INTRODUCTION TO WELDING

G.CHOWDHURY Prof.(Met)

INTRODUCTION TO WELDING
Welding is recognised all over the world, to day as a remarkably versatile means of metal fabrication.

Welding has provided ample freedom to the modern designer to develop metallic product in which optimum mechanical properties, lightness & aesthetics are harmoniously blended.

Plain carbon steels, low alloy steel, & heat resisting steels, and many nonferrous metals & their alloys (such as aluminium, nickel copper) and metal such as titanium, columbium, molybdenum & zirconium are welded extensively.

Automobiles, railway rolling stocks, transmission pipe lines, pressure vessels, storage tanks, machinery, power generation equipment, offshore platforms, oil refineries, and fertiliser plants owe their development & efficient performance to welding.

In the last few years, many of the new high temperature metals & super alloys have been fabricated by welding into critical components required for missile, jet aircraft, & nuclear power plant.

The forge welding apparently originated more than 1500years ago.

The 1500-year-old iron pillar at the qutbminar in Delhi is made of pure iron ingots forged welded together.

Diversity of welding processes

welding
Solid state welding Resistance welding Cold welding Friction welding Diffusion welding Flash welding Ultrasonic welding Explosion welding Consumable electrode Gas metal arc welding Shielded metal arc welding Submerged arc welding Flux cored arc welding Electrogas welding Electroslag welding Gas tungsten arc welding Atomic hydrogen welding Plasma arc welding Non consumable electrode Electrical energy Chemical energy Oxyacetylene welding Oxyfuel gas welding Other processes Laser beam welding Thermit welding Electron beam welding Fusion welding Soldering and brazing Soldering Brazing

PROCESS CHART

WELDING, CUTTING AND ALLIED PROCESSES

Fusion Electric Resistance welding Arc Gas Thermit Electron Beam Electro slag Laser Solid Phase Braze Welding Brazing Thermal Cutting Thermal spraying

Metal Carbon TIG Arc Arc Arc Spot

Arc stud

Atomic Hydrogen

Electro gas

Plasma Arc

Manual Arc

Submerged Arc

MIG

MAG (CO2)

Flux Cored

Gas shielded

Self Shielding

PROCESS CHART

WELDING, CUTTING AD ALLIED PROCESSES

Fusion Electric Resistance welding Solid Phase Braze Welding Brazing Thermal Cutting Thermal Spraying

Forge Gas

High Frequency Pressure Cold

Diffusion Bonding Explosive

Friction

Ultrasonic

Pressure

Black Smith

hammer

PROCESS CHART

WELDING, CUTTING AD ALLIED PROCESSES

Fusion Electric Resistance welding Solid Phase Braze Welding Brazing Thermal Cutting Thermal spraying

Resistance Dip Flame

Furnace Induction

Salt bath

diffusion

PROCESS CHART WELDING, CUTTING AD ALLIED PROCESSES

Fusion Electric Resistance welding Solid Phase Braze Welding Brazing Thermal Cutting Thermal spraying

Resistance But

Dip

Flame

Furnace Induction

Salt bath

Diffusion

Oxygen Oxygen arc Arc Spark erosion

Electro beam

Laser

Flame

Electric

Plasma

PROCESS CHART

WELDING, CUTTING AND ALLIED PROCESSES

Fusion Electric Resistance welding Solid Phase Braze Welding Brazing Thermal Cutting Thermal spraying

Resistance Butt Flash

Spot

Seam

Projection Percussion High Frequency Resistance welding

Stitch

Multiple Series Spot Spot

Roller Spot

Butt Seam

Foil Butt Seam

WHAT IS WELDING?
MATERIALS FABRICATED INTO SHAPE BY FOUR METHODS:CASTING.

DESIRED

FORMING.

MACHING.

WELDING.

DEFINATION OF WELDING: A localized coalescence of metal or non metal produced either by heating the materials to suitable temperature, with or without application of pressure, or by the pressure alone, and with or without application of filler materials.-AWS.

 Union between two pieces of a metal at faces rendered plastic or liquid by heat or by pressure, or both. filler materials may be used to effect the union.- IS:812 Contd

DEFINATION OF WELDING Contd..

An operation by which two or more parts are united, by means of heat or pressure, or both, in such a way that there is continuity of the nature of the materials between the parts.

A filler materials, the melting point of which is of the same order as that of the parent materials, may or may not be used.- ISO

DEFINATION OF WELDING Contd..

