PHYS-2010: General Physics I

Course Lecture Notes

Section IX
Dr. Donald G. Luttermoser
East Tennessee State University
Edition 2.3
Abstract
These class notes are designed for use of the instructor and students of the course PHYS-2010:
General Physics I taught by Dr. Donald Luttermoser at East Tennessee State University. These
notes make reference to the College Physics, 7th Edition (2005) textbook by Serway and Faughn.
IX. Gravitation
A. Newtons Law of Gravity.
1. Every particle in the Universe attracts every other particle with a
force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distances between
them. The was rst realized by Sir Issac Newton, and hence,
this is referred to as Newtons Law of Gravity and can be
expressed mathematically as

F
g
= G
m
1
m
2
r
2
r . (IX-1)
a) m
1
and m
2
masses of objects #1 and #2 (measured in
kg).
b) r distance between the masses (measured in m).
c) G constant of universal gravitation =this is the pro-
portionality constant between the force and the dependent
parameters.
G = 6.673 10
11
N m
2
kg
2
. (IX-2)
d) Newtons law of gravity is thus an inverse-square law.
2. The gravitational force exerted by a spherical mass on a particle
outside the sphere is the same as if the entire mass of the sphere
were concentrated at its center.
IX1
IX2 PHYS-2010: General Physics I
center
m
M
p
r
h R
p
Note that r = R
p
+ h (radius of
sphere, i.e., planet, plus the height
above the sphere).
Example IX1. Problem 7.34 (Page 220) from the Ser-
way & Faughn textbook: Two objects attract each other with a
gravitational force of magnitude 1.00 10
8
N when separated by
20.0 cm. If the total mass of the two objects is 5.00 kg, what is the
mass of each?
Solution:
Let the individual masses be represented by m
1
and m
2
and the
total mass of the two objects be represented as M = m
1
+m
2
(=
5.00 kg). Then we can express the second mass as m
2
= Mm
1
.
The distance between the two masses is r = 20.0 cm = 0.200 m,
the gravitational force between them is F = 1.00 10
8
N, and
the gravitational constant is G = 6.67 10
11
N m
2
/kg
2
.
Now make use of Newtons Law of Gravitation:
F =
Gm
1
m
2
r
2
=
Gm
1
(M m
1
)
r
2
Fr
2
= Gm
1
(M m
1
) = GMm
1
Gm
2
1
0 = Gm
2
1
GMm
1
+ Fr
2
Algebra has a well know solution to the quadratic equation of
the form
ax
2
+ bx + c = 0 ,
as
x =
b

b
2
4ac
2a
.
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU IX3
Here, x = m
1
, a = G, b = GM, and c = Fr
2
, so
m
1
=
GM

G
2
M
2
4GFr
2
2G
=
GM G
_
M
2
4Fr
2
/G
2G
=
1
2
_
_
_M

_
M
2

4Fr
2
G
_
_
_
=
1
2
_

_5.00 kg

_(5.00 kg)
2

4(1.00 10
8
kg)(0.200 m)
2
6.67 10
11
N m
2
/kg
2
_

_
=
1
2
_
5.00 kg
_
25.0 kg
2
24.0 kg
2
_
=
1
2
_
5.00 kg
_
1.0 kg
2
_
.
As such, m
1
either equals (4.0 kg)/2 = 2.0 kg or (6.0 kg)/2 =
3.0 kg (either answer is correct). If we chose m
1
= 3.0 kg, then
m
2
= M m
1
= 5.00 kg 3.0 kg = 2.0 kg. Hence the solution
is
m
1
= 3.0 kg and m
2
= 2.0 kg .
3. Why do objects fall independent of their mass on the Earths
surface?
a) Gravity: F
g
= G
M

m
R
2

.
b) Motion: F = ma = mg.
c) Set F
g
= F, then
G
M

m
R
2

= mg
or
g =
GM

R
2

. (IX-3)
IX4 PHYS-2010: General Physics I
d) Plugging in values:
g =
(6.673 10
11
N m
2
/kg
2
)(5.9763 10
24
kg)
(6.378 10
6
m)
2
=
3.98845 10
14
N m
2
/kg
4.0679 10
13
m
2
= 9.8036 10
0
N/kg ,
but, since 1 N = 1 kg m/s
2
, and paying attention to our
input signicant digits, we get
g = 9.80
kg m/s
2
kg
= 9.80 m/s
2
!
e) Since g can be measured from the ground (e.g., motion ex-
periments) and R

can be measured astronomically (e.g.,

simple shadow length measurements at two dierent lat-
itudes Eratosthenes did this in 200 BC!), we can then
determine the Earths mass with rewriting Eq. (IX-3):
M

