.3.4 Straightening Machine

3.3.8

Trial Shop Assembly

Temporary assembly is the process of assembling members in whole or in parts on completion of the welding connections according to the drawing. In this process, examination on the following three points are conducted. - Appearance of steel surfaces and welded connections for each members - Conditions of interconnection between members - Resulted formation and dimensions after assembly The methodology of temporary assembly can be classified into the three-dimensional wholistic assembly (Photo-3.3.5) for the purpose of erecting all members as a total set, and the partial assembly practiced usually for the purpose of verifying the accuracy of assembly when there are physical limitations in the area and height for temporary erection as in the case of an arch bridge, a large-sized truss bridge or piers. In state-of-the-art technologies, trend is turning toward the substitution of the actual implementation of temporary assembly by the advanced numerical simulation based on the measured data of members, in particular in the area of I-girders. 34

(3) Formal Painting Formal painting comprises an undercoat, an intermediate coat and a final coat. However, generally the undercoat alone is factory applied and the successive intermediate and final coats are implemented at the erection site. However, recently, factory painting up to the final coat is experimentally conducted with a view to rationalizing the job-site operations as well as reducing the term of construction work.

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3.3.10 Quality Control The fabrication of bridge structure is the diversified small-lot type of production in response to the order of a client, and yet a labor-intensive type of production requiring a great deal of labor force. Since many a human labor involves in the sequence of production from the acceptance of order to the delivery of the product, all possible measures are taken to the quality control throughout the production process, and in-house inspections are conducted at each stage of production. Incidentally, examination of materials, full-size drawings and temporary assembly are usually conducted in the presence of the client. 3.3.11 Recent Innovation In order to achieve rationalization of plant assembly sequence, automation of the work process from full-size drawing to assembly/welding has been promoted making use of the most of the high technology of the present day. In the full-size work, NC full-size operations have already been introduced and the NC cutting machines using plasma or laser cutters assume the machining of steel plates. Currently the production process up to the cutting of steel plates are mostly carried out by NC-based operations, still, further automation including the innovative assembly/welding methods is now under way. In Figure-3.3.3, an example of automated assembly/welding lines are shown. These panel lines control all the control systems as a united whole, so that the tack welding, formal welding, straightening and drilling processes are unattended by human workers, but robots take on the jobs. 3.4 Transportation and Erection Generally the blocks of a bridge fabricated in the assembly plant are transported to the site by trucks or trailers. At the transportation, the vehicles passing the public roads are regulated by the "Over-The-Road Hauling Vehicle Law," "Roadway Law," and "Road Traffic Law" regarding weight and loaded conditions For the vehicles exceeding the ordinary limits and for specially designed vehicles, application for passing must be submitted to the traffic administrator 3.4.1 Work Flow On completion of the plant assembly, the work process shifts to the erection a t the site. The outline of the work flow is described below.

3.4.2 Erection Plan The principal assignments required for an erection planning are the site survey, the determination of erection method, and the preparation for the erection plan. (1) Site survey Prior to the erection on-site, the following reconnaissance/survey are conducted. - Survey on the site topography, natural conditions, surrounding environment. - Survey on the surrounding transportation routes. - Examination of laws and regulations related the erection work. - Survey on the substructural work (2) Determination of method for erection work (Photo-3.4.1- 3.4.4) The erection method is determined based on the site survey taking the following points into consideration and then an erection guideline plan is drafted. - Influence on the structural entirety of the bridge. - Safety and economy of construction work. - Period of erection work and the progress in the neighboring work site. - Condition of erection machines and materials. (3) Preparation for the erection plan The following items shall be incorporated into the erection plan. - Organizational structure - Guidelines for construction work - Calculation for erection - Construction machinery and materials - Planning for steel member transportation - Guidelines for job-site connection/coupling - Guidelines for job-site painting - Planning of safety installations

36

Erection Methods

Photo-3.4.2 Cable Erection Method

Photo-3.4.1 Truck Crane Bent Method

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i~~'f~~St,!f~;,~{J.;".",~:;r~~'j~,"-1,i} ."~]i'; .•