To elaborate, a weld is a localised union of metals.

The abutting surfaces grow together into a common mass.

The ideal weld is one in which there is perfect continuity between the parts joined, such that the every part of the joint is indistinguishable from the metal in which the joint is made.

FUSION WELDING PROSESSES: These processes involve fusion of the base metal to complete the weld.

Fusion welds ordinarily do not require the application of pressure, and they may be completed with or without addition of filler metal.

A fusion weld made without the addition of filler metal is called autogenous.

In most cases, fusion welding involves the use of filler metal.

METAL ARC WELDING: Heat required for fusion is generated by the electric arc formed between a metallic electrode & the base metal.

The electrode is consumed in the arc & provides the filler metal for the joint.

The extremely high arc temperature of over 50000 c permits it to supply a large amount heat.

Among the arc processes, manual metal arc welding (MMAW) is the most common, versatile and inexpensive one and account for 60% of the total welding in advanced countries and over 90% of the total welding in india.

1) MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING (MMAW)

It makes use of a flux coated electrode having a core of solid wire (diameter 6.3-1.6mm, length 450250mm).
A

It needs a power source, either a transformer supplying AC or generator/ rectifier supplying DC.
B Fig-1:-MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING (A) WELDING CIRCUIT (B) WELDING ARC IN ACTION.

The process is suitable for the entire range of plate thickness, and for almost all-commercial metals and alloys.

It is used for joining as well as for surfacing. (rebuilding).

It can be used in all welding positions.

It is well suited for site welding.

POWER SOURE

(A)

(B)
Fig-1:- MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING (A) WELDING CIRCUIT (B) WELDING ARC IN ACTION.

2)SUBMERGED- ARC WELDING: The is mostly used as a fully- automatic process, and sometime as a semiautomatic process.

The electrode is a continuous metallic wire (solid or flux cored) in the form of a spool or a coil.

It is fed automatically into the arc at a constant speed.

The arc is covered with a layer of dry granular flux, which performs the same functions as the coating of a manual electrode.

The arc length is automatically controlled.

The power source can be transformer (AC) or generator/rectifier (DC).

a a

It is generally of high capacity, say 750 or even up to 3,000amps.

It is generally applied on mild steel, high tensile steels, and stainless steels.

It is ideal for heavy thickness.

For thin sections, weld backing is necessary to avoid burn-through.

It is commonly used for fabrication of plate girders, pressure vessels, pipes and penstocks, for surfacing & strip cladding. (Fig-2)

3) MIG WELDING:
MIG (metal-inert-gas welding) is also known as GMAW (gas-metal- arc welding).

In this process, coalescence is achieved by an electric arc formed between the work piece and a continuous consumable solid wire electrode, which is fed through a gun at controlled speeds.

Inert gas flows through the gun and forms a blanket over the weld puddle to protect it from atmospheric contamination.

The welding can be semiautomatic or fully mechanised.

3) MIG WELDING (Contd..) The power source is a rectifier or motor generator giving DC.

Reverse polarity is used, as it gives better melting, deeper penetration and better cleaning action.

MIG is a versatile process, and is gradually replacing manual metal-arc and TIG welding.

Most metals can be easily welded including aluminium, carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels, nickel, copper, magnesium, titanium, and zirconium.

However, for carbon steels and low alloy steels, MAG or co2 welding is preferred, because it avoids the use of expensive argon gas.

4) MAG (CO2) WELDING:

MAG stands for metal active-gas arc welding.

This is a variation of MIG welding, in which identical equipment is used but the inert argon gas is replaced by gas mixture or carbon dioxide, which are chemically active.

The term gas-metal-arc welding (GMAW) is also applied to the MAG (CO2) process. CO2 welding is gradually replacing manual metal- arc welding in the fabrication of structural, pipes, automotive products, storage tanks, and machinery, etc.

MIG/MAG WELDING

5) FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING:

A TUBULAR WIRE WHOSE CORE IS FILLED WITH FLUX REPLACES THE CONTINUOUS SOLID WIRE.

THE EQUIPMENT IS THE SAME AS USED FOR MIG/MAG WELDING.

THE FLUX PERFORMS THE SAME FUNCTIONS AS THE COATING OF A MANUAL ELECTRODE.

SUITABLE ALLOYING ELEMENTS ARE ALSO INCLUDED IN THE FLUX.

5) FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING (Contd..)

Flux-cored arc welding is normally performed with a co2 shield.

