Wireless Communications With Matlab and Simulink
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yesme37Wireless Communications with Matlab and Simulink: IEEE802.
16 (WiMax) Physical Layer
by Roberto Cristi Professor Dept of Electrical and Computer Engineering Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, CA 93943 August 2009
Table of Content: 1. Introduction: WiMax, Matlab and Simulink 2. Introduction to Digital Signal Processing and Matlab 2.1 Discrete time Signals and Systems 2.2 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and its Inverse (IFFT) 2.3 Convolution and Correlation Lab 1: Matlab/Simulink Code 3. Digital Communications Fundamentals 3.1 General Structure of a Digital Communication System 3.2 Channel Losses and Noise 3.3 Complex Baseband Representation 3.4 Bit Error Probabilities 3.5 Simulink Implementation Lab 2: Matlab/Simulink Code 4. Channel Models 4.1 Introduction and Channel Losses 4.2 Models of Fading Channels 4.3 Channel Parameterization 4.4 Estimation of Channel Parameters from Data Lab 3: Matlab/Simulink Code 5. Multi Carrier Modulation and OFDM 5.1 Single Carrier and Multi Carrier Modulation 5.2 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) 5.3 Example: basics of IEEE 802.11a (WiFi) Lab 4: Matlab/Simulink Code 6. Error Correction Coding 6.1 Channel Capacity and Error Correction Coding 6.2 Block Codes 6.3 Convolutional Codes 6.4 Code Shortening and Puncturing 6.5 Simulink Implementation of IEEE802.16 coding schemes Simulink/Matlab Code: Error Correction
7. IEEE802.16 Implementation 7.1 Time Synchronization and Channel Estimation using the Preamble 7.2 Channel Tracking for Mobile Applications 7.3 Simulink Implementation of IEEE802.16-2004 (Fixed) 7.4 Simulink Implementation of IEEE802.16e-2005 (Mobile) Simulink/Matlab Code: IEEE802.16 Implementation 8. Multi Antennas 8.1 Receive Diversity 8.2 Transmit Diversity 8.3 Space Time Coding 8.4 Transmit Diversity with Space Coding in IEEE802.16 9. Issues in OFDM Systems Implementations 9.1 Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR) 9.2 IQ Imbalance 9.3 Frequency Offset
Introduction to IEEE 802.16 and WiMax
Existing Area Networks for wireless communications:
Personal (PAN), up to a few meters. It requires simple thumb like transmitters receivers. Typical: Bluetooth. Local (LAN), up to 300m. It requires simple box like devices. Typical: WiFi (IEEE802.11) Wide (WAN), up to a few miles. It requires towers and cellular technology. Typical: WCDMA, CDMA 2000, UMTS
IEEE 802.16 (WiMax) are possible future technologies for WAN.
IEEE 802.16 and WiMax
IEEE802.16 is a standard for Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) Air Interface. It is purely technical (not commercial); The WiMAX Forum is an industry-led, not-for-profit organization formed to certify and promote the compatibility and interoperability of broadband wireless products based upon the harmonized IEEE 802.16/ETSI HiperMAN standard. A WiMAX Forum goal is to accelerate the introduction of these systems into the marketplace. WiMAX Forum Certified products are fully interoperable and support broadband fixed, portable and mobile services. Along these lines, the WiMAX Forum works closely with service providers and regulators to ensure that WiMAX Forum Certified systems meet customer and government requirements (from the WiMax website www.wimaxforum.org)
Current WAN Technologies for Voice and Data
3G: CDMA2000 and UMTS. All based on Spread Spectrum 3.5G: increased capacity by combining CDMA with TDM (Time Division Multiplexing). Voice and Data on separate channels. Current technology; 4G : to provide voice, data, multimedia services at low cost on an all IP (packets) network. IEEE802.16 (WiMax) is one of the technologies considered.
TODAY: voice and data on separate networks; TOMORROW: voice and data on the same network. Data using Voice Over IP (VoIP). Advantages: flexibility, control of QoS, scalable.
Evolution of IEEE802.16:
802.16 802.16-2004
Dec 2001 June 2004
10-66GHz 2-11GHz
Fixed, LOS Fixed, NOLOS
Single Carrier SC, 256 OFDM, 2048 OFDMA SC, 256OFDM, 128, 512, 1024, 2048 OFDMA
802.16e-2005
Dec 2005
2-6GHz
Fixed, Mobile, NOLOS
In addition, IEEE802.16-2004 and 2005 have options based on Multi Antennas techniques.
Introduction to Simulink
Matlab based Both Continuous Time and Discrete Time Simulation Based on Blocksets Model Based Design: a software model of the environment can be developed and the design can be tested by simulation Transition between ideal algorithms (infinite precision, floating point) to real world algorithms (finite precision, fixed point); Automatic Code Generation: once the design is tested and validated, real time code can be automatically generated for the target platform Continuous Test and Verification
Advantages (from the MathWorks slide)
Innovation Rapid design iterations What-if studies Unique features and differentiators Quality Reduce design errors Minimize hand coding errors Unambiguous communication internally and externally Cost Reduce expensive physical prototypes Reduce re-work Reduce testing Time-to-market Get it right the first time
Simulink
Hierarchical block diagram design and simulation tool
Built-in notions of time and concurrency
Digital, analog/mixed signal and event driven Visualize Signals Co-develop with C code Integrated with MATLAB
Example Simulink Model
Digital Mod
TX
Wireless Channel
RX
Digital Dem
Design Test Automatically Generate Code
00010101011101010100101111 0010101010010010101001001001.
Compute Errors Modulator Demodulator
Fading channel
Display signals
Simulink has a very rich library of blocksets:
1. Introduction to Digital Signal Processing and Matlab
1. Discrete time Signals and Systems 2. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and its Inverse (IFFT) 3. Convolution and Correlation
1. Discrete Time Signals
1. Continuous Time to Discrete Time 2. Fundamental Signals: Delta Function, Sinusoid, Complex Exponential
Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals
x[n]
nTs
Sampling
x(t )
t
x[n] = x ( nTs )
Fs = 1 / Ts
Fs Ts
Sampling frequency (Hz=1/sec) Sampling interval (sec)
Fundamental Discrete Time Signals
[n]
1. Delta or Impulse
2. Sinusoid phase
x[n] = A cos(2F0t + ) t = nT = A cos(0 n + )
s
amplitude Frequency (Hz)
F0 0 = 2 Fs
Digital Frequency (radians)
Example: F = 10kHz s
x[n] = 10 cos ( 4, 000 t + 0.1) t = nT = 10 cos (0 n + 0.1)
s
Digital frequency:
F0 = 2kHz Fs = 10kHz
0 = 2
2, 000 Hz 2 = rad 10, 000 Hz 5
Generate it in matlab: plot_a_sinusoid.m n=0:100; A=10; w0=2*pi/5; alpha=0.1; x=A*cos(w0*n+alpha); plot(x); x=[10*cos(0.1), , 10*cos((2*pi/5)*100+0.1)] n=[0,1,2,,100]
3. Complex Exponentials
y[n] = Ae j (0 n + ) = Ae j e j0 n = A cos(0 n + ) + j A sin(0 n + ) 14 244 4 3 14 244 4 3
Real Part Imaginary Part
where
j = 1
imaginary basis
Then a sinusoid becomes the real part of a complex signal
A cos(0 n + ) = Re Ae
j (0 n + )
Sinusoids and Frequency Spectrum Complex exponentials are the building blocks of signals and systems. Reasons: all operations of interest boil down to multiplications or divisions A sinusoid in terms of complex exponentials can also be written as
A j (0 n + ) A j (0 n + ) A cos(0 n + ) = e + e 2 2
with two frequencies: positive and negative
The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and its Inverse (IFFT)
1. Definitions 2. Examples 3. Computation in Matlab 4. Symmetry
The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
Given a finite sequence of data
x n
x[n], n = 0,..., N 1
1. Define the FFT
N 1
X = FFT {x}
where
X [k ] = x[n]e
n =0
N 1
jk
2 n N
k = 0,..., N 1
2. and the IFFT (Inverse FFT)
x = IFFT { X }
where
1 x[n] = N
X [k ]e
k =0
N 1
jk
2 n N
n = 0,..., N 1
Meaning:
X [k ], k = 0,..., N 1
is the component of the spectrum due to frequency
F F =k s N
sampling frequency data length
Example: Let
| X [k ] |
Fs = 10kHz N = 1024
0
220
1023
F = 220
10 kHz = 2.15kHz 1024
Example: example_of_fft.m Data length N=1024; Sampling Frequency Fs=10kHz X=fft(x); k=0:1023; f=k*Fs/N; % frequency axis plot(f,abs(X))
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 FFT of cosine
This corresponds to the negative frequency (disregard)
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000 Hz
6000
7000
8000
9000 10000
Freq. = 1kHz
Convolution and Correlation
1. Convolution as system response 2. Autocorrelation of data 3. Crosscorrelation between data sets 4. Estimation of Impulse Response using Crosscorrelation
Operations of Interest
1. Convolution. To compute the output of a Linear Time Invariant system Impulse response
x[n] h[n]
Input signal
y[n]
output signal
Definition of Convolution:
+
y[n] = h[n] * x[n] =
l =
h[l]x[n l]
In general you deal with sequences of finite length
y[n] = h[0]x[n] + h[1]x[n 1] + h[2]x[n 2] + ... + h[ M 1]x[n M + 1]
Impulse response
Input data
convolution
x
0
N 1
h
0
M 1
Output data
=
0
y
N +M 2
In matlab: Let 1. h be the vector of impulse response; 2. x be the input vector Then the output vector y=conv(h,x);
Example: convolution_of_finite_sequences.m h=[1,0,0,0.5,0,-0.2,0,0.1]; n=0:200; x=2*cos(0.1*pi*n); y=conv(h,x); plot(y) % impulse response % input signal % output signal
2. Auto Correlation. For a signal with zero mean, to see if the samples are correlated with each other Definition of Auto Correlation:
rx [m] =
n =
x[n]x*[n m]
Again, you deal with signals of finite length
x[n], n = 0,..., N 1
1 rx [m] = N
x[n]x*[n m], m = N + 1,..., N 1
n =0
N 1
Example: White Noise with standard deviation x
2 1 x = rx [m] = N 0,
| x[n] |2 , if m = 0
n =0
N 1
rx [m]
otherwise
white noise sequence
Example: xcorr_of_white_noise.m
4 3 2
% data sigx=sqrt(2) x=sigx*randn(1,1000); plot(x);
1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
% autocorrelation N=length(x); rx=xcorr(x)/N; max_lag=length(x)-1; m=-max_lag:max_lag; plot(m,rx)
autocorrelation of x 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -1000
-800
-600
-400
-200
0 200 time lag
400
600
800
1000
2. Cross Correlation. To see if two signals are correlated with each other
ryx [m] =
With finite length signals:
n =
y[n]x*[n m]
x[n], n = 0,..., N 1 y[n], n = 0,..., M 1
1 ryx [m] = M
M 1 n =0
y[n]x*[n m], m = max( N , M ) + 1,..., max( N , M ) 1
Case of Interest: estimation of the impulse response of a Linear Time Invariant system from input-output data
x[n] h[n]
y[n]
If
x[n] is white noise, then h[n] = ryx [n] / rx [0]
Example: impulse_response_with_xcorr.m h=[1, 0, 0.2, -0.5, 2, -0.1]; % impulse response y=conv(h,x); ryx=xcorr(y,x) /length(y) h_est=ryx/ryx(length(x));
2.5
1.5
0.5
-0.5 -1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5 x 10
4
2.5
1.5
zoom in
0.5 0
-0.5 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
Lab 1: Introduction to DSP and Matlab
A. Sinusoids and the FFT: 1. Generate a sinusoidal signal of a given frequency 2. Check its frequency spectrum B. White Noise, Convolution, Correlation: 1. Generate a white noise signal with a given covariance 2. Determine the output of a given Linear Time Invariant System 3. From the input-output data, estimate the impulse response of the system
A. Sinusoids and the FFT: A.1 Generate a sinusoid with the following parameters and plot it vs time: Amplitude Frequency Sampling Frequency Phase Length
A = 5. 0
F0 = 5.0 kHz FS = 15.0 kHz
= 30 0 128 samples
Reference: plot_a_sinusoid.m
A.2 Take the FFT of the sinusoid you generated, plot its magnitude (absolute value), and verify that you obtain the frequency you expect.
Reference: example_of_fft.m
B. White Noise, Convolution, Correlation: 1. Generate a gaussian white noise signal with the following parameters:
Standard Deviation Length
x = 5
N = 10,000 data points
Plot its autocorrelation and verify that it is as expected. 2. This signal is the input to a system with impulse response
h = [1,0,2,0.5,0,0,0,0.3]
Determine the output sequence and verify that the crosscorrelation between input and output is a good estimate of the impulse response of the system.