Photo-3.4.3 Large Block Method Using a Floating Crane

Photo-3.4.4 Launching Method

3.4.3

Connection of Members

Field connection of members can be performed either by the friction grip connection using hightension bolts or by the job-site welding connection. (1) High-strength Bolts Joints The high-strength fasteners (bolts and nuts) generally used are the hex headed high strength bolts for friction grip connection, and the torshear type high strength bolts (Figure-3.4.1) which are tightened to the specified torque using a torque wrench or a hightension bolt tightener. (Photo-3.4.5,Figure-3.4.2) Because of the easiness of torque control, the torshear type high-strength bolts are used more often lately. These bolts are provided with shearing grooves at the threaded ends which are automatically cut offwhen the specified torque

37

High-Strength Hexagon Headed Bolts ]IS B 1186 (1979) Set of hexagon headed bolts for friction grip connection, hexagon nut, and flat washer.

Torque-Shear Type High-Tension Bolts Standard of Japan Road Association Set of torque-shear type high-tension hexagon nut, and flat washer.

bolt,

Hex-headed high-strength grip connection

bolts for friction

Torque-shear type high-strength friction grip connection Types of High-Tension Bolts

bolts for

Figure-3.4.1

Gearbox

Handle

Motor Figure-3.4.2 Tightener

Photo-3.4.5

High-Strength

Bolt Tightener

CD Pin Tail
(2) Shearing Groove

® Threaded Portion
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(A) Before Tightening (B) Under Tightening (C) After Tightening Type High-Strength Bolt

Metals to be Tightened Socket

(J) Outer Socket

Figure-3.4.3

Working on a Torque-Shear

38

(2) Welding Connection Site welding is adopted when there is certain structural restriction such as the fabrication of steel floor slabs and steel piers or from esthetic consideration. Generally speaking, automatic submerged arc welding is applied to the deck plates of steel floor slabs (Photo-3.4.6) and automatic gas shielded arc welding is applied to the columns of steel piers. The joint welding procedure qualification test is conducted prior to the welding operation.

This is the conventionally used method to prepare formwork and reinforcement at the site for the purpose of placing concrete. Proper consideration is necessary as shown in Figure-3.4.5 when placing concrete to form the floor slab concrete to be arranged over the continuous girders. - Block placement based on the casting capacity per placement should be adopted. Juncture of casting should be arranged where the stress of dead loads is relatively small. - Total balance of deflection is important to avoid excessive local deformation in the main girder structure and to minimize the deformed amount. - Post casted concrete should not be subject to large tensile force as much as possible.

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12

Photo-3.4.6 Site Welding 3.4.4 Floor Slab Work The floor slabs used for a steel bridge is either the reinforced concrete slabs or the steel floor slabs. The floor slab work in this context refers to the process carried out for the former. (1) Concrete Placing
Assembly of Formworks for Floor Slabs Assembly of Reinforcement Placing/Curing of Slab Concrete Assembly of Reinforcement for Curbs Assembly of Handrails/Protective Assembly of Formworks for Curbs Placing/Curing of Curb Concrete Removal of Formworks Fence

Figure-3.4.5 An Example of Order of Concrete Placement Applied to the Continuous Girders (2) Precast Floor Slabs Floor slab blocks are factory casted and each block is joined together on the spot. This method have advantages in that the quality of floor slab concrete can be improved and at the same time the term of on-site work is curtailed.

Photo-3.4.7 Precast Floor Slabs

Figure-3.4.4 Flow of Floor Slab Work

39

(3) Movable Form Carrier Technical innovation is under way with the aim of saving the labor required for the formwork assembly to be used in the job-site placement of floor slab concrete. The technical innovation, at the same time, aims at improving safety in the concrete placing work. The art has already been put to practical use in certain construction sites and heightened the expectation for this specific technology.

painting exceeds six months. - Intermediate and final coats should be performed after completing the necessary slab work. The introduction of complete factory painting is under way with a view to reducing the cost of erection as well as lightening the burden on the part of job-site. If full factory painting is adopted, the welded connections alone are left as the object of onsite painting thereby contributing to the safety of work.
3.4.6 Pavement

Photo-3.4.S Movable Form Carrier (4) Curing After placing concrete, the surface must be covered with a sheet or other appropriate materials to protect against the direct rays of the sun, winds, cold air and rain water because the curing of concrete can greatly affect the compression strength. The wet curing of concrete should be continued until at least the casted concrete reaches enough solidity to allow removal of formworks. Temperature should be properly controlled when a curing process is practiced in the hottest and coldest seasons.
3.4.5 Site Painting