Some flux-cored wires are specially designed to be self-shielding.

Such wires are widely used in the USA and Japan for structural and hard facing applications.

FIG-3 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE PROCESS.

FIG-4: FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING:WELDING IN ACTION.

7) TIG WELDING:
TIG (tungsten-inertgas) welding is also termed as GTAW (gas-tungsten- arc welding).

An arc is struck between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the base metal.

The arc is shielded by the inert argon or helium or argon-helium mixture.

A filler wire may or may not be used.

FIG 5:SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF TIG WELDING

When it is used, the welder feeds it externally into the arc in the form of rod or strip.

This is an ideal process for welding nonferrous metals and stainless steels.

FIG 5:SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF TIG WELDING.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF TIG WELDING.

8) ARC SPOT WELDING:

In this process, coalescence at the overlapping surfaces is produced in one spot by heating with an electric arc between an electrode and the work.

The weld is made without preparing a hole in either member.

Filler metal or shielding gas or flux may or may not be used.

The arc is produced by using either of the carbon arc, TIG, MIG processes.

Arc spot welding by MAG (CO2) process is widely used today.

FIG:6 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF ARC SPOT WELDING

While electric resistance spot welding requires access from both sides of the overlapping plates, arc spot welding can be from one side only.

FIG:6 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF ARC SPOT WELDING

9)ARC STUD WELDING:

This is an arc welding process in which the arc is struck between a metal stud or similar part and the base metal.

The arc heats the mating ends to a proper temperature after which they are brought together under pressure.

The process has two versions: y y Arc stud welding. Capacitor discharge welding.

Stud Welding

Figure 28.13 The sequence of operations in stud welding, which is used for welding bars, threaded rods, and various fasteners onto metal plates.

ARC STUD WELDING:



In this case, the welding end of the stud is recessed and contains flux which is meant to stabilise the arc and as a deoxidising agent. The operator positions the stud held in a portable pistol shaped tool called a stud gun. He then actuates the unit by pressing the trigger switch.
SKETCH OF ARC STUD WELDING

The welding time and the final driving home of the stud to complete weld are controlled automatically by a timing device.

Capacitor discharge welding



In this case, the stud has a small cylindrical tip on its welding end and the arc is produced by a rapid discharge of stored electrical energy with pressure applied during or immediately following the electrical discharge. It employs a specially designed air gun. The gun is equipped with a collet attached to the end of a pistol rod, which holds the stud. Air pressure keeps the stud away from the plate until the weld is made. At the proper time, air pressure drives the stud against the work piece. As soon as the tip of the stud touches the work piece, a high ampere, low voltage discharge takes place. The current creates an arc, which melts the entire face of the stud and a similar area of the work. The stud is then driven at velocity into the molten pool. a high

 

SKETCH OF ARC STUD WELDING Capacitor discharge welding

FIG:7 SKETCH OF ARC STUD WELDING

10) ATOMIC

HYDROGEN WELDING:

In this process, an arc is struck between two tungsten electrodes using AC.

Streams of hydrogen gas are passed from orifices around the electrodes into the arc.

Here the molecules of hydrogen dissociate into atoms with the absorption heat from the arc.
FIG-8: DIAGRAMMATIC SKETCH OF

The atoms recombine into molecules at a point a few millimetres away from the arc and liberate intense heat.

HYDROGEN WELDING

It is this point which is used for melting the base metal.

ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING Contd..



Thus, in this process, the source of heat is not the arc but the hydrogen gas acting as the carrier of heat.

Filler metal may be added if required.

Since hydrogen is present in the arc, this process can cause hydrogen induced cracking in hardenable steels and in heavy, restrained joints in normal steels, and porosity in high-sulphur, free machining steels.

Hence the TIG process has largely replaced it.

FIG-8: DIAGRAMMATIC SKETCH OF HYDROGEN WELDING.

11) ELECTRO GAS WELDING:

This process is designed for single pass vertical welding of steel plates in the thickness range of 10-38 mm.

The joining operation consists of lining up two square butt edges with a 12.5mm gap, regardless of plate thickness.

The wire electrode is introduced downward into the cavity formed by the two plates to be joined and two fixed water-cooled dams or chilled blocks.

FIG 9 :DIAGRAMMATIC SKETCH OF ELECTRO GAS WELDING.

The cavity is kept free of air by the shielding gas, which usually is a mixture of argon and carbon dioxide.

Wire diameter may be 1.5, 2 or 2.4 mm depending of the plate.