Reference: impulse_response_with_xcorr.m
2. Digital Communications Fundamentals and the Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) Channel
1. General Structure of a Digital Communication System 2. Channel Losses and Noise 3. Complex Baseband Representation 4. Bit Error Probabilities 5. Simulink Implementation
References: J. Proakis, M. Salehi, Digital Communications, Prentice Hall, 2007
1. General Structure of a Digital Communications System
1.1 General Overview 1.2 Goals 1.3 Parameters of Interest
1.1 General Overview
source of information
..01010110
Digital Mod bits
I Q
destination
Carrier frequency Carrier frequency
..01010010
Errors! I Q
TX
pulses
channel
RX
pulses
decision symbols
Q
Digital Dem bits
symbols
Q
noise, disturbances, other users Continuous Time
Discrete Time
Discrete Time
1.2 Goals
Bit Error Rate within acceptable values; Stay within the available resources: Channel Bandwidth Noise Interference Variability
Transmitted Power
Receiver Complexity
TX
..01010110
channel
RX
..01010010
Errors!
1.3 Parameters
FS = symbols sec
ES = Joules symbol
bits
a[n]
Nb =
bits symbol
PT = ES FS Watts
symbols
xI [n]
DAC DAC
xI (t )
pulses RF
A= PR PT
Digital Modulator
xQ [n]
xQ (t )
channel
bits
a[n]
symbols
Digital Demodulator
PW = Watts
ADC ADC
y I (t )
yQ (t )
y I [n]
yQ [n]
w(t )
RF pulses
PR = A PT Watts
Bit Error Rate
P SNR = R PW
Bits to Symbols: the Constellation Mapping in 802.16 (Gray Code)
Q (Im) BPSK
[b0 ]
1 +1
I (Re)
b0
N b = 1 bit/symbol
Q
b1 0
4-QAM (QPSK)
[b0 , b1 ]
I
1
b0
1 +1
N b = 2 bits/symbol
Q
01
16-QAM
[b0 , b1 , b2 , b3 ]
b1 , b0
00
I
10
N b = 4 bits/symbol
11
b3 , b2
11
10
00
01
Notice : only one bit difference between close neighbors
Symbols to Pulses: Digital to Analog (DAC) and Analog to Digital (ADC) Conversion
x[n]g (t nTS )
symbol
pulse
x[n] n
x(t )
DAC
gT (t )
nTS
symbol
pulse
y[n] n
y (t )
ADC
g R (t )
n =
x[n]g (t nT )
S
nTS
Bandwidth, Symbol Rate and Transmitted Power
g (t ) G (F )
TS
FS = 1 / TS Symbol Rate
t (sec)
F (Hz )
B
Symbol interval
+
Bandwidth
ES = | g (t ) |2 dt = | G ( F ) |2 dF
+
Energy per symbol Transmitted Power
PT =
ES = ES FS TS
Typical: Raised Cosine
g (t )
1 0.8
G (F )
1.5
0.6 0.4 a=0.0 a=0.3 a=0.6
a=0.6 a=0.3 a=0.0
0.2 0
0.5
-0.2
-0.4 -4
-3
-2
-1
0 t
0 -1.5
-1
-0.5
0
smaller bandwidth more ISI
B 1 = 1 FS
F FS
0 f
0.5
1.5
larger bandwidth less ISI
2. Channel Losses and Noise
2.1 Transmitted Pulses to Received Pulses 2.2 Energy per Symbol, Power Spectral Density 2.3 Signal to Noise Ratio and Eb/N0
2.1 Transmitted Pulses to Received Pulses:
attenuation: free space, obstacles, foliage noise: thermal, interferences from other systems/users multipath: reflections from buildings, structures, hills doppler shift: motion of transmitter, receivers, reflectors
Transmit
Receive
Channel Losses and Noise
Transmitted Power
PT = ES FS Watts
Channel Attenuation channel
A= PR PT
Received Power
PR = A PT Watts
w(t )
Noise Noise Power Spectral Density
B B
N0 2
PW = N 0 B Watts
2.2 Energy per Symbol and Power Spectral Density
Energy per symbol
Symbol Rate
Signal Power ES FS = SNR = Noise Power N 0 B
Bandwidth Noise Power Spectral Density
Thermal Noise
Present in all electronic systems, it is dependent on temperature; It is white, in the sense that it is equally spread in frequency.
Power Spectral Density
N0 / 2
F (Hz )
N 0 = kT = (1.383 10 23 J / K ) T
Boltzmans constant
temperature in kelvin Ambient temperature =290K
In dBm:
N 0 dB = 174dBm / Hz
Example: Temperature = 290K (ambient) Bandwidth = 2.0MHz Noise Power =
(N 0 B )dB = 174dBm / Hz + 10 log10 2 106 = 111dBm
2.3 Signal to Noise Ratio and Eb/N0
FS SNR = B
ES F = Nb S N 0 B
Eb N 0
FS = symbol rate (1/sec) B = bandwidth ( Hz = 1 / sec) FS N 0 = noise power spectral density ES = Energy per symbol (Joules) Eb = Energy per bit (Joules) N b = bits per symbol
3. Complex Baseband Representation
3.1 Complex Signals 3.2 Baseband Channel Representation
3.1 Complex Signals Symbols:
Transmitted Q
A cos(2Fc t )
xI [n]
I
DAC
gT (t ) gT (t )
xI (t ) xQ (t )
A sin (2Fc t ) A cos(2Fc t )
DAC
yT (t )
channel
xQ [n]
Received Q
y I [n]
I
Ts
g R (t ) g R (t )
y I (t ) yQ (t )
A sin (2Fc t )
y R (t )
yQ [n]
Recall: Complex Numbers and Complex Exponentials amplitude phase (angle)
j
j = 1
Ae
= A cos( ) + j A sin( ) 1 24 4 3 1 24 4 3
Real Part Im
A
Imaginary Part
Re
As a consequence:
Ae
j 2FC t
= A cos(2FC t ) + jA sin( 2FC t )
It is easier to define one complex signal which combines In Phase and Quadrature components:
x[n] = xI [n] + jxQ [n]
Im
Ae j 2Fct
DAC
gT (t )
Re{.}
yT (t )
Re
channel
y[n] = y I [n] + jyQ [n]
Im
y R (t )
g R (t )
Re
Ts
Ae j 2Fct
If the carrier frequency is larger than the bandwidth of the filters, then it can be simplified as Baseband Channel
x[n] = xI [n] + jxQ [n]
DAC
Re
A j 2Fct e 2
gT (t )
channel
y[n] = y I [n] + jyQ [n]
Im
g R (t )
Ts
Re
A j 2Fct e 2
3.2 Baseband Channel Representation
A j 2Fct e 2
gT (t )
C (F )
x(t )
x(t )
gT (t )
Complex Baseband channel
A C+ ( F FC ) 2
F
Real channel
FC FC
F
same
y (t )
y (t )
g R (t )
g R (t )
A j 2Fct e 2
Advantage: all signals at lower frequencies, therefore much easier to simulate and analyze.
Digital Transmitter/Receiver with Baseband Channel:
Binary source of information
Complex
x[n]
Encoder
Digital Modulator
complex
Baseband Channel
Received Data Binary
Decoder
Digital Demodulator
y[n]
Complex
4. Bit Error Probabilities for M-QAM Modulation
4.1 Eb/N0 and SNR for MQAM Signals 4.2 Probability of Symbol Error in Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) Channel;
4.1 Eb/N0 and SNR for MQAM Signals M-QAM:
.01001011001010
M-QAM
# of bits per symbol
Energy per bit
ES / TS log 2 ( M ) Eb FS SNR = = B N0 B N0
Therefore, if FS B :
Eb 1 SNR = N 0 log 2 ( M )
Significance: the error probabilities for MQAM are functions of Eb / N 0
Example. Given: Transmitted Power: Bandwidth: 100mW 1.75MHz
Channel Attenuation: -120dB Modulation: QPSK (2 bits/symbol)
Assume: Thermal Noise only at ambient temperature Compute: Eb / N 0
Solution: 1. Energy per Symbol at the transmitter
ES = 100mW / 1.75MHz = 57.14 10 6 mW / Hz = 42.4dBm / Hz
2. Energy per Symbols at the receiver
ES = 42.4 120 = 162.4dBm / Hz
3. SNR at the receiver
ES SNR = N = 162.4 (174) = 11.6dB 0 dB
4. Finally
(Eb / N 0 )dB = 11.6 10 log10 2 = 8.6dB
4.2 Probability of Symbol Error in AWGN
BPSK: 4-QAM: M-QAM:
( ) P 2Q ( 2 )
E PS = Q 2 Nb0 S Eb N0
3 log M 2 PS 4Q M 1
Eb N 0
Probability of Bit Error with Gray Coding:
M-QAM:
where
Pb
1 PS log 2 ( M )
+
1 Q( x) = 2
e t
x
dt
x = 1 erfc 2 2
Symbol Error Rates (Exact Values)
BPSK 4QAM 16QAM 64QAM
10
-1
Symbol Error Rate
10
-2
Prob. bit Error
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
-5
10 Eb/No dB
15
20
Example. Same as previous example Compute: a. Symbol Error Rate, b. Bit Error Rate Solution: 1. From the previous Example Eb / N 0 = 8.6dB 2. Symbol Error Rate: 10 4 errors per symbol (see graphs) 3. Bit Error Rate: 10 4 / 2 = 5 10 5 errors per bit
5. Simulink Implementation
5.1 Fundamentals of Simulink 5.2 Digital Communications in AWGN: Simulink Implementation; 5.3 Example
5.1 Fundamentals of Simulink
Simulink has three classes of blocksets: sources (outputs only) processes (inputs/outputs) sinks (inputs only)
source
process sink
generate data read data import files
display results plots, scopes send data to devices
5.2 Digital Communications in AWGN: Simulink Implementation Generate Complex Data
Compute Bit Error Rate BaseBand Channel Display Received Data
Simulink Model: AWGN_no_coding.mdl
5.3 Example
Lets simulate a Digital Communications System with the following parameters:
M=4; Fs=10^6; SNRdB=20; PT=5; A=1/100; PR=A*PT; % MQAM modulation % symbol rate (1/sec) % SNR in dBs % Transmitted Power in Watts % Channel Attenuation % Received Power
Edit > Model Properties
Enter the parameters
Generate Complex Data
Parameters:
M-QAM Fs symbols/sec
Modulation Communications Sources >Random Data Sources >>Bernoulli >Digital Baseband Mod >>AM >>>Rectangular
Binary
QAM
Baseband Channel
1 PT PT x[n] + w[n] y[n] = A SNR PR
Transmitter Gain
Channels > AWGN Channel
Analysis of Data by Computer Simulation
transmitted error rate errors bits received
Blocks:
Comms Sinks > Error Rates Calculation Simulink > Sinks > Display
Lab2: Digital Communications Fundamentals
Given a digital Communication System defined by the following parameters: M=4; Fs=10^6; PT=2; A=1/50; PR=A*PT; % MQAM modulation % symbol rate (1/sec) % Transmitted Power in Watts % Channel Attenuation % Received Power
1. Simulate the system for the following values of the Signal to Noise Ratio: SNR=5,10,20dB 2. For each case determine the probability of bit error experimentally 3. Compare with the theoretical values References: AWGN_no_coding.mdl bit_error.m
Probability of Symbol Error
BPSK 4QAM 16QAM 64QAM
10
-1
Symbol Error Rate
10
-2
Prob. bit Error
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
-5
10 Eb/No dB
15
20
Probability of Bit Error= Probability of Symbol Error / log2(M)
3. Channel Models
1. Introduction and Channel Losses 2. Models of Fading Channels 3. Channel Parameterization 4. Estimation of Channel Parameters from Data
1. Introduction and Channel Losses
1.1. Large Scale fading: Free Space Losses 1.2. Medium Scale Fading: Shadowing 1.3. Small Scale Fading: Multipath
References: A. Goldsmith, Wireless Communications, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2005 Chapter 2.
Signal Losses due to three Effects:
2. Medium Scale Fading: due to shadowing and obstacles
3. Small Scale Fading: due to multipath
1. Large Scale Fading: due to distance and multipath
Wireless Channel
Frequencies of Interest: in the UHF (.3GHz 3GHz) and SHF (3GHz 30 GHz) bands; Several Effects: Path Loss due to dissipation of energy: it depends on distance only Shadowing due to obstacles such as buildings, trees, walls. Is caused by absorption, reflection, scattering Self-Interference due to Multipath.