There three painting assignments conducted at the erection site. - Painting of on-site welded/bolted connections - Reformative painting onto the factory primer treatment. - Intermediate painting and final painting. The following points should be attended when conducting the job-site painting. - The paint manufacturer should be identical with the one used in factory painting. - Reformative painting should be applied to the portions damaged during erection. Carefully finish the heads of the high-tension bolts - since these tend to be weak points. Apply undercoat once more before applying - intermediate paint and final paint if the interval between the factory painting to the job-site

On successful completion of the job-site painting, the paving work is performed onto the bridge surface to finish up the construction of a bridge. By the way, pavement is divided into two kinds, -concrete and asphalt. For a roadway bridge, generally the asphalt pavement is favored because of good pliability. The surface pavement is given for the purpose of transferring the wheel loads to the floor slabs, protecting the floor slabs, providing the ride quality and drivability, etc., and generally heated asphalt mix or "gusse" asphalt mix are used. The thickness of asphalt is commonly 6 to S em over the floor slabs. Occasionally a gluing layer as adhesive between the floor slabs and pavement as well as a waterproofing layer to ensure watertight are added on purpose. The following incidence and suggestions are the matter that requires careful attention. - The asphalt mix is excellent in anti-fluidity - A waterproofing layer is provided for the steel floor slab to intercept the penetration of rain water. - A leveling layer is installed if the paved surface becomes irregular due to the undulation of the concrete floor or bolt heads. - In the case of steel floor slabs, avoid longitudinal juncture over the longitudinal ribs and longitudinal stringers. - Remove harmful materials from the floor slabs and sufficiently dry up the surface prior to the paving work. It is recommendable in the case of RC floor slabs that a waterproofing layer and slab drainage are provided for the sake of maintenance and repair work. Watertight "Gusse" asphalt is used to form a lower layer in the case of the steel floor slabs. In recent years, drainage strengthened pavement has been put to practical use with the aim of ensuring noise reduction and safe vehicle passing.

40

Chapter 4

Characteristics of Steel Bridges

This is because the steel bridge has many outstanding characteristics as follows. (1) Steel is endowed with well-balanced, high load-carrying capability compared to other materials generally used for bridge construction. (2) A high degree of reliability of "steel" as raw material has long been established in the history. (3) Product reliability is highly ranked because the steel products are manufactured in highly engineered as well as supervised plants. (4) A high degree of freedom is ensured to respond to the structural requirements, making the most of the materials intrinsic workability (5) Demand for shortened and simplified on-site erection urged by the trend of urbanization throughout the country can be fulfilled satisfactory as the occasion may require. (6) Flexible in meeting the post construction conditions such as unexpected increase of traffic and load, in addition to the relative easiness of maintenance and repair work. (7) Shape and color of a bridge can be chosen freely and satisfactorily in harmony with the landscape. (8) Steel is the highly reusable resources, adapting itself to the preservation of global environment Needless to say, the steel has many other strong points, but the supplementary comments given below are limited within the sphere of the representative characteristics mentioned above.

As of April, 1995, in Japan there are about 660,000 road bridges longer than two meters in length. Among these, about 125,000 bridges are longer than 15 meters, and these will extend for 7,200 km in the total length. The latter groups of bridges are principally broken down into steel bridges, PC bridges and RC bridges, among which steel bridges account for 50 percent.

Figure-4.1

Percentages of Bridge Extensions Sorted by Type

In recent years, R&D in the area of Aluminum alloys and FRP has made rapid progress and it may not altogether be a fantastic story that some bridges will be made of these innovative materials in the future. However, we can say without fear of successful contradiction that steel has continued and will continue to be an excellent material for bridges from the past to the foreseeable future, not to mention the present.