FIG 9 :DIAGRAMMATIC SKETCH OF ELECTRO GAS WELDING.

12) GAS WELDING:

In this process, the melting of the base metal is achieved by means of a gas flame, which derives its intense heat from the combustion of a fuel with oxygen.

The most commonly used fuel is acetylene, and hydrogen is sometime used.

Hence appropriate term of this process is oxyfuel or oxyacetylene welding. Filler metal may or may not be used.

The oxyacetylene process depends reaction, which occurs in two stages. Primary stage:

on

the

chemical

C2H2

O2

2CO

H2

The primary combustion provides the actual flame for welding, with temperature up to 3,0920 C, which is in the inner cone. Secondary stage: 2CO + H2 + 11/2 O2 Oxygen from air This secondary combustion occurs at the outer portion of the flame. = 2CO2 + H2 O

It protects the molten puddle from attack by air and helps to preheat the base metal.

The oxyacetylene process

Process features


Oxyacetylene welding, commonly referred to as gas welding, is a process which relies on combustion of oxygen and acetylene. When mixed together in correct proportions within a hand-held torch or blowpipe, a relatively hot flame is produced with a temperature of about 3,200 deg.C. The chemical action of the oxyacetylene flame can be adjusted by changing the ratio of the volume of oxygen to acetylene. Three distinct flame settings are used, neutral, oxidizing and carburizing
Carburizing flame

Neutral flame

Oxidizing flame

The oxyacetylene process contd..



Welding is generally carried out using the neutral flame setting which has equal quantities of oxygen and acetylene.

The oxidizing flame is obtained by increasing just the oxygen flow rate while the carburizing flame is achieved by increasing acetylene flow in relation to oxygen flow.

Because steel melts at a temperature above 1,500 deg.C, the mixture of oxygen and acetylene is used as it is the only gas combination with enough heat to weld steel.

However, other gases such as propane, hydrogen and coal gas can be used for joining lower melting point non-ferrous metals, and for brazing and silver soldering.

The oxyacetylene process contd..

FIG:10 OXYFUEL WELDING:(A) SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE PROCESS (B) SKETCH OF THE WELDING TORCH

The oxyacetylene process contd.. Gas welding has limited application for industrial production purposes, because it is much slower than arc welding process.

It is used considerably more for general maintenance work including hard facing, welding metals of low melting points (especially non-ferrous metals) and performing such operations as brazing, soldering and thermal spraying.

13) THERMIT WELDING:

This process utilises the intense heat developed during the reaction between iron oxide and aluminium.

When a mixture of three parts of iron oxide and one part of aluminium by weight is locally heated with a special a special ignition powder, a vigorous reaction takes place which proceeds rapidly through the mass, resulting in the formation of aluminium oxide and iron, and a considerable amount of heat.

The heat is sufficient to melt the iron and the oxide slag.

The Thermit mixture is placed in a refractory crucible above the pieces to be welded.

13)THERMIT WELDING (C0ntd..)

The molten metal from the thermit reaction in the refractory crucible is guided to the joint to be welded by a sand mould, which is fastened around the work.

By virtue its super heat, the thermit metal melts a portion of the base metal with which it becomes in contact.

Upon solidification of this melt, the weld is completed.

The process is commonly used for welding the railway tracks.

FIG:11 DIAGRAMATIC SKETCH OF THERMIT WELDING (A)REFRACTORY CRUCIBLE IN WHICH THERMIT REACTION OCCURS;(B) SAND MOULD CONTAINING THE JOINT.

It is also sometimes used to repair heavy broken parts such as mill rolls.

13) THERMIT WELDING:

FIG:11 DIAGRAMATIC SKETCH OF THERMIT WELDING (A)REFRACTORY CRUCIBLE IN WHICH THERMIT REACTION OCCURS;(B) SAND MOULD CONTAINING THE JOINT.

14) ELECTRON BEAM WELDING:

In this process, fusion is achieved by focussing a high power density beam of electrons on the area to be joined.

Upon striking the metal, the kinetic energy of the high velocity electrons changes to thermal energy, causing the metal to melt and fuse.

The electrons are emitted from a tungsten filament heated to approximately 2,0000C.

Since the filament would quickly oxidises at this temperature if exposed to normal atmosphere the unit as well as the focussing devices and work piece are placed in a vacuum.

ELECTRON BEAM WELDING contd..:

Electron beam welding can join materials ranging from thin foils to sheets of 50-mm thickness.