Prec 10 log10 Ptransm
log10 distance
Line of Sight and Frequencies
Frequencies: 30GHz SHF Line of Sight (LOS) only
6GHz
Non Line of Sight (NOLOS) 3GHz
UHF
300MHz
1.1. Large Scale Propagation: Free Space
Path Loss due to Free Space Propagation: For isotropic antennas:
Transmit antenna
Receive antenna
Prec = Ptransm 4 d c wavelength = F
2
Path Loss in dB:
Ptransm L = 10log10 = 20log10 ( F ( MHz )) + 20log10 (d (km )) + 32.45 Prec
Free Space Attenuation
Lp L p = 20dB
20dB / dec
d0
10d 0
log10 ( d )
distance
L p1 L p 2 = 20dB Prec1 = Prec 2 / 100
Valid for: Satellite Communicationss Point to Point LOS Microwave Reference for Path Loss Models
Multipath Models: Two Ray Reflection
Typical of open environments such as rural roads Small to medium distances constructive/distructive interference
l
hT
xT xR
1 + e j
hR
= 2
Large distances
xT + xR l
l
hT
xT xR
d
hR
monotonic
Two Ray Model Power Received
-20
f=0.3GHz f=3GHz f=30GHz
Prec/Ptran s in dB
-40 -60 -80 -100 -120 -140 -160 -180 -200 -220 0 10
1 2 3 4 5
40dB / dec
independent of frequency
2 Prec hT2 hR 4 Ptrans d
10 10 10 d in meters 10 10
Prec Ptrans
Assume: reflecting surface a pure dielectric
Compare the two: Free Space:
L p = 20 log10 ( / 4) + 20 log10 (d )
40dB
Lp
Two Ray Approximation:
20dB
L p = 20 log10 (hT hR ) + 40 log10 (d )
102 101 100 10
log10 ( d )
hT
hR
2. Medium Scale Fading: Losses due to Buildings, Trees, Hills, Walls
The Power Loss in dB is random:
L p = E {L p }+
expected value
random, zero mean approximately gaussian with
6 12 dB
Average Loss
Free space loss at reference distance
d E{L p } = 10 log10 + L0 d 0
Path loss exponent
dB
Reference distance indoor 1-10m
Values for Exponent Free Space Urban
outdoor 10-100m : 2 2.7-3.5 1.6-1.8 4-6
Indoors (LOS) Indoors(NLOS)
Empirical Models for Propagation Losses to Environment
Okumura: urban macrocells 1-100km, frequencies 0.15-1.5GHz,
BS antenna 30-100m high; Hata: similar to Okumura, but simplified COST 231: Hata model extended by European study to 2GHz
Typical: Hata Models (1980) Frequencies 0.15-1.5GHz
Lp
Propagation Loss
Lp = + log10 ( d )
log10 ( d )
= 44.9 6.55log10 (h )
urban
= 0 = 69.55 + 26.16log10 ( f ) 13.82 log10 (hT ) a (hR )
2 2 = 0 4.78log10 ( f ) + 18.33log10 ( f ) 40.94
suburban = 0 2 log10 ( f / 28) 5.4 rural where
f = frequency in MHz hT, hR = transmitter antenna elevation over average terrain (in meters)
a ( hR ) corrective factor for receiver antenna
Receiver antenna correcting factor Small to medium city
a ( hR ) = (1.1 log10 ( f ) 0.7 ) hR (1.56log10 ( f ) 0.8) dB
Large city
a ( hR ) = 3.2 ( log10 (11.75hR ) ) 4.97 dB
2
COST 231 Model: Urban Model
Propagation Loss
Lp = + log10 (d ) + CM
= 44.9 6.55log10 (h ) = 0 = 46.3 + 33.9 log10 ( f ) 13.82 log10 (hT ) a (hR )
where
0 dB medium sized city and suburbs CM = 3 dB metropolitan area
1.5GHz < f < 2GHz 30m < hT < 200m 1m < hR < 10m 1km < d < 20km
Restrictions:
Example:
PT
PR = ?
Base Station
d = 500m
Subscriber
Given:
d Channel: L p = 10 log10 d + L0 + 0 d = 1m
0
L0 = 45dB
=3 = 6dB
Transmitted Power:
1.0 Watt = 30dBm
Bandwidth: 10MHz Noise: Then: Received Power:
N 0 = 174dBm / Hz thermal
PR = 30 L p = 30 (10 3 log10 500 + 45) + = 96dBm +
Noise at the Receiver: SNR at the receiver:
PNoise = 174 + 10 log10 107 = 104dBm
SNR = 96 + (104) = 8 + dB
random
Probability that the SNR is sufficiently large
P ( > a ) =
Where we define
1 2
+ 1 x 2
e
a
dx =
t 2
x a 8 1 P(SNR > a ) = P(8 + > a ) = erfc 2 6 2
(1/2)erfc(x) 1 0.9
erfc( x) =
1 a erfc 2 2
dt
BPSK 75% of the time
0.75
0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
16QAM 10% of the time
0.10
0.1 0 -1
-0.5
0.5 x
1.5
Required for low BER:
BPSK: a=3dB
16QAM: a=14.7dB
3. Small Scale Fading due to Multipath. a. Spreading in Time: different paths have different lengths;
Transmit
x (t ) = (t t0 )
Receive
y (t ) = L + hk (t t0 k ) + ...
t0
time
t0 1 2
Example for 100m path difference we have a time delay
100 102 = = = 1 sec 3 c 3 108
Typical values channel time spread:
x (t ) = (t t0 )
t0 1 2 MAX
t0
channel
Indoor Suburbs Urban Hilly
10 50 n sec 2 10 1 2 sec 1 3 sec 3-10 sec
b. Spreading in Frequency: motion causes frequency shift (Doppler)
x ( t ) = X T e j 2 f c t
Transmit
time
Receive
y (t ) = YR e
j 2 ( f c +f )t
v
for each path time
Doppler Shift
fc
f c + f
Frequency (Hz)
Put everything together
x(t )
Transmit
time
Receive
y (t )
time
Each path has
attenuation
shift in time
j 2 ( Fc + Fk )( t k ) y (t ) = Re ak x (t k )e k
paths
shift in frequency (this causes small scale time variations)
2. Models of Fading Channels
2.1. Statistical Models of Fading Channels 2.2. Non Line of Sight (Rayleigh) and Line of Sight (Rice) Channels 2.3. Simulink Example
2.1 Statistical Models of Fading Channels each reflector has several paths all with different time delays and doppler shifts
Several Reflectors:
x (t )
Transmit Receive
y ( t ) = yl (t )
l
For each path with NO Line Of Sight (NOLOS):
r v
average time delay
yl ( t )
each time delay
l + k
v
each doppler shift Fk =
cos( k )
j 2 ( Fc + Fk )( t l k ) yl (t ) = Re ak e x (t l k ) k
Some mathematical manipulation
j 2 Fct j 2Fk t j 2 ( Fc + Fk ) k y (t ) = Re ak e e x (t k ) e k
= Re {r (t )e j 2 Fct } = rI (t ) cos(2 Fct ) rQ (t )sin(2 Fct )
In Phase and Quadrature Components
r (t ) = rI (t ) + jrQ (t ) ak e
k
j 2Fk t j 2 ( Fc +Fk )( l + k )
x (t l )
leading to this:
Assume
x (t ) x (t k )
r (t ) = cl (t ) x (t l )
with
cl (t ) = ak e
k
j 2Fk t j 2 ( Fc +Fk )( l + k )
random, time varying
Statistical Model for the time varying coefficients v v M j 2 cos k t j 2 ( Fc + cos k )( l + k )
cl (t ) = ak e
k =1
By the CLT cl (t ) is gaussian with:
random
random
E{cl (t )} = 0
* l
since
k
M
random uniformly distributed in [0, 2 ]
2 j 2 v
E {cl (t )c (t + t )} = E{| ak | }e
k =1
cos k t
Assume Then
Pl E{| ak | } = M
2
1 * E {cl (t )cl (t + t )} = Pl M
e
k =1
j 2
cos k t
v j 2 cos t = Pl E e
1 = Pl 2
e
0
j 2
cos t
d = Pl J 0 (2 FD t )
Each coefficient cl (t ) is complex, gaussian, WSS with autocorrelation
* E {cl (t )cl (t + t )} = Pl J 0 (2 FD t )
And PSD
1 2 Pl F Sl ( F ) = D 1 ( F / FD ) 2 0
if | F |< FD otherwise
with
FD
maximum Doppler frequency.
S l (F )
This is called Jakes spectrum.
FD
Bottom Line. This:
x(t )
time
y (t )
time
v
1
time
can be modeled as:
L
x(t )
time
c1 (t )
L
N
delays
cl (t )
y (t )
time
cN (t )
For each path
cl (t ) = Pl g (t )
unit power time invariant from power distribution time varying (from autocorrelation)
Parameters for a Multipath Channel (No Line of Sight):
Time delays: Power Attenuations: Doppler Shift:
[ 1 [P1
FD
2 L L]
sec dB Hz
P2 L PL ]
Non Line of Sight (NOLOS) and Line of Sight (LOS) Fading Channels
1. Rayleigh (No Line of Sight). Specified by: Time delays
E{cl (t )} = 0
T = [ 1 , 2 ,..., N ] P = [ P , P2 ,..., PN ] 1
Power distribution Maximum Doppler
FD
2. Ricean (Line of Sight)
E{cl (t )} 0
K
PLOS = K PTotal 1+ K
Same as Rayleigh, plus Ricean Factor
Power through LOS
Power through NOLOS
PNOLOS =
1 PTotal 1+ K
Simulink Example
M-QAM Modulation
Bernoulli Binary Bernoulli Binary Generator
Rectangular QAM Rectangular QAM Modulator Baseband
-KChannel Transmitter Attenuation Gain -K-
Rayleigh Fading Channel Parameters
Multipath Rayleigh Fading Channel
Rayleigh Fading
-KB-FFT Spectrum Scope Receiver Gain
Bit Rate
Set Numerical Values:
velocity carrier freq.
Recall the Doppler Frequency:
v FD = FC c
3 108 m / sec
Easy to show that:
(FD )Hz (v )km / h (FC )GHz
modulation power
channel
Typical Received Power Spectrum
Bernoulli Binary Bernoulli Binary Generator
Rectangular QAM Rectangular QAM Modulator Baseband
-KChannel Transmitter Attenuation Gain -K-
Multipath Rayleigh Fading Channel
Rayleigh Fading
-KB-FFT Spectrum Scope Receiver Gain
Doppler freq:
FD = 70 Hz
Symbol rate: FS = 10 MHz Bit rate:
Fb = 20MHz
Bits/Symbol: 2 (QPSK)
FS / 2 FS / 2
Similar Example, different parameters
Bernoulli Binary Bernoulli Binary Generator
Rectangular QAM Rectangular QAM Modulator Baseband
-KChannel Transmitter Attenuation Gain -K-
Multipath Rayleigh Fading Channel
Rayleigh Fading
-KB-FFT Spectrum Scope Receiver Gain
Doppler freq:
FD = 2 Hz
Symbol rate: FS = 10 MHz Bit rate:
Fb = 20MHz
Bits/Symbol: 2 (QPSK)
FS / 2 FS / 2
Channel Parameterization
1. Time Spread and Frequency Coherence Bandwidth 2. Flat Fading vs Frequency Selective Fading 3. Doppler Frequency Spread and Time Coherence 4. Slow Fading vs Fast Fading
1. Time Spread and Frequency Coherence Bandwidth Recall that the Channel Spreads in Time (due to Multipath): Received Power
x (t ) = (t t0 )
0 10
t0
channel
20
MAX RMS
time
FT
Channel Flat up to the Coherence Bandwidth
Coherence Bandwidth
Bc =
1 5 RMS
frequency
2. Flat Fading vs Frequency Selective Fading Based on Channel Time Spread:
Bc =
1 5 RMS
F
Signal Bandwidth
Frequency coherence
Flat Fading
Just attenuation, no distortion
Signal Bandwidth
< >
Frequency Coherence
Distortion!!!
Frequency Selective Fading
Example: Flat Fading Channel : Delays T=[0 10e-6 15e-6] sec Power P=[0, -3, -8] dB Symbol Rate Fs=10kHz Doppler Fd=0.1Hz Modulation QPSK
Very low Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
Spectrum: fairly uniform
Example: Frequency Selective Fading Channel : Delays T=[0 10e-6 15e-6] sec Power P=[0, -3, -8] dB Symbol Rate Fs=1MHz Doppler Fd=0.1Hz Modulation QPSK
Very high ISI
Spectrum with deep variations
3. Doppler Frequency Spread and Time Coherence
y (t ) = cl (t ) x(t l )
l =1
c l (t ) c l (t + t )
if
| t | TC < 1 / F D
same response
different response
x (t )
y (t )
TC
Coherence Time:
TC
9 16 FD
Max Doppler
4. Slow Fading vs Fast Fading
Based on Doppler Spread Delay and Time Coherence:
TC
9 16 FD
t
Symbol period
Time coherence
Slow Fading
Channel almost time invariant
Symbol period
< >
Time Coherence
Channel quickly changing
Fast Fading
Summary of Time/Frequency spread of the channel
Frequency Spread Time Coherence
S (t , F )
F
FD
TC
9 16 FD
mean
Time Spread
RMS
Frequency Coherence
Bc =
1 5 RMS
Channel Estimation from Data
1. Recall Impulse Response Identification from Correlation 2. Estimation of Time Spread and Doppler Shift 3. Simulink/Matlab Example 4. Stanford University Interim (SUI) Channel Models
Estimation of Channel Characteristics from Input - Output data. 1. For Linear Time Invariant (LTI) systems:
x[n]
y[n]
h[n]
y[n] = h[n] * x[n] =
m =
h[k ]x[n k ]
Excite the system with white noise and unit variance
Rxx [m] = E x[n]x*[n m] = [m]
m
and compute the crosscorrelation between input and output
R yx [m] = E y[n]x*[n m] =
+ k =
}
+ * k =
h[k ]E{x[n k ]x [n m]} = h[k ] [m k ] = h[m]
In matlab:
x[n]
y[n]
1. Get data (same length for simplicity):
x
2. Compute crosscorrelation between input and output:
h=xcorr(x,y);
If
x[n] is white noise,
h[n]
is the impulse response.