Reliability of Material

Excellent LoadCarrying Capacity

Reliability of Products

Structural Freedom

}------------j

Excellent Characteristics of Steel Bridge

Easiness of Maintenance/Repair

Work

Adaptability to ShortTerm Construction

Recycling of Resources

Harmonization with Landscape

Figure-4.2 Excellent Characteristics of Steel Bridge

41

4.1 High LoadCapacity Steel is an indispensable structural material, and today more so considering the trend of technology toward the large-scale content of structures. In particular, high load-carrying capability of steel is the most suitable for the bridge structures. (1) High Strength Steel shows strength per unit weight higher than any other materials generally used for bridge structures. In other words, it is indispensable in the light-weight content of structures and therefore the realization of ultra-long span bridges (continuing to escalate even now) is solely dependent on this property of steel. Tensile strength of the steel generally used for bridges are 400, 490 and 570 N/mm2 prescribed in the Specifications for Highway Bridges. The allowable stresses of these steel members range 140 to 255 N/mm2, which are far superior to other materials for bridges, and besides, it possesses equivalent level of strength against tensile forces and compression force. For hyperbridges having ultra-long spans, such as the Honshu-Shikoku Bridge, the high tensile strength steel in the form of HT690 steel or HT780 steel is used. (2) Elongation and Toughness Steel shows substantial stretching property not found in other materials for bridges and this contributes greatly to the enhancement of the terminating durability of structural bodies. This characteristics is thought very advantageous in application to seismically active territories such as Japan. Steel also possesses substantial toughness and can withstand severe shocks. (3) Invariable Load Capacity The steel members can keep invariable loadcarrying capability by the proper maintenance and repair work. This fact is demonstrated by the world's famous bridges still active after going through over 100yeas of services.

Photo-4.1.1 Brooklyn Bridge (USA)Completed in 1883 4.2 Reliability of Materials

It is estimated to be 4000 to 5000 years since mankind started the use of iron, and the metal has continued to be one of the most familiar materials down to the present. In Japan also the modern iron manufacturing started in 1857 when a European style blast furnace was built in Kamaishi, Iwate Prefecture. The iron manufacturing technology has made remarkable progress in this 100 and odd years rapidly up to the present level. Of all these glorious historical events, it is notable that the generally admitted rapid progress of computerization in steel manufacturing industry has come to the position to take the initiative over the rest of the industries. As a result, the production control in iron/steel manufacturing companies are generally so well-ordered thanks to state-of-the-art technologies that they can provide large quantity of sophisticated steel products in regard of material component, strength and dimensions at reasonable price ranges. The standards of steel members used for bridge construction are prescribed in ]IS apan Industrial Standard), and the delivered lots are accompanied with the mill sheets (certificates of steel standard) which are checked against the numbers impressed on the steel member edges to confirm the quality specified. Furthermore, test pieces are sampled from the steel members prior to practical use and submitted for the mechanical examination, and thus the conformance to the standards is ensured to the very end. For the reason stated above, it will be clear that the steel members used for the construction of a bridge are guaranteed to have uniform strength free from discernible unevenness, and are entirely reliable.

42

4.3

Reliability of Products

As stated in Chapter 3, the bridge is fabricated under fully controlled production lines in a wellequipped plant, using state-of-the-art technologies by experienced expert engineers. In a bridge assembly plant, each stage of production processes, such as full-size operations, individual members, nondestructive tests, temporary assembly and painting, are strictly supervised. In particular, the dimensional strictness is consistently controlled in the whole processes from full-size operation to temporary assembly at the accuracy level of millimeter to sustain a high degree of reliability. In recent years, computers and numerical control (NC) machines introduced into the bridge assembly plants have greatly contributed to the promotion of trustworthiness of the automated full-size operations, automatic cutting and automatic welding. 4.4 High Degree of Structural Freedom

Figure-4.4.1

Stepping out of the Subway by Underground Girders

The network of roads in this country has been reinforced in quick order and the growth in this area is just amazing. However, there is an obvious fact that the structural requirements imposed on the bridges are getting more and more stringent reflecting the basic awareness of effective utilization of limited land. The steel bridge can respond to all these requests giving full display to its intrinsic property. Freedom in Plane Linearity and Span Arrangement The steel bridge can respond to any latitudinal conditions of roadway bridges, from narrow to wide, and the degree of freedom in terms of plane variation, such as sharp curvature and sudden width change is sufficient. The steel bridge also allows the choice of styles in conformance with the span length including irregular span arrangement. Complex road architecture such as an interchange is one of the representative embodiments utilizing one of the special properties of steel bridge. (2) Meeting the Complex Structure Recently, multi-span continuous rahmen (rigid frame) bridges are frequently constructed as overhead highways in urban areas. The main motive for the trend is the improvement in traffic capacity and the dispersion of earthquake loads, making the location all the more complicated. The steel bridge has substantially overcome all these difficulties. (1)