It is particularly suited for the welding of refractory metals such as tungsten, molybdenum, columbium, tantalum, and metals which oxidises readily, such as titanium, beryllium and zirconium.

It is also has wide application in joining dissimilar metals, aluminium, standard steel etc.

Lately, non-vacuum electron beam welding have been developed, which gives higher production rates at lower cost, because no vacuum chamber is needed for the work.

15) ELECRO SLAG WELDING:

This process, which is similar to the electro gas process, is primarily designed for making a butt weld in the vertical position in one single pass, regardless of the plate thickness, which can range between 12.5 and 500mm.

The welding heat is provided by a small quantity of flux, which is converted into a conductive molten slag by its resistance to the electric current passing between the continuously fed wire or wires (one wire for thickness up to 100mm, two wires up to 230 mm and three wires up to 500mm) and the parent plates.

FIG:12 DIAGRAMATIC SKETCHOF ELECTRO SLAG WELDING

15) ELECRO SLAG WELDING (Contd..)

The hot molten slag melts the filler wire and the joint surfaces, and also shields the weld pool which moves upward along the full cross section of the joint as the welding progresses.

There is no arc, and hence the welding action is quite and spatter- free.

A pair of water-cooled shoes fitted on each side of the joint retains the molten metal and slag pool and acts as a mould to cool and shape the weld surfaces.

FIG:12 DIAGRAMATIC SKETCHOF ELECTRO SLAG WELDING

The copper shoes automatically upward as welding progresses.

slide

FIG:12 DIAGRAMATIC SKETCH OF ELECTRO SLAG WELDING

16) LASER WELDING:

In this process, fusion is achieved by directing a highly concentrated beam to spot about the diameter of a human hair.

Laser (light amplification by simulated emission of radiation.) has a higher energy concentration than even an electron beam.

Since the heat input to the work piece is extremely small, the size of the heat-effected zone and the thermal damage to the adjacent parts of the weld are negligible.

Laser can be used to join dissimilar metals and other difficult-to weld metals such as copper, nickel, tungsten, aluminium, stainless steel, titanium and columbium.

The current application of laser welding is largely in aerospace, and electronic industries, where extreme control in weldment is required.

Its major limitation is the shallow penetration (less than 1mm).

17) PLASMA WELDING:

Plasma is considered the fourth state of matter, the other three being solid, liquid, and gas.

Plasma is a supersaturated gas, which has dissociated into positive ions, neutral atom and negative electrons.

Plasma is formed when an electric discharge takes place in a gas, and also in an electric arc (the blinding light of an arc comes from the plasma).

In normal arc welding processes, moving gas streams easily blows the plasma away.

But in plasma processes, the plasma is contained and used effectively:

PLASMA WELDING (Contd..)

FIG13 SKETCH OF PLASMA WELDING TORCH

PLASMA WELDING (Contd..) PLASMA PROCESSES

y Plasma arc welding.

y Micro-plasma arc welding. y Plasma-MIG welding. y Plasma arc cutting. y Plasma spraying.
FIG13 SKETCH OF PLASMA WELDING TORCH

In all these processes, based on DC supply, a specially designed torch, which is a modification of the TIG torch, concentrates the plasma energy and ensures its most efficient utilisation for welding, cutting, and spraying.

The tip of the tungsten electrode (DC negative) is located within the torch nozzle, while the nozzle has a small opening which constricts the arc.

As gas (usually argon) is fed through the arc, it becomes heated to the plasma temperature range (30,0000 to the 60,000o F).

The plasma tail-flame issues from the torch nozzle as a jet of tremendous velocity.

The plasma-arc is of two types: transferred arc and non- transferred arc.
FIG13 SKETCH OF PLASMA WELDING TORCH

In the former, the arc is formed between the electrode and the work piece.

In the latter, the arc is formed between the electrode and the constricting orifice inside the torch.

PLASMA WELDING (Contd..)

When the plasma jet strikes the metal, it cuts entirely through the work piece producing a small hole, which is carried along the weld seam.

During this cutting action, the molten metal in front of the arc flows around the arc column, then gets drawn together immediately behind the hole by surface tension forces and reforms as a weld bead.

Butt welds of 12.5 mm or larger thickness are possible in a single pass without edge preparation or filler metals.

The process can weld carbon steels, stainless steels, copper, brass, aluminium, titanium, monel, inconel.

FIG13 SKETCH OF PLASMA WELDING TORCH