2. For a Linear Time Varying Channel:
x[n]
Known:
y[n]
h[m, n]
Fs
y[n] =
k =
h[k , n]x[n k ]
1. Sampling frequency
2. Upper bound on max Doppler Frequency FD max
1. Collect Data and partition in blocks of length N <<
n=0 n=N n = 2N
Fs FD max
:
n = NB N
x y
N Ts << TD min
xN=reshape(x,N,length(x)/N); yN=reshape(x,N,length(y)/N);
L L
n = lN
L L
xN,yN=
[
l
NB
2. Estimate impulse response in each block
m
hN=xcorr(xN,yN); hN=
NB
h[m, n] n =lN
3. Compute Power Spectrum on each row, to determine time variability of the channel (If the channel is Time Invariant all columns of hN are the same):
l
m
hN=
[ ]
L L
h[m, n] n =lN
m (time)
k (freq.)
S=fft(hN); S=S.*conj(S);
S=
[ ]
S [m, k ]
NB
4. Take the sum over rows for Doppler Spread and sum over columns for Time Spread (fftshift each vector to have zero term (sec or Hz) in the middle Sf St
t = m / Fs
f =k
( Fs / N ) NB
Time Resolution:
t = 1 / FS
F = FS 1 Hz = N N B total data length(sec)
Frequency Resolution:
Therefore if we want to a resolution in the doppler spread of (say) 1Hz, we need to collect at least 1 sec of data.
Example:
% channel Fs=10^6; P=[0,-2,-3]; T=[0, 10, 15]*10^(-6); fd=70;
% sampling freq. In Hz % attenuations in dB % time delays in sec %doppler shift in Hz
Bernoulli Binary Bernoulli Binary Generator
Rectangular QAM Rectangular QAM Modulator Baseband
Rayleigh Fading Multipath Rayleigh Fading Channel
y To Workspace1
x To Workspace
test_scattering.mdl
Channel Freq. Response:
Tmax=10^(-4) sec; FDmax=150Hz;
9 x 10
-3
[St, Sf,t,f]=scattering(x,y,Fs,Tmax, FDmax);
Time Spread
St(t)
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.2 x 10
-3
Time Spread
Frequency Spread
0 -1.5
-1
-0.5 time (sec)
0.5 x 10
1
-4
Sf(f)
1 0.8
15 sec
Frequency Spread
0.6 0.4
0.2
0 -1000
-800
-600
-400
-200 0 200 frequency (Hz)
400
600
800
1000
70 Hz
+ 70 Hz
Stanford University Interim (SUI) Channel Models
Extension of Work done at AT&T Wireless and Erceg etal. Three terrain types: Category A: Hilly/Moderate to Heavy Tree density; Category B: Hilly/ Light Tree density or Flat/Moderate to Heavy Tree density Category C: Flat/Light Tree density
Six different Scenarios (SUI-1 SUI-6). Found in IEEE 802.16.3c-01/29r4, Channel Models for Wireless Applications, http://wirelessman.org/tg3/contrib/802163c-01_29r4.pdf V. Erceg etal, An Empirical Based Path Loss Model for Wireless Channels in Suburban Environments, IEEE Selected Areas in Communications, Vol 17, no 7, July 1999
Lab 3
In this project you want to identify the time and frequency spreads of a channel. Refer to the simulink model Lab3.mdl for the setup. You know that the mobile channel you are trying to model has a maximum doppler frequency not exceeding 50Hz and a maximum time spread smaller than 20 microseconds. In order to have a clear picture of the channel spread in time and frequency we want a time resolution of 1 microsecond and a frequency resolution of 1Hz; 1. Based on the time and frequency resolutions, determine a suitable symbol rate of the transmitted sequence and an adequate data length in time; 2. With the above parameters, run the model Lab3.mdl to collect the transmitted and received data. Use the program scattering.m to estimate the time and frequency spreads of the channel. Compare the result with the parameters of the channel in the simulink block; 3. Just to compare, try different values of symbol rate and data length and see how the resolutions in time and frequency are affected.
4. Multi Carrier Modulation and OFDM
1. 2. 3.
Single Carrier and Multi Carrier Modulation Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) Example: basics of IEEE 802.11a (WiFi)
Single Carrier and Multi Carrier Modulation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Transmission of Data through Frequency Selective and Time Varying Channels Single Carrier Modulation in Flat Fading Channels Single Carrier Modulation in Frequency Selective Channels Simulink Example of Single Carrier Modulation The Multi Carrier Approach
1. Transmission of Data Through Frequency Selective Time Varying Channels
We have seen a wireless channel is characterized by time spread and frequency spread.
Frequency Spread
S (t , F )
F FMAX
t
t MAX
Time Spread
2. Single Carrier Modulation in Flat Fading Channels:
if symbol duration >> time spread then there is almost no Inter Symbol Interference (ISI). channel
TS
time
1 0 phase still recognizable
Problem with this: Low Data Rate!!!
this corresponds to Flat Fading
channel
1 / TS
Frequency
Flat Freq. Response
Frequency
Frequency
3. Single Carrier Modulation in Frequency Selective Channels:
if symbol duration ~ time spread then there is considerable Inter Symbol Interference (ISI). channel
time
? ? phase not recognizable
One Solution: we need equalization channel equalizer
time
time
Channel and Equalizer
Problems with equalization: it might require training data (thus loss of bandwidth) if blind, it can be expensive in terms computational effort always a problem when the channel is time varying
4. The Multi Carrier Approach:
let symbol duration >> time spread so there is almost no Inter Symbol Interference (ISI); send a block of data using a number of carriers (Multi Carrier)
symbol
1
symbol
0
time
0 1
channel
time
1 0
time
Compare Single Carrier and Multi Carrier Modulation SC
Frequency
1
Frequency
1 0 1 1
One symbol
Flat Fading Channel: Easy Demod
channel
L
Frequency
0 1 0 1 1 1
MC
subcarriers
Frequency
Each subcarrier sees a Flat Fading Channel: Easy Demod
0 1 0 1 1 1
Block of symbols
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
1. Basic Structure of Multi Carrier Modulation 2. Orthogonal Subcarriers and OFDM 3. Generating the OFDM Symbol using the IFFT
In MC modulation each MC symbol is defined on a time interval and it contains a block of data
OFDM Symbol
data
data
data
data
time
TSymbol
data t
Tg
guard interval
Tb
data interval
data
NF N2F 2 j 2FC t j 2 ( FC + kF )t j 2kFt s (t ) = Re A ck e A ck e = Re e N k = N F k = F 2 2
0 t TSymbol
Each data point
ck
is modulated by a subcarrier
NF NF Fk = FC + kF , k = ,..., , k 0 2 2
Subcarrier k = 0 is not used since its magnitude and phase would be influenced by the carrier FC
| S (F ) |
Fk = FC + kF
Fc
BW 2
Fc
Fc +
BW 2
Fc
BW 2
Fc
carrier
Fc +
BW 2
BW = N F F
We leave a guard time between blocks to allow multipath
Guard Time Tg
Data Block Data Block
TX
RX
Tb
L
TSymbol data+guard
the guard time is long enough, so the multipath in one block does not affect the next block
RX TX
L
NO Inter Symbol Interference!
Modulated Signal:
s (t ) = Re e j 2Fct x(t )
FT
FC = carrier frequency
FC
FC
Baseband Complex Signal:
k=
FT
j 2kF ( t Tg )
x(t ) = A
just a gain
k = k 0
ce
k
NF 2
NF 2
0 t TSymbol
kF = subcarrier frequency offset
ck = data
Limitations of OFDM
Overhead (no data)
TSymbol
data t
Tguard Tb
The Guard Time (or Cyclic Prefix) does not carry data and therefore it represents a loss of power
Pdata Tb = Psymbol = Tb + Tguard 1 Tguard 1+ T b Psymbol
To minimize overhead
Tguard << Tb
ie the longer the data frame the better!
However, as expected, the channel (not the sky!) is the limit.
Frequency Spread
S (t , F )
F FMAX < kHz
t
t MAX sec
OFDM Symbol Duration: OFDM Freq. Spacing: Are these two compatible? Since
FS 1 1 = = N NTS Tb
Time Spread
Tb >> t MAX
F = FS >> FMAX N
to minimize CP overhead to ensure orthogonality
we have:
t MAX << Tb << 1 / FMAX
10 6 sec 10 3 sec roughly!!!
2. Orthogonal Subcarriers and OFDM
t
guard interval Tg
Tb data interval
1 Choose: F = Tb
FC
F
Fk = FC + kF
Orthogonality:
1 Tb
t 0 +Tb
t0
j 2Fk t j 2Fl t
1 dt = Tb
t 0 +Tb
t0
j 2 ( k l ) Ft
1 if k = l dt = 0 if k l
Since the channel is Linear and Time Invariant (at least for the duration of the frame), the exponentials e j 2Fk t are still orthogonal at the receiver in steady state, ie after the transient has died.
Transmitted subcarrier j 2Fk t
channel
Received subcarrier
t
0
Tg + Tb
h(t )
0
Tg
Tg + Tb
transient steady state response response
H ( Fk )e j 2Fk t
Tg t Tg + Tb
still orthogonal at the receiver!!!
Each OFDM symbol is generated in discrete time. Let FS be the sampling frequency; N > N F be the number of data samples in each symbol; F = 1 / (N TS ) = FS / N A=1/N Then:
NF 2 NF 2
the subcarriers spacing
1 x(nTS ) = N
c e
k k = NF 2
j 2k F ( n L ) F
s
1 = N
c e
k k = NF 2
jk 2N ( n L )
n = 0,.., L + N 1
With Tg = L TS the guard time.
4. Generating the OFDM symbol using the IFFT OFDM Symbol: discrete time
# samples # subcarriers
guard
data
N > NF
TIME:
0
Tg
Tb
Sampling Interval TS = 1 / FS Sampling Frequency FS > Bandwidth
Freq spacing F = FS / N
FREQUENCY:
FS / 2
N F F S 2 N
N F FS 2 N
FS / 2
This can be written as
1 x[n + L] = N 1 = N 1 = N
NF 2
c e
k k = NF 2 k
NF 2
jk 2N n
c e
k =1 N 1 k =0
jk 2N n
1 + N
c e
k k = NF 2
j ( N + k ) 2N n
X [k ]e
jk 2N n
=IFFT {X [k ]}
Where:
X [ k ] = ck , X [ N + k ] = ck , X [k ] = 0, k = 1,..., N F / 2 k = 1,..., N F / 2 otherwise
positive subcarriers negative subcarriers
Guard Time with Cyclic Prefix (CP)
x[ L],..., x[ L + N 1] = IFFT {X [k ], k = 0,..., N 1}
0
L + N 1
CP
14 4 2 3
IFFT{ X }
N
14243
CP from the periodicity:
x[n] = x[ N + n]
x[0] = x[ N ] x[1] = x[ N + 1] ... x[ L 1] = x[ L + N 1]
OFDM Symbol
Cyclic Prefix
k
0
x[0] = x[ N ]
x[ L 1] = x[ N + L 1]
n
0
c1
cN F / 2
0
x[L]
M
0
(N F / 2 )
M
IFFT
data
c N F / 2 c1
M M
N (N F / 2)
M
N 1
N 1 N 1
x[ L + N 1]
Summary of OFDM and relevant parameters Channel (given parameters):
1. Max Time Spread 2. Doppler Spread 3. Bandwidth
t_MAX in sec F_D in Hz BW in Hz
OFDM (design parameters):
1. Sampling Frequency 2. Cyclic Prefix 3. FFT size (power of 2) 4. Number of Carriers
Fs>BW in Hz L > t_MAX * Fs, integer
4*L<N<<Fs/F_D, integer
NF=[N*BW/Fs], integer
Test in Simulation:
w[n]
m-th data block (data, pilots and nulls)
X m [0] X [k ] M m M X m [ N 1]
OFDM TX
h[n]
OFDM RX
M M
Ym [0] Ym [k ]
Ym [ N 1]
Recall that for every transmitted block of data we receive
Ym [k ] = H m [k ] X m [k ] + Wm [k ]
With H m [ k ] the frequency response of the channel within the time block In order to estimate X m [k ] we need to know the channel.
A way to avoid it is to use differential encoding:
Data:
d m [k ]
X m [k ] = d m [k ] X m 1[k ]
X m1[k ]
Delay one frame
With QPSK it is equivalent to accumulating the phase
X m [k ] = X m 1[k ] + d m [k ]
At the receiver
Y [k ] H m [k ] X m [k ] + Wm [k ] d m [k ] = m = d m [k ] Ym 1[k ] H m 1[k ] X m 1[k ] + Wm 1[k ]
Provided: a. The channel changes slowly H m [ k ] H m 1[ k ] 0 b. High SNR
Ym [k ]
div
Delay one frame
d m [k ]
Ym1[k ]
Lab 4: Single Carrier vs. OFDM Modulation Goal: In this Lab we want to compare Single Carrier (SC) modulation with Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), with Differential Modulation . 1. Using the Simulink model test_SC.mdl see the received signal for various values of the symbol rate
FS = 2.0, 20.0, 200.0, 2000.0 kHz
As the symbol rate increases, notice the effect of Inter Symbol Interference in the scattering plot.