Coping with the Restricted Under-the-Girder Space For a bridge straddling a river or a railroad, the height of the girders is restricted to the lowest possible in order to compile with the run-through gradient and the clear headway under girder. (4) Coping with Weak Ground A number of development utilizing the reclaimed land will be projected from now on as in the past in Japan with limited land space. Steel piers and steelslabbed bridges are commonly applied to soft and weak land typified by the landfills with a view to reducing the total dead loads to make allowances for earthquake loads and irregular sinkage, because the minimization of total structural dead loads of structures is the most effective measures in this regard. 4.5 Easiness of Maintenance and Repair

(3)

It is very important to keep up the structures and functions of a bridge in active service, while it is only natural that a highly durable bridge be constructed in the very beginning. The main rationale for the repeated maintenance and repairing operations could be the increase in the traffic density and loading weight in addition to the restoration work for disasters such as earthquakes and typhoons. Apart from these, some bridges are planned on assumption that certain expansion will be made based on the positive evidence of future-traffic congestion. The steel bridge allows on-site bolt/welded connections relatively easily, and can adapt itself to the temporary repairs such as short-term disaster relief work.

43

(1) Easiness of Repair and Reinforcement Repairs and reinforcement of a steel bridge are performed by on-site cutting, welding and bolting and can be limited to a small-size by the use of members or components settled into small blocks. (2) Easiness of Enlarging Work What is important in the lane enlarging work conducted on the bridge is how to minimize the traffic control over the portion of the bridge in use during the work term. Since a steel bridge is capable of maintaining the necessary strength for the portion of the bridge in active service, the expansion work can be conducted according to the traffic conditions and therefore is advantageous in short-term works. In particular, the steel-slabbed structure is suited for an expansion work because it can curtail unnecessary increment of dead loads.

conducted prior to the erection as well as the severe production control at assembly plants.

Photo-4.6.1 An Example Erection of Whole Structure 4.7 Harmonization with Landscapes Japan has long since been one of the most affluent countries in the world, and is now facing the 21st century drawn near. Her view of abundance or affluence has changed, too. Take a road bridge for instance. As typified by fine sensibility to beauty and consideration for user, the harmonization with the surrounding environment has developed to be a serious matter just as important as functional requirements. (1) Rahmen (Rigid Frame) Bridge The types of rahmen bridges are divided into the braced bridge configured with lines, the V-leg bridge, and the archwise bridge utilizing curvature. Regardless of the span length, the rahmen bridges are in wide use at park sites, for pedestrian passages, and in mountainous valleys.

Photo-4.5.1 Wakato Bridge under Roadway Expansion Work 4.6 Meeting the Short-Term Construction With the development of road network, the conditions for construction are getting more and more severe. The conditions for construction principally consist of the site topographical condition, the peripheral! environmental conditions, and the work term/delivery conditions. While there are plethora of methods for bridging a bridge, there would be a knack for choosing a method which is ideal for meeting the individual situations. In particular, the steel bridge is flexible in that it can orient itself to large-scale content such as block system allowing prefabrication of components with the resultant sharp reduction of the work term, thus minimizing the influence on the regional environment. As for the structural accuracy, the steel bridge provides a high-level of reliability by virtue of the deliberated on-site reconnaissance and other surveys

Photo-4.7.1 Rahmen Bridge with V Legs

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(2) Arch Bridge The arch bridge has a beautiful arc which has delighted the eyes of people from olden time. The styles are classified into "through," "halfthrough" and "deck"; which are selected in accordance with the site topography and landscapes, and occasionally play an important part as a landmark.

1913 after about three years of construction term. As a result of unavoidable circumstances, such as increase of traffic and vehicle loads, the famous bridge was reconstructed. This elegant and yet dignified cultural heritage was moved to Tama NewTown and replicated there as one of commonly used bridges. For any sake, the steel bridge can contribute to the preservation of environment making the most of its intrinsic semi-permanent property.