2. Repeat the same with the Simulink model test_OFDM.mdl and see the received signal for the same values of the symbol rate. Notice how you can increase the data rate and still be able to demodulate the received signal.
Example: IEEE 802.11a (WiFi)
1. Parameters 2. Simulink Example 3. Frame based and Sample based signals
Parameters of IEEE802.11a: Channel (given parameters):
1. Max Time Spread 2. Doppler Spread 3. Bandwidth
t_MAX=0.5 microsec F_D=50Hz BW=16MHz
OFDM (design parameters):
1. Sampling Frequency 2. Cyclic Prefix 3. FFT size (power of 2) 4. Number of Carriers
Fs=20MHz L=16 > 0.5*20=10 N=64<<20e06/50 NF=52=[64*16/20]
Sub-carriers: (48 data + 4 pilots) + (12 nulls) = 64
NULL
c1
0 1
c26
N F = 52
NULL
M M
M M M M
63
x0
N = 64
26
c 26
38
c1
Frequency
Pilots at: -21, -7, 7, 21
M
63
x63
Time
IFFT
Frequencies:
F = 20 MHz / 64 = 312.5kHz
L
( 64 26 )
L
63 1
38
26
8.125
Subcarriers index
8.125
F ( MHz )
16.25MHz
DATA
F (MHz )
FCARRIER 10
FCARRIER
20 MHz = 1 / Ts
FCARRIER + 10
Time Block:
Ts = TFFT / 64 = 50 10 9 sec
TG = 0.8 sec
TFFT = 3.2 sec
time
TFRAME = 4.0 sec
Overall Implementation (IEEE 802.11a with 16QAM). 1. Map encoded data into blocks of 192 bits and 48 symbols: data
Encode Buffer Interleave (192 bits) 010011010101 1110 0111 1000 1101 Map to 16QAM
al
+1+j3 -1+j +3-j3 +1-j
48
48
4
4x48=192 bits
Overall Implementation (IEEE 802.11a with 16QAM). 2. Map each block of 48 symbols into 64 samples time domain frequency domain xm [0] null 0 0
+1+j3 -3-j +3-j3 +1-j
24 data 2 pilots
M
null
1
26 27 27 + 64 26 + 64 1+ 64
1 2
xm [1]
24 data 2 pilots
MM
62 63
xm [62] xm [63]
am [ l ]
l = 1: 48
X m [k ]
IFFT
xm [ n ]
n = 0 : 63
k = 0 : 63
L
26
1 1
L
26
Simulink Example
To make it simpler: 1. let the number of carrier be the same as the FFT length, ie N=NF; 2. Use Differential QPSK Encoding and Decoding, so that we do not need to estimate the channels frequency response.
Initial Callback function:
% OFDM parameters (IEEE802.11a) Fs=20e6; % symbol data rate (uncoded) in Hz N=64; % FFT sample size L=16; % Cyclic Prefix sample length % Channel Parameters % 1. Doppler Spread FC=5.0; % carrier freq. in GHz v=50; % speed in km/h FD=v*FC; % doppler freq in Hz %2. Time Spread tau=[0, 0.1, 0.4]*1e-6; % time delays in seconds P=[0, -2, -4]; % attenuations in dB % Additive Noise SNRdB=20; % dB
Simulink Implementation of OFDM IEEE802.11a Recall how we compute the IFFT at the Modulator IN: Block of 52 data points (data + pilots)
NULL
Recall: vectors in Matlab begin at n=1
OUT: Block of 80 samples
x(49)
d1
0 1 26
x(1)
x(64) x(1)
d 26
NULL
M M M M
63
CP
d 27 d 52
M
38
M M
x(64)
M
63
x(64)
IFFT
Vector operations. OFDM Modulator:
Concatenate in a vector
0
Transmitted Frame
52 data points (include the pilots)
52
26 0 26
1 26 11 26
64
80
Split Data
IFFT
ADD CP
OFDM Modulator:
Simulink > Signal Routing > Selector
Simulink > Commonly Used Blocks > demux Simulink > Math Operations > Matrix Concatenate
repeat last 16 entries [49:64, 1:64]
OFDM Demodulator:
Received Frame
80 64 1 26 11 26 26 52 26
Received Data
Remove CP
FFT
Concatenate in a vector
Signal Processing > Signal Management > Signal Attributes
Simulink > Commonly Used Blocks > Terminator
Simulink > Signal Routing > Selector
demux
Simulink > Math Operations > Matrix Concatenate
Put Everything Together:
M=4 (QPSK) f_D=doppler freq.
Differential enc/dec
3. Frame based and Sample based
In Simulink a signal can be Frame based Sample based
This is particularly important when the signals are vectors. Some blocks want the input to be Frame based, others want it Sample based, others dont care When you have to process a large number of data, it is more efficient to process blocks of samples, using Frames, rather than one sample at a time.
Frame based
Frame Based [Nx1]
Each vector is part (a frame) of the same signal
Sample based
Sample Based [Nx1]
There are N different signals. Each element of the vector belongs to a different signal.
N
Typical Example: the FFT block
[Nx1] FFT frame
[Nx1]
To Frame
[Nx1]
sample
frame
IEEE 802.16 Standard
IEEE 802.16 2004: Part 16: Air Interface for Fixed Broadband Wireless Access Systems
From the Abstract: It specifies air interface for fixed Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) systems supporting multimedia services; MAC supports point to multipoint with optional mesh topology; multiple physical layer (PHY) each suited to a particular operational environment:
IEEE 802.16-2004 Standard
Table 1 (Section 1.3.4) Air Interface Nomenclature:
WirelessMAN-SC, Single Carrier (SC), Line of Sight (LOS), 10-66GHz, TDD/FDD WirelessMAN-SCa, SC, 2-11GHz licensed bands,TDD/FDD WirelessMAN OFDM, 2-11GHZ licensed bands,TDD/FDD WirelessMAN-OFDMA, 2-11GHz licensed bands,TDD/FDD WirelessHUMAN 2-11GHz, unlicensed,TDD
MAN: Metropolitan Area Network HUMAN: High Speed Unlicensed MAN
IEEE 802.16e 2005: Part 16: Air Interface for Fixed and Mobile Broadband Wireless Access Systems Amendment 2: Physical and Medium Access Control Layers for Combined Fixed and Mobile Operation in Licensed Bands and Corrigendum 1
Scope (Section 1.1): it enhances IEEE 802.16-2004 to support mobility at vehicular speed, for combined fixed and mobile Broadband Wireless Access; higher level handover between base stations; licensed bands below 6GHz.
IEEE 802.16-2004: Reference Model (Section 1.4), Figure 1 External Data SAP=Service Access Point Section 5
By Layers:
CS-SAP Service Specific Convergence Sublayer (CS) MAC-SAP
MAC
MAC Common Part Convergence Sublayer (CS)
Section 6
Security Sublayer PHY-SAP PHY Physical Layer
Section 7
Section 8
Parameters for IEEE 802.16 (OFDM only)
802.16-2004
Frequency Band OFDM carriers 2GHz-11GHz OFDM: 256 OFDMA: 2048 QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM 1Mbps-75Mbps TDD or FDD (1,2,4,8)x1.75MHz (1,4,8,12)x1.25MHz 8.75MHz
802.16e-2005
2GHz-11GHz fixed 2GHz-6GHz mobile OFDM: 256 OFDMA: 128, 256, 512,1024, 2048 QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM 1Mbps-75Mbps TDD or FDD (1,2,4,8)x1.75MHz (1,4,8,12)x1.25MHz 8.75MHz
Modulation Transmission Rate Duplexing Channel Bandwidth
IEEE802.16 Structure
data
randomization Error Correction Coding
M-QAM mod
OFDM mod
TX
data
De-rand.
Error Correction Decoding
M-QAM dem
OFDM dem
RX
Choices: Coding rates 1/2 2/3 3/4 5/6 M-QAM 2 4 16 64 OFDM carriers 256 512 1024 2048 Channel B/width 1.25 MHz 5 MHz 10 MHz
OFDM and OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access)
Mobile WiMax is based on OFDMA; OFDMA allows for subchannellization of data in both uplink and downlink; Subchannels are just subsets of the OFDM carriers: they can use contiguous or randomly allocated frequencies; FUSC: Full Use of Subcarriers. Each subchannel has up to 48 subcarriers evenly distributed through the entire band; PUSC: Partial Use of Subcarriers. Each subchannel has subcarriers randomly allocated within clusters (14 subcarriers per cluster) .
Section 8.3.2: OFDM Symbol Parameters and Transmitted Signal OFDM Symbol
Ts
Tg
guard (CP)
Tb
data
Tg
1 1 1 1 = , , , Tb 4 8 16 32
Cyclic Prefix has a variable length. It represents a loss of
LCP = 10 log(Tb /(Tb + Tg ) )
An OFDM Symbol is made of Data Carriers: data Pilot Carriers: synchronization and estimation Null Carriers: guard frequency bands and DC (at the modulating carrier) pilots data
frequency Guard band channel Guard band
N guards = to provide frequency guards between channels N nulls = N guards + 1 (DC subcarrier is always zero) N pilots = pilots for channel tracking and synchronization N data = data subcarriers N used = N pilots + N data
Recall the OFDM symbol is of the form
N k = used 2 j 2f ct j 2kf ( t Tg ) s (t ) = Ree used ck e N k = 2 k 0
| S( f ) |
f c BW 2
fc
f c + BW 2
f c BW 2
fc
carrier
f c + BW 2
OFDM Subcarrier Parameters:
FFT size N_used N_nulls N_pilots N_data
256 200 56 8 192
128 108 20 12 96
512 426 86 42 384
1024 850 174 82 768
2048 1702 346 166 1536
1444444 444444 2 3
Fixed WiMax Fixed and Mobile WiMax
In 802.16 2004 we have
N FFT = 256 N used = 200
Fs BW 2 2
Frequency Spacing f = 1 / data_symbol_length = 1 / Tb Sampling frequency Bandwidth
BW 2
Fs 2
Fs = N FFT f
BW = N used f = N used Fs N FFT
Since we want the sampling rate to be integer multiple of a fixed rate (say 8kHz), the formula for the sampling rate is
Fs = floor (n BW / 8,000) 8,000
With n a factor (Table 213) of the order 8 86 144 316 57 256 n= , , , , , 7 75 125 275 50 200
IEEE 802.16, with N=256 data pilots nulls
X [k ]
12 24 38 24 24 12 63 88 100 101
M
x[n + L]
0 13
IFFT
12 24 24
155 156 168 193 218
24 12 243 255 255
Implementation of WiMax 2004 in Simulink
Data in 192x1
NFFT=256 NCP=64
5. Error Correcting Coding
1. Channel Capacity and Error Correction Coding 2. Block Coding 3. Code Shortening and Puncturing 4. Simulink Implementation of Block Codes 5. Convolutional Codes 6. Simulink Implementation of Convolutional Codes 7. Concatenated Codes in IEEE802.16
1. Channel Capacity and Error Correction Coding
1.1 Channel Capacity 1.2 Error Correction Coding 1.3 Minimum SNR Requirement and Shannon Limit
1. Channel Capacity Problem: given a AWGN Channel, defined in terms of
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) Bandwidth B and a desired Bit Error Rate (BER), what is the maximum data rate we can transmit?
noise
..01010110
MOD
channel
DEM
..01010010
Errors!
Transmitted
Received
Define the Channel Capacity:
C = B log 2 (1 + SNR )
bits/sec
Significance: if the transmitted data rate R<C then we can always find a coding scheme to make the bit error rate arbitrarily small.
Example:
SNRdB=20dB B=10MHz
C = 10 7 log 2 1 + 10 20 /10 = 66.5Mbits / sec
Problem: How do we encode the data to obtain an acceptable error rate?
Use Error Correction Coding!
2. Error Correction Coding
Purpose: detect and Correct Errors by adding redundant information. How to Define an Encoder: code rate
rc = Ru <1 Re
rc
Ru
data rate
encoder
Re > Ru
Encoded data rate
number of errors corrected
# bits in error BER = total # of bits
Relation to Channel Capacity
SNR
rc encoder
channel
C
C
rc decoder
Ru < C
Ru
BER
Given a data rate Ru < C a desired Bit Error Rate (BER) arbitrarily small you can always find a code with coding rate
Ru rc <1 C
with desired BER.
Clearly the Complexity goes up with the coding rate. Example: see two situations with the same BER = 10 5 and
Eb / N 0 4dB
A. Convolutional Encoder with rate
rc = 1 / 2
B. Block Code (65520, 61425) low density parity check, with coding rate r = 61425 = 15
c
65520
16
Code Complexity $$$
1/ 2
15 / 16
rc
code rate
3. Minimum SNR Requirements
For a given Coding Rate, what is the minimum Eb / N 0 we can have?
Shannon Limit 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 coding rate 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -2
-1
3 EbN0 dB
1.6dB
Notice:
Eb > 1.6dB N0
always!!!
2. Block Coding
2.1 Parameters of Block Codes 2.2 Probability of Error 2.3 Reed Solomon Codes (non binary data) 2.3 Simulink Implementation
1. Parameters of Block Codes
It encodes k blocks of data symbols into n blocks of encoded symbols:
raw data encoder encoded data
(n, k , t )
k symbols Code Rate n> k symbols
k rc = n
Parameters:
(n, k , t )
d min 1 t floor 2
Max. number of errors corrected Minimum distance between codewords
where
d min n k + 1
L
D B
t
A
d min
L
codewords non -codewords
receive transmit C A
channel decoder
decode A B Error !!!
D where
d (C , A) t d ( D, A) > t
2. Probability of Error If the code corrects up to t errors, the probability that the wrong codeword is decoded is given by
n j d /2 p (1 p ) n j (2 k 1)(4 p (1 p ) ) min Pe j =t +1 j
n
n-j bits right
j bits wrong with p the probability of error for one bit. For BPSK, QPSK:
p = Q 2 Ec / N 0
Ec = Energy of Coded Bit =
k Eb n
Bit Error Probability for HDD
n j Pe n j Pb j p (1 p ) j k j =t +1
n
codeword error
bits per codeword
Some Probabilities of Error for BPSK:
Probability of Error: BPSK coded and uncoded -2 -2.5 -3 -3.5 log10(Prob of error) -4 -4.5 -5 -5.5 -6 -6.5 -7
Uncoded Golay (24,12,3) BCH (127,64,10)
7 8 Eb/N0 dB
10
11
3. Reed Solomon Codes (non Binary Data)
(n, k , t )
n = 2m 1
2m k t = floor 2
coded symbols
k<n uncoded symbols
errors corrected
1 symbol = m bits
Good for Burst Error Correction at relatively high SNR
Example: (255,239,8)
239 symbols
RS
=
255 symbols 239 symbols
data
16
parity
Based on polynomials:
uncoded block
coded block
RS
u[0],..., u[k 1]
u ( X ) = u[0] + u[1] X + ... + u[k 1] X k 1
c[0],..., c[n 1]
c( X ) = c[0] + c[1] X + ... + c[n 1] X n 1
encoder
c( X ) = g ( X )u ( X )
u( X )
errors
g( X )
quotient
e( X )
u( X ) e( X )
remainder
y( X ) g(X )
y ( X ) = c ( X ) + e( X ) = g ( X )u ( X ) + e( X )
3. Code Shortening and Puncturing
3.1 Code Shortening 3.2 Code Puncturing 3.3 RS Coding in IEEE802.16
1. Code Shortening
Start with a block code, say RS (n=255, k=239, t=8). We can generate a different code by Shortening: 1. Shortened to k data bytes by adding 239-k null symbols 2. At the output eliminate the corresponding 239-k terms
k (k+16,k,8) k 16
00000
(255, 239,8)
00000 255 symbols
16
239 symbols
By shortening Reed Solomon (255,239,8) we obtain codes
(k '+16, k ' ,8),
0 < k ' 239
All these codes correct up to 8 errors (bytes).
(k+16,k,8)
16
2. Code Puncturing
By puncturing we eliminate L parity bytes to obtain a code correcting 8-T errors. Therefore we determine L from
parity bytes
(N k ) = 8 T
2
16 L = 8T 2
L = 2T
Puncturing Reed Solomon Codes (k '+16, k ' ,8), 1. The last 16 bytes are parity bytes
0 < k ' 239
Code:
(k+16,k,8)
16
(k '+16, k ' ,8)
2. For a (k '+16 2T , k ' ,8 T ) code, correcting 8-T errors, just eliminate the first 2T bytes of the parity check.
(k '+16 2T , k ' ,8 T )
(k+16,k,8-T)
k 16-2T parity
RS codes used in IEEE802.16: (32,24,4) (40,36,2) (64,48,8) (80,72,4) (108,96,6) (120,108,6)
(k '+16 2T , k ' ,8 T )
k=24, T=4 k=36, T=6 k=48, T=0 k=72, T=4 k=96, T=2 k=108, T=2
4. Simulink Implementation of Block Codes
4.1 Shortened Codes 4.2 Punctured Codes
Simulink Implementation of Shortened RS Codes
Lets implement the code (52,36,8) by shortening 1. Shortened to k=36 data bytes (=36x8=288 bits) by adding 239-k null symbols at the beginning of the block 2. At the output eliminate the first 239-k terms
239 36 = 203
203 239 255
416 bits
288 bits
bits to symbols 8 bits/symbol
36
RS
52
symbols to bits 8 bits/symbol
RS Encoder
Raw data 288 bits Encoded data 416 bits
RS Decoder
Raw data 288 bits Received data 416 bits
Put Everything together:
It is easier to create subsystems:
RS encoder MQAM Mod
RS decoder
Channel MQAM Demod
Select each group of blocks and use Edit > Create Subsystem It cannot be undone!
Masked Subsystems In Simulink we can create customized blocks, where we can enter parameters values. Example: Reed Solomon Encoder and Decoder
datablock data
RS Encoder RS Decoder
n'
encoded data
RS Encoder: 1. edit
[239-k+1:255]
2. right click on subsystem and select Mask Subsystem 3. Edit Mask:
add parameters
You can customize the icon
When you click on the icon, you get the following:
the two parameters from previous slide
RS Decoder:
2. right click on subsystem and select Mask Subsystem 3. Edit Mask:
Simulink Implementation of (40,36,2).
1. Start with the previous code (52,36,8); 2. Puncture it by eliminating 2T=12 (ie T=6) bytes in the parity
RS (40,36,2) encoder
Sequence Operations>Puncture
Eliminate last 12 bytes
same vector
RS (40,36,2) decoder
Sequence Operations>Insert Zero
Insert 12 zeros
Convolutional Encoders
1. Definition of Convolutional Encoders 2. Puncturing 3. Simulink Implementation
Convolutional Encoders
raw data
L
k
L
M
CC
k n
Rate
L
Coded data
It continuously updates k data symbols into n>k coded symbols.
Example: a 2/3 encoder
y1
x1
z 1
z 1
z 1
z 1
y2
x2
z 1
z 1
z 1
y3
Polynomial description:
[ y1
y2
y3 ] = [x1
a11 x2 ] a21
a12 a22
a13 a23
y1
x1
1
z 1
0
z 1
0
z 1
1
z 1
1 1
a11 = (10)8 (011)8 = 23 a12 = (11)8 (101)8 = 35
y2
x2
0
z 1
1
z 1
0
z 1
a22 = (0)8 (101)8 = 5 a23 = (1)8 (011)8 = 13
y3
Therefore the code is described by the matrix (all entries are octal)
no connection x1 y3
[ y1
y2
y3 ] = [x1
23 35 0 x2 ] 0 5 13
no connection
x2 y1
The parameters are then: CONSTRAINED_LENGTH = [4,3] CODEGENERATOR=[23,35,0; 0,5,13] which call the function poly2trellis
In IEEE802.16e the Convolutinal Code has rate and constrained length 7:
y1
z 1
z 1
z 1
z 1
z 1
z 1
[ y1 , y2 ] = x[a1 , a2 ]
a1 = (1)8 (111)8 (001)8 = 171 a2 = (1)8 (011)8 (011)8 = 133 constrained length = 7
y2
Note: in some books (as in [Costello]) the binary coefficients are determined in reverse order. Example: the code in the previous page is defined by he polynomials (begin counting from the right) as
g1 = (1)8 (001)8 (111)8 = 117
g 2 = (1)8 (011)8 (011)8 = 155
Punctured Codes
From an (k,n) convolutional code make a code with higher rate (less correcting capabilities), by periodically eliminating output bits. Example in IEEE 802.16e: The code [171,133] seen before is a (1,2) code:
K, x[n],K
encoder
K , y1[n], y2 [n],K
Rate 2/3:
K, x[n 1], x[n],K K , y1[n 1], y2 [n 1], y1[n], y2 [n],K
encoder
We can represent it as a matrix with 2 rows:
1 0 P= 1 1
Since:
K , y1[n 1], y2 [n 1], y1[n], y2 [n],K
Rate 3/4:
K, x[n 2], x[n 1], x[n],K K , y1[n 2], y2 [n 2], y1[n 1], y2 [n 1], y1[n], y2 [n],K
encoder
We can represent it as a matrix with 2 rows:
1 0 1 P= 1 1 0
Since:
1 1
K , y1[n 2], y2 [n 2], y1[n 1], y2 [n 1], y1[n], y2 [n],K
1 1
0
Rate 5/6:
K, x[n 4], x[n 3], x[n 2], x[n 1], x[n],K
encoder
K , y1[n 4], y2 [n 4], y1[n 3], y2 [n 3], y1[n 2], y2 [n 2], y1[n 1], y2 [n 1], y1[n], y2 [n],K
We can represent it as a matrix with 2 rows:
1 0 1 0 1 P= 1 1 0 1 0
Since:
1 1
0 1
1 0
0
1
1 0
K , y1[n 4], y2 [n 4], y1[n 3], y2 [n 3], y1[n 2], y2 [n 2], y1[n 1], y2 [n 1], y1[n], y2 [n],K
Simulink Implementation
Implementation of Concatenated Codes using Simulink
AWGN_RSCC_masked.mdl
Variable DataRates with Concatenated Codes in IEEE802.16
It is highly desirable to be able to set the system to a number of different data and coding rates to adapt to channel conditions; IEEE802.16 achieves variable data rates by a combination of mechanisms: coding (shortening, puncturing) data block length (subchannelization) different rates have to be easily achieved by changing appropriate parameters without major reconfigurations.
Recall from previous units:
k
Raw Data in
RS encoder
nRS
CC encoder
n
Encoded Data out
RS parameters
CC parameters
encoder/decoder reduction puncturing
RS Encoder
(k + 16 2T , k ,8 T )
239 255
RS (255,239,8) select
k + 16
puncture
Zero Pad
nRS = k + 16 2T
pRS = [1,...,1,1 30] 0,..., 2 13 2
k + 16 2T
2T
Convolutional Encoder with coding rate rCC
nRS
CC [171,133]
2nRS
puncture
nRS n= rCC
rCC = 1 / 2, P = [1,1] rCC = 2 / 3, P = [1,1,0,1] rCC = 3 / 4, P = [1,1,0,1,1,0] rCC = 5 / 6, P = [1,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,1,0]
By combining the two codes we obtain a number of data rates (section 8.3.3.2 of the standard):
Rate ID
MQAM 2 4 4 16 16 64 64
Data block k (bytes) 12 24 36 48 72 96 108
Coded block n (bytes) 24 48 48 96 96 144 144
Coding rate k/n 1/2 1/2 3/4 1/2 3/4 2/3 3/4
RS Code
CC coding rate 1/2 2/3 5/6 2/3 5/6 3/4 5/6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(12,12,0) (32,24,4) (40,36,2) (64,48,8) (80,72,4) (108,96,6) (120,108,6)
Example: take Rate_ID=2
Rate ID M-QAM Data block k (bytes) Coded block n (bytes) Coding rate k/n RS Code CC coding rate
36
48
3/4
(40,36,2)
5/6
36
Raw Data in
RS encoder
40
CC encoder
40 = 48 5/6
Encoded Data out
RS parameters
CC parameters
k = 36
pRS = [1,...,1,1 30] 0,..., 2 13 2
36 + 16 2 6 = 40 2 6 = 12
pCC = [1,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,1,0]
This yields a table of parameters for each Rate_ID:
Rate ID
MQAM
Data block k
(bytes)
pRS
No RS [ones(1,32),zeros(1,8)] [ones(1,40),zeros(1,12)] 1 [ones(1,80),zeros(1,8)] [ones(1,108),zeros(1,4)] [ones(1,120),zeros(1,4)]
pCC
[1,1] [1,1,0,1] [1,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,1,0] [1,1,0,1] [1,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,1,0] [1,1,0,1,1,0] [1,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,1,0]
Coded block n (bytes) 24 48 48 96 96 144 144
CC
coding rate
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 4 4 16 16 64 64
12 24 36 48 72 96 108
1/2 2/3 5/6 2/3 5/6 3/4 5/6
All parameters can be computed from the matlab program coding.m
The Coding Rates and the MQAM modulation parameters are designed in such a way that, in all cases
8* n = 192 symbols log 2( M )
From Data Source RS CC
Symbol Block
To IFFT MQAM
bytes:
k
Row Data Block
nRS
Coded Data Block
n
Coded Data Block
In all cases of NFFT=256,512,1024,2048 the number of data symbols transmitted is a multiple of 192.