Photo-4.7.2 Arch Bridge Constructed Across a Steep Valley (3) Suspension Bridge The suspension bridge is the hyper-long bridge commonly constructed in coastal region such as a strait with special consideration for the distant view of stiffening girders, main towers, anchorages and cables,

Photo-4.8.1

Yotsuya-Mitsuke Bridge at the Time of Completion

Photo-4.7.3

Mono-Cable Suspension Bridge with Diagonal Hangers Photo-4.8.2 Yotsuya-Mitsuke Bridge was restored to life as a symbol of new locality

4.8 Reuse of Resources The international issue of the global environment preservation may not be detoured by any inhabitants on earth, and Japan also has taken it as an impending social problem ever since the end of high-growth years. The society itself also shifted from the age of "throwing away" to the age of "recycling." The steel bridge can display its property most satisfactorily in such social requirements. The former Yotsuya-Mitsuke Bridge, known as the oldest steel arch bridge in Tokyo, was set to construction in 1911 using the steel members imported from Carnegie, Inc., USA and completed in

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Chapter 5

Coming Steel Bridges

Indeed, a great many bridges have been built since ancient times up to the present. A decisive step forward in bridge construction was made 200 years ago when iron was put to practical use as a bridge material making it possible to expand span length with an accelerated impetus. In recent years, new types of bridges have been constructed with a view to further the rationalization and labor saving in addition to the improvement in earthquake-resistant performance. Based on the present state of bridge construction, let us make a short tour of the "bridge-to-be" to guess coming direction.
5.1 Further Rationalization

, _.:J ,
Photo-S.l.I The Second Tomei Expressway, Ohbu Overpass

The girder number saved bridge is a bridge whose number of main girders is reduced to save the construction cost through simplified structure and reduced number of jobs. The 2nd Tomei (TokyoNagoya) Expressway (Photo-S.l.I) adopts these measures in full-scale and is now under construction.

Girder Bridge

Simplified Girder Bridge (Three Main Girders)

6.0

6.0

Figure-S.U Simplified Girder Bridge and Its Characteristics

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5.2 Steel-Concrete Composite Bridge

The development and application of steel-concrete composite bridges are now promoted positively. The essence of composite bridges consisting of steel and concrete structures is to make the most of their strong points in the form of composite cable stayed bridge (Photo-5.2.1) and composite continuous girder bridge (Photo-5.2.2).

Photo-5.2.1 Lake Hamana Sun Marine Bridge

This Bridge is a composite cable stayed bridge with steel slab box girders and PC box girders, and with PRC main towers.

Photo-5.2.2 Matsuyama Viaduct

RC girders for side span, steel girders for central span. bridge are joint-less. Front and rear contacts with the RC rahmen

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5.3 Quake-Resistant (Mensin)

A number of quake-resistant bridges have been constructed. Shown in Photo-5.3.1 is an example of quake-resistant bearing supports installed in the pier bases for the sake of prolonged vibration cycle, reduced earthquake loads, and improved damping.

Photo-5.3.1

Benten Viaduct
Continuous 19-span girders are used to improve quake-resistance and ride quality; quake-resistant bearing supports are installed in the pier bases.

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5.4

Long-Spanning Bridge

Japan is one of the world's most thickly "island-dotted" countries and therefore the construction of hyperbridges is indispensable as part of reinforcement of infrastructure. Shown in Photo-5.4.l is the world's largest cable stayed bridge under construction. R&D to sustain these hyperbridges is eagerly hoped for hereafter as before.

Photo-5.4.l

Tatara Bridge
As part of Honshu-Shikoku Bridging Projects, it is a 3-span continuous cable stayed bridge linking Ikuchi Island and Ohmishima Island, and is the world's longest cable-stayed bridge.

5.5

Environmental Compatibility

A floating bridge must not be forgotten as an example of bridge style aiming at the minimization of the impact on natural environment to harmonize with nature as much as feasible. Shown in Photo-5.5.l is the floating bridge with a total float system including foundations allowing passage of large vessels. The floating bridge together with the mega-float is now attracting attention as one of the most advanced technologies.

Photo-5.5.l Tentatively Named "Yumeshima+Maishima Connecting Bridge"

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