Recall this table:
FFT size N_used N_nulls N_pilots N_data
256 200 56 8 192
128 108 20 12 96
512 426 86 42 384 2x192
1024 850 174 82 768 4x192
2048 1702 346 166 1536 8x192
Put Everything together for IEEE802.16 2004 with AWGN Channel
WiMax256.mdl
IEEE802.16 Implementation
In addition to OFDM Modulator/Demodulator and Coding we need
Time Synchronization: to detect when the packet begins Channel Estimation: needed in OFDM demodulator Channel Tracking: to track the time varying channel (for mobile only)
In addition we need Frequency Offset Estimation: to compensate for phase errors and noise in the oscillators Offset tracking: to track synchronization errors
Basic Structure of the Receiver Channel Estimation: estimate the frequency response of the channel Time Synchronization: detect the beginning of the packet and OFDM symbol
Received Signal Demodulated Data
WiMax Demodulator
Time Synchronization In IEEE802.16 (256 carriers, 64 CP) Time and Frequency Synchronization are performed by the Preamble. Long Preamble: composed of 2 OFDM Symbols Short Preamble: only the Second OFDM Symbol First OFDM Symbol Second OFDM Symbol 320 samples 2 repetitions of a long pulse + CP
320 samples 4 repetitions of a short pulse+CP
64
64
64
64
64
64
128
128
Tg
Td
Tg
Td
The standard specifies the Down Link preamble as QPSK for subcarriers between -100 and +100:
1 j , PALL [k ] = 0,
Using the periodicity of the FFT:
k = 100,...,1,+1,...,+100 otherwise
PALL [k ], k = 1,...,100
PALL [k ] = PALL [256 + k ], k = 100,...,1
100
156
255
Short Preamble, to obtain the 4 repetitions, choose only subcarriers multiple of 4:
* 2 PALL [k ], if k mod 4 = 0 P4 [k ] = otherwise 0,
P4 [k ]
p4 [ n]
L
0
FFT
64 64 64 64
255
252 255
Add Cyclic Prefix:
p4 [ n]
64
0
64
64
64
64
255 319
Long Preamble: to obtain the 2 repetitions, choose only subcarriers multiple of 2 :
2 PALL [k ], if k mod 2 = 0 P2 [k ] = otherwise 0,
P2 [k ]
p2 [ n]
L
0
FFT
128 128
255
2 4 6
252 255 254
p2 [ n]
64
0
Add Cyclic Prefix:
128 CP 128
1 4 319 42 3
Several combinations for Up Link, Down Link and Multiple Antennas. We can generate a number of preambles as follows: With 2 Transmitting Antennas:
2 PALL [k ], if k mod 2 = 0 P [k ] = otherwise 0,
0 2
2 PALL [k ], if k mod 2 = 1 P [k ] = otherwise 0,
1 2
With 4 Transmitting Antennas:
m=0
* 2 PALL [k ], if k mod 4 = 0 P40 [k ] = otherwise 0,
m = 1,2,3
* PALL [k + 2 m], if k mod 4 = m P4m [k ] = otherwise 0,
Time Synchronization from Long Preamble
1. Coarse Time Synchronization using Signal Autocorrelation Received signal: preamble 64 128 128 OFDM Symbols
L
n0
y[n l] y *[n 128 l]
l =0 127 2
Compute Crosscorrelation Coefficient:
y[n]
ry2 [n] =
z 128
xcorr
127 127 2 2 y[n l] y[n 128 l] l =0 l =0
Time Synchronization from Long Preamble
1. Coarse Time Synchronization using Signal Autocorrelation Received signal: preamble 64 128 128 OFDM Symbols
L
n0
y[n l] y *[n 128 l]
l =0 127 2
Compute Autocorrelation :
y[n]
ry2 [n] =
z 128
xcorr
127 127 2 2 y[n l] y[n 128 l] l =0 l =0
Effect of Periodicity on Autocorrelation:
y[n]
64 128 128
L
n0
128
y[n 128]
64 128
Ln
MAX when
ry2 [n]
y[n] = y[n 128]
n0 64
n0
Compute it in Simulink:
y[n l] y *[n 128 l]
l =0
127
y[n]
1 In1 Conj. -128 z Delay u Product Digital Filter DF FIR |u| Abs u 2 Math Function Divide
ry2 [n]
>= 0.8 Compare To Constant 1 Sync
-128 z |u| Abs1 u2 Square DF FIR Delay1 Product1 Digital Filter2 -CConstant MinMax max
127 127 2 2 y[n l] y[n 128 l] l =0 l =0
Example: perfect channel (no spread in time)
ry [n]
The packet begins somewhere in here
64
2. Fine Time Synchronization using Cross Corelation with Preamble
y[n]
xcorr
p[n]
ryp [n] =
y[n l] p *[l]
l =0
127
127 127 2 2 y[n l] p[l] l =0 l =0
Since the preamble is random (almost like white noise), it has a short autocorrelation:
y[n]
64 128 128
L
n0
2 ryp [n]
p[n]
128
127
n0 128
n0
with dispersive channel
y[n]
xcorr
p[n]
ryp [n] =
y[n l] p *[l]
l =0
127
127 127 2 2 y[n l] p[l] l =0 l =0
Since the preamble is random, almost white, recall that the crosscorrelation yields the impulse response of the channel
y[n]
64 128 128
L
n0
| h[n] |
ryp [n]
p[n]
128
127
n0 128
n0
Compare the two (non dispersive channel):
Autocorrelation of received data
ry
Crosscorrelation with preamble
ryp
Synchronization with Dispersive Channel Let L be the length of the channel impulse response
64 L
Channel impulse response
In order to determine the starting point, compute the energy on a sliding window and choose the point of maximum energy
y[n]
xcorr
p[n]
ryp [n]
c[n] c[n]
Maximum energy
ryp [n] 1
n M +1
n
M=max length of channel = length of CP
c[n] = ryp [n k ]
k =0
M 1
Example
y[n]
xcorr
p[n]
ryp [n]
c[n]
Impulse response of channel
Auto correlation
y[n]
max
Cross correlation
p[n]
c[n]
Autocorrelation (saw previously)
Detect MAX
Cross correlation
Sum
Channel Estimation
Recall that, at the receiver, we need the frequency response of the channel:
m-th data block
X m [0] X [k ] M m M X m [ N 1]
w[n]
OFDM TX
h[n]
OFDM RX
M M
Ym [0] Ym [k ]
Ym [ N 1]
Transmitted:
X m [k ]
Received:
Ym [k ] = H [k ] X m [k ] + W [k ]
H [k ] channel freq. response
W [k ]
From the Preamble: at the beginning of the received packet. The transmitted signal in the preamble is known at the receiver: after time synchronization, we take the FFT of the received preamble Estimated initial time
Received Preamble:
64
128
128
256 samples
L
Y [ 0] Y [k ]
FFT
Y [255]
Y [k ] = H [k ] X p [k ] + W [k ], k = 0,...,255
Y [k ] = H [k ] X p [k ] + W [k ], k = 0,...,255
Solve for
H [k ]
using a Wiener Filter (due to noise):
H [k ] =
Y [k ] X * [k ] preamble
2 | X p [k ] |2 + w
noise covariance Problem: when
X p [k ] = 0 frequency response H [k ]
we cannot compute the corresponding
X p [k ] = 1 j
Fact: by definition,
if
k = 2,4,...,100 k = 156,158,...,254
X p [k ] = 0
otherwise (ie DC, odd values, frequency guards)
Two solutions: 1. Compute the channel estimate
H [k ] =
only for the frequencies k such that
Y [k ] X * [k ] preamble
2 | X p [k ] |2 + w
X p [k ] 0
and interpolate for the other frequencies. This might not yield good results and the channel estimate might be unreliable; known
Linterpolate
k
2. Recall the FFT and use the fact that we know the maximum length L of the channel impulse response
Y [k ] = H [k ] X p [k ] + W [k ]
Since the the preamble is such that either For the indices where
| X p [k ] |= 0
or
| X p [k ] |= 2
| X p [k ] |= 2
we can write:
2 jk n L 1 * N Y [k ] X p [k ] = h[n]e 2 + W [k ] X * [k ] p n =0
for
k = 2,4,...,100 k = 156,158,...,254
so that we have 100 equations and L=64 unknowns. This is solved by a matrix multiplication
h = Finv YX * p
64 1 100 1
Simulink Implementation
Trigger when preamble is detected
Channel Estimate out H [k ]
h[n]
Y [k ] Data in y[n] X * [k ] p
Example:
Spectrum of Received Signal
NOT TO SCALE
As expected, it does not match in the Frequency Guards
Estimated Frequency Response of Channel
Start after processing preamble
WiMax-2004 Demodulator WiMax256.mdl
Standard OFDM Demod (256 carriers) data
Error Correction Decoding
Ch.
Channel Tracking
In mobile applications, the channel changes and we need to track it. IEEE802.16-2005 tracks the channel by embedding pilots within the data. In the FUSC (Full Use of Sub Carriers) scheme, the pilots subcarriers are chosen within the non-null subcarriers as
9k + 3m + 1
with
m = [symbol_index ] mod 3 = 0,1,2
0,...,191 for N FFT = 2048 0,...,95 for N FFT = 1024 k = 0,...,47 for N FFT = 512 0,...,11 for N FFT = 128
0 1 4 7L
subcarrier k
OFDM Symbol
nulls DC (null)
pilots data nulls
Expand the Demodulator
Demodulator
Channel tracking
Multiple Antenna Systems (MIMO)
M
TX
M M RX
NT
Transmit Antennas
NR
NT N R
Receive Antennas
Different paths Two cases: 1. Array Gain: if all paths are strongly correlated to which other the SNR can be increased by array processing; 2. Diversity Gain: if all paths are uncorrelated, the effect of channel fading can be attenuated by diversity combining
Receive Diversity:
h1
y1
M RX
TX
s
NT = 1
Transmit Antennas
hN R
yNR
NR
Different paths
NR
Receive Antennas
w1 y1 h1 M = M ES s + N 0 M wN y N hN R R R
Energy per symbol Noise PSD
Assume we know the channels at the receiver. Then we can decode the signal as
y = hi* yi = ES | hi |2 s + N 0 hi* wi
i =1 i =1 i =1
NR
NR
NR
signal
and the Signal to Nose Ratio
noise
NR 2 ES SNR = | hi | N i =1 0
In the Wireless case the channels are random, therefore Now there are two possibilities:
| h |
i =1 i
NR
is a random variable
1. Channels strongly correlated. Assume they are all the same for simplicity
h1 = h2 = ... = hN R = h
Then
2 | hi |2 = N R | h |2 = N R 2 NR
assuming
E | h |2 = 1
{ }
i =1
and
ES 1 2 ES SNR = N R | h | = NR 2 N0 2 N0
2
From the properties of the Chi-Square distribution:
mSNR = E{SNR} = N R
ES N0
better on average
SNR
N R ES = var{SNR} = 2 N0
but with deep fades!
Define the coefficient of variation
var =
SNR
mSNR
1 = 2
In this case we say that there is no diversity.
Recall the Chi-Square distribution: 1. Real Case. Let
y = x + x + ... + x
2 1 2 2
2 n
Then with
2 y = n
xi N (0,1) real , i.i.d .
E{ y} = n var{ y} = 2n
2. Complex Case. Let
y =| x1 |2 + | x2 |2 +...+ | xn |2
xi = ai + jbi CN (0,1) complex gaussian, i.i.d .
Then with
y=
1 2 2n 2 E{ y} = n
1 var{ y} = n 2
2. Channels Completely Uncorrelated.
Since:
NR 2 ES SNR = | hi | N i =1 0 NR 1 2 2 | hi | = 2 2 N R i =1
1 2 ES SNR = 2 N R N0 2
Diversity of order N R
with
E{SNR} = N R
var{SNR} =
ES N0
N R ES 2 N0
var =
SNR
mSNR
1 2 NR
Example: overall receiver gain with receiver diversity.
15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25
N R = 10 NR = 2 NR = 1
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Transmitter Diversity
h1
M
y
RX
TX M
hN R
NT
Transmit Antennas
NR = 1
NT
Different paths Receive Antennas
ES y= N T
hi s + N 0 w i =1
NT
Equivalent to one channel, with no benefit.
Total energy equally distributed on transmit antennas
However there is a gain if we use Space Time Coding. Take the case of Transmitter diversity with two antennas
h1
x1[n]
TX
y[n]
h2
RX
x2 [ n ]
Given two sequences
s1[n], s2 [n]
* 2
code them within the two antennas as follows
x1 x2
s1 s2
* s1
2n 2n + 1
ES (h1s1 + h2 s2 ) + N 0 w1 y[2n] = 2 ES * * h1s2 + h2 s1 + N 0 w2 y[2n + 1] = 2
This can be written as:
y[2n] y *[2n + 1] =
To decode, notice that
ES 2
h1 h* 2
h2 s1 w1 + N0 * * h1 s2 w2
z1 h1* z = * 2 h2
s h2 y[2n] ES 2 1 * = 2 || h || s + h1 y [2n + 1] 2
% w1 N 0 || h || % w2
Use a Wiener Filter to estimate s:
s1 = K h1* y[2n] + h2 y *[2n + 1] s1
* 2 * 1
( ) = K (h y[2n] h y [2n + 1])
with
2 / ES K= | h1 |2 + | h2 |2 +2 N 0 / ES
It is like having two independent channels
s1 s2
ES || h ||2 2
% N 0 || h || w1
z1 z2
% N 0 || h || w2
1 2 || h || =| h1 | + | h2 | = 4 2
2 2 2
ES || h ||2 2
|| h ||2 ES SNR = 2 N0
Apart from the factor , it has the same SNR as the receive diversity of order 2.
WiMax Implementation
h1
h2
Base Station
Subscriber Station
Down Link (DL): BS -> SS Transmit Diversity Uplink (UL): SS->BS Receive Diversity
Down Link: Transmit Diversity Use Alamouti Space Time Coding: Transmitter: Data in
Error Coding
Xn
M-QAM buffer
X 2m
STC
IFFT
TX
IFFT
TX
X 2 m 1
Block to be transmitted Space Time Coding
X 2m X 2 m 1
* X 2 m 1 * X 2m
2m
2m + 1
time
Receiver:
Y2 m
Data out Error Correction
Xn
M-QAM
X 2m
Unbuffer STD
FFT
RX
X 2 m 1
Space Time Decoding: For each subcarrier k compute:
FFT
RX
Y2 m +1
X 2 m [k ] = K H1*[k ]Y2 m [k ] + H 2 [k ]Y2*m +1[k ] X [k ] = K H *[k ]Y [k ] H [k ]Y * [k ]
2 m 1
2m
2 m +1
with
K=
2 / ES | H1[k ] |2 + | H 2 [k ] |2 +2 N 0 / ES
Preamble, Synchronization and Channel Estimation with Transmit Diversity (DL)
The two antennas transmit two preambles at the same time, using different sets of subcarriers
p0 [ n ]
CP 64
0
EVEN subcarriers 128 +
128
+
128
319
n
100
L
0
L
100
p1[n]
CP 64
128
128
+
128
ODD subcarriers
time
frequency
Both preambles have a symmetry:
p0 [n] = p0 [n 128] p1[n] = p1[n 128]
n = 128,...,319
p0 [ n ]
h0 [n]
received signal from the two antennas
y[n]
p1[n]
Problems: time synchronization
h1[n]
estimation of both channels
One possibility: use symmetry of the preambles
y0 [n] = 2h0 [n] * p0 [n]
+
64 128 n0 + 128
y[n]
64 256
z 128
n0
y1[n] = 2h1[n] * p1[n]
64 128 n0 + 128
The two preambles can be easily separated
MIMO Channel Simulation Take the general 2x2 channel
e j 3
e j1
Rayleigh
x1[n]
T T
y1[n]
T T
x2 [ n ]
e j 4
Rayleigh
y 2 [ n]
e j 2
= [ 1 L N ] sec
P = [ P L PN ] dB 1
0 T 1 Correlation at the transmitter 0 R 1 Correlation at the receiver
OFDM Transceiver Power Amp
LPF LPF
IFFT
DAC
I
Q
P/S
DAC
MOD
BPF
MOD
BPF
FIF
oscillator
FC FIF
FIF
oscillator
FC FIF
DEM
BPF
FFT
ADC
I Q
LPF LPF
S/P
ADC
DEM
BPF
Low Noise Amp
Problems!!!
Non Linearities Quantization Errors I/Q Imbalance Power Amp
LPF LPF
IFFT
DAC
I Q
P/S
DAC
MOD
BPF
MOD
BPF
FIF
oscillator Peak to Average Power Ratio Frequency Drift
FC FIF
Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAR) A Single Carrier QPSK signal has a constant amplitude, since only the phase is modulated. A Multi Carrier OFDM signal has a random amplitude. Example: see an OFDM signal with 1024 subcarriers. Plot 1,000 OFDM symbols
0.015
Pmax=0.014
0.01
0.005
Pave=2e-4
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x 10
5
Pmax/Pave=66.88=18dB
Effects: On the ADC: larger number of bits to accommodate large dynamics On the Power Amplifier: it has to be linear within a wider range
Remedies: the signal needs to be clipped to avoid saturating the amplifier the output power of the signal has to be reduced
Cause of large peaks: OFDM signal is a sum of sinusoids. When all in phase, the sum can be large (peak value) with respect to the average.
1 y[n] = N
Y [k ]e
k =0
N 1 k =0
N 1
jk 2N n
Assume all subcarriers Y[k] are i.i.d.:
Average Power:
1 E | y[n] |2 = 2 N
E | Y [ k ] |2 =
1 E | Y [ k ] |2 N
}
2
Peak Power when all subcarriers are aligned:
E | y[n] | Y [k ] =| Y | Y
2
PPeak N PAve
It increases with the number of subcarriers
How bad is PAR? Probability Distribution of PAR
By the Central Limit Theorem the received signal y[ n] is gaussian The amplitude is Rayleigh distributed and the power is Chi-square. Therefore we can compute the Cumulative Density Function analytically:
Pr {PAR > z} = 1 (1 e
fairly accurate for number of carriers
z 2.8 N
N 64
log10 P(PAR > z ) )
-1
N=128,256,512,1024
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7 2
10
12
14
z dB
Notice: 1. The probability that PAR=N, the number of subcarriers, is almost zero; 2. The probability that PAR>4=12dB is of the order of
10 4.5 10 3.5
Remedies: 1. Data randomizing: if there is an error due to PAR, resend the data and most likely it will be fine 2. Clipping: easy thing to do, at the expenses of introducing errors 3. Coding: potentially the best, but still not reliable solutions (not in the standard) 4. A number of iterative techniques: too complex for real time implementation
Effects of PAR on Digital to Analog Converters (DAC)
For a fixed number of bits, we need to compromise between two sources of errors:
vin [n]
vout (t )
DAC
vin [n]
vout (t )
ZOH
QCL
In the DAC there are two sources of errors: Quantization Error; Saturation error due to clipping
Compromise between Number of Bits in DAC and Clipping Level
VMAX VMAX
Vmin
t
Small clipping error, Large Quantization Noise
Vmin
Large clipping error, Small Quantization Noise
We choose Clipping Level for best compromise between clipping error and quantization noise.
vin [n]
vout (t )
DAC
ideal
vin [n]
vout (t )
ZOH
QCL
Total SNR due to Q and CL: SNR due to Q :
SNRQCL = SNR + SNR 12 2 2b SNRQ = (2 ) 2
CL
1 Q
1 1 CL
SNR due to CL : SNR
3 2 /2
where
= E { x[n] |2 } |
b = number of bits per sample
= ACLIP /
See both combined: MAX around
= ACLIP / = 4 5
65
SNR( dB )
60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
b = 12 b = 11 b = 10 b=9 b=8
number of bits
= ACLIP /
Choose max clipping value:
VMAX 4 E vin [n]
We have seen that the probability that PAR>4=12dB is very small.
Effects of PAR on Power Amplifiers
Rapps model of a Power Amplifier:
x(t )
g
g ( x) =
y (t ) = g ( x(t ) )
(1 + x )
2p
Pout
1 2p
p of the order of 3
Pave PMAX
Pin
Input Back Off (IBO)
Ideally you want the Input Back Off (IBO) to be larger than the PAR.
IBO = 10 log10
PMAX > PAR Pave
PAR 10log10 N
This can be excessive and very inefficient. Example: with N=256 carriers you need a IBO of
IBO = PAR = 256 = 24dB
to guarantee that the amplifier always operates in the linear region.
Remedies: Clipping
x[n]
clip
Ae j x[ n ] if | x[n] |> A xCL [n] = if | x[n] | A x[n]
| x[n] xCL [n] |
| x[n] |
A
FT time wide band noise
time
frequency
~[n] = a e ji [n n ] x i i
i
| x[n] |
A
time
ni
xCL [n] = x[n] ~[n] x
x[n]
clip Filter
X (F )
~ X (F )
xW [n] = x[n] * w[n] ai e ji w[n ni ]
i
x[n] ai e ji w[n ni ]
i
W (F )
F
It has two effects: 1. Additive Noise in the demodulated subcarriers 2. It generates out of band noise, so we need to add a Low Pass Filter The latter is not allowed, since it interferes with neighboring channels.
Example: See one of OFDM symbol with the following parameters (this is not random but chosen with high PAR): FFT length N=256 Data Carriers: Nused=200 Modulation: 4QAM Large peak value
0.4
| x[n] |
0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Clip it to 5dB (no filtering): See the Frequency Spectrum: nulls data nulls
f = F FS
1 Nused / 2 N 2
5
0
unfiltered clipped signal
Nused / 2 N
1 2
-5
Large values in the freq. guards
-10
-15
-20
-25 -0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Choose a filter with this characteristics:
1
f pass = Nused / (2 N ) f pass < f stop < 1 / 2
f pass
In matlab: use firpm
f stop
0 .5
h=firpm(M, [0,fpass,fstop,0.5]*2, [1,1,0,0]); filter order, say M=40
window
h[n]
1.2
FT of window
| H( f )|
10
0.8
-10
0.6
-20
0.4
-30
0.2
-40
-50
-0.2 -15
-10
-5
10
15
-60 -0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Clipped and Filtered: Clipped only (no filter)
filtered and unfiltered clipped signal 10 0 -10 -20 -30 dB -40 -50 -60 -70 -80 -0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0 F/Fs
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Negative effect on data!!!
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5 -1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5
Peak Cancellation Detect and Cancel the peak to reduce out of band noise.
+ Detect peak Generate impulses LPF
| x(t ) |
(x(t ) Ae
0
t0
j x ( t 0 )
) (t t )
0
(x(t ) Ae
0
j x ( t 0 )
)g (t t )
0
It spreads the error to neighboring values. t0 t Larger in band noise
Effects: The LPF completely controls the out of band noise. It can be completely eliminated; It reduced PAR and therefore the Input Back Off. It causes an increase of in band noise and therefore a higher BER.
Effect of I/Q Imbalance
Ideally the received signal is of the form
N 1 k =0
y[n ] = Y [k ]e
jk 2N n
= y I [n ] + jyQ [n ]
In practice the I and Q components have different gains, as
y [n ] = AI e j I y I [n ] + jAQ e
jQ
yQ [n ]
= Ae j ( (1 + )e j y I [n ] + j (1 )e j yQ [n ])
with
A=
AI + AQ 2 I + Q 2
= =
AI AQ AI + AQ
I Q I + Q
The two parameters Assume them small:
express the magnitude and phase of the I/Q imbalance.
(1 + )e j (1 + )(1 + j ) 1 + + j (1 )e j (1 )(1 j ) 1 j
After a bit of algebra:
y [n ] = Ae j ( y[n ] + ( + j ) y *[n ])
Substitute: to obtain:
y[n ] = Y [k ]e
k =0
N 1
jk 2N n
N 1 N 1 jk 2N n jl 2N n * + ( + j ) Y [l]e y [n ] = Ae Y [k ]e l =0 k =0 j
N 1 jk 2N n * = Ae (Y [k ] + ( + j )Y [ N k ]) e k =0
The effect is subcarrier N-k leaking into subcarrier k
Y [k ]
Y [N k ]
N k
+ j
It is as having extra noise added to the signal: I/Q Imbalance
y[n ]
L
noise
The factor | + j | is called Negative Frequency Rejection and it can be modeled as covariance of additive noise.
I/Q Imbalance
w2 [n]
y[n ]
Define:
y[n]
2 y SNRi = 10 log 2 i
w1[n]
noise
Implementation Loss:
2 2 2 y y 2 10 log 2 = 10 log1 + 2 = 10 log 1 + 10 10 log 2 2 1 + 2 1 1
SNR1 SNR2 10
Example: let
SNRnoise = 20dB SNRIQ = 35dB
Implementation Loss
10 log 1 + 10
2035 10
) = 0.135
Total SNR:
SNRnoise + IL = 20 0.135 = 18.65dB
Frequency Synchronization
Drifts and errors in the oscillator frequencies cause a frequency offset, like a doppler shift; This causes loss of subcarriers orthogonality and Inter Carrier Interference (ICI). The effect of ICI can be modeled as additive noise, which can be quantified
30
SNR
25
20 dB 15 10 5 0
0.02
0.04 epsilon
0.06
0.08
0.1
Fact: to maintain satisfactory SNR we need to limit the frequency offset to | F | = 4% FS / N
Frequency Synchronization from Long Preamble.
x[n]
CP
xP
N = 128
xP
N = 128
n0
If there is a frequency offset (due to oscillator drifts or doppler shift) the received signal has an extra phase term
y[n ] = y0 [n ]e j 2 f n
with f the digital frequency offset. Take the two received parts of the long preamble:
y1[n ] = y0 [n ]e j ( 2 f n + ) + w1[n ] y2 [n ] = y0 [n ]e j(
2 f ( n + N ) + )
+ w2 [n ]
n = 0,..., N 1
Comparing the two in vector form:
y2 = y1e j 2f N + w
where Then:
* * y1 T y2 =|| y1 ||2 e j 2 f N + y1 T w
yi = [ yi [0] L yi [ N 1]]
which yields the estimate of the frequency offset
* Im { y1 T y2 } 1 f = arctan *T Re { y1 y2 } 2 N
Since,
| arctan |< then the frequency offset has to be at the most
f <
1 2N
with N being the FFT length.
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