=
g R
2

G
.
4. The gravitational constant G.
a) Measuring G in the laboratory accurately is a dicult
task!
b) Cavendish was the rst to measure it while he was trying
to determine the density of the Earth in 1798 (see the
textbook for details).
c) More sophisticated experiments have been carried out since
that time =Gs accuracy is only known to 5 signicant
digits:
G = 6.6730(41) 10
11
N m
2
/kg
2
,
where the (41) digits are uncertain.
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU IX5
= the speed of lights accuracy is known to 9
signicant digits!
c = 2.99792458(1) 10
8
m/s.
d) Future space-based experiments (in free-fall and a vac-
uum) should increase the accuracy in the measurement of
G!
5. The farther we get from the Earths center, the smaller the ac-
celeration due to gravity:
g =
GM

r
2
, (IX-4)
where r distance from Earths center.
a) When g is measured on the Earths surface (or some other
planetary surface), it is called the surface gravity.
b) When g is measured elsewhere (i.e., not on a planetary
surface), it is called the acceleration due to gravity,
and if the object is in free-fall, it also is often called the
free-fall acceleration.
Example IX2. Mt. Everest is at a height of 29,003 ft (8840 m)
above sea level. The greatest depth in the sea is 34,219 ft (10,430
m). Compare the Earths surface gravity at these two points.
Solution:
Let h
e
be the height of Mount Everest and h
s
be the greatest
depth of the sea. Using Eq. (IX-4) and the fact that the radius of
the Earth at sea level at the Earths equator is R

= 6.378077
10
6
m, we get the distances for the highest and lowest points of
the surface from the center of the Earth as
r
h
= R

+ h
e
= 6.378077 10
6
m + 8.840 10
3
m
IX6 PHYS-2010: General Physics I
= 6.386917 10
6
m
r
l
= R

h
s
= 6.378077 10
6
m 1.0430 10
4
m
= 6.367647 10
6
m
Which gives the surface gravities of
g
h
=
GM

r
2
h
=
(6.6730 10
11
N m
2
/kg
2
)(5.9763 10
24
kg)
(6.386917 10
6
m)
2
= 9.7762 m/s
2
,
g
l
=
GM

r
2
l
=
(6.6730 10
11
N m
2
/kg
2
)(5.9763 10
24
kg)
(6.367647 10
6
m)
2
= 9.8355 m/s
2
,
and
g
l
g
h
g
100% =
9.8355 9.7762
9.8036
100% = 0.605% ,
the surface gravity of the lowest point on the Earths surface is a
little more than half of a percent larger than at the highest point.
B. Keplers Laws of Planetary Motion.
1. Johannes Kepler (1571 1630) was a German mathematician
and astronomer who used Tycho Brahes observations of Mars
to derive the 3 laws of planetary motion. The data showed that
the Copernican model of heliocentric (Sun-centered) solar system
was correct, except that the planets move in elliptical and not
circular paths around the Sun as Copernicus had assumed.
2. The laws:
a) Law 1: The orbit of a planet about the Sun is an ellipse
with the Sun at one focus. The so-called elliptical or-
bit. The equation for the ellipse in Cartesian coordinates
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU IX7
(when the foci are on the x axis) is
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
= 1 . (IX-5)
Sun
focus
b = semiminor axis
a = semimajor axis
i) Semimajor axis (a): Half of the longest axis of
an ellipse.
ii) Semiminor axis (b): Half of the shortest axis of
an ellipse.
iii) 1 Astronomical Unit (A.U.) is the length of the
Earths semimajor axis,
1 A.U. = 1.4960 10
11
m.
iv) The relative atness of an ellipse is measured by
the eccentricity e:
e =

a
2
b
2
a
. (IX-6)
IX8 PHYS-2010: General Physics I
v) The distance from the center to either focus is
given by

a
2
b
2
.
vi) The ellipse is just one type of conic section.
If a = b, Eq. (IX-6) gives e = 0 and we have a
circular orbit = a second type of conic section
(i.e., a circle).
vii) If we let a get bigger and bigger such that a
b, then Eq. (IX-6) gives e

a
2
/a = a/a = 1 as
a . When this happens, we have a parabolic
orbit. Such an orbit is said to be open (both cir-
cular and elliptical orbits are closed) and never
return. A parabolic orbit is achieved when the ve-
locity of a satellite just equals the escape velocity,
v
esc
.
viii) There also are orbits that are more open than
parabolic orbits = the so-called hyperbolic or-
bits. These orbits have e > 1 and can be achieved
if v > v
esc
.
b) Law 2: A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out
equal areas in equal amounts of time (law of equal areas ).
i) This means that planets move faster when closer
to the Sun in its orbit than when it is farther away.
ii) Objects in very elliptical orbits dont stay near
the Sun for a very long time = comets.
iii) Perihelion: Point on an orbit when a planet is
closest to the Sun (r
p
= perihelion distance).
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU IX9
iv) Aphelion: Point on an orbit when a planet is
farthest from the Sun (r
a
= aphelion distance).
v) The perihelion and aphelion of a solar orbit can
be determined from the semimajor axis and the ec-
centricity with
r
p
= a(1 e) (IX-7)
r
a
= a(1 + e) , (IX-8)
also note that
r
p
+ r
a
= 2a . (IX-9)
Sun
A
1
A
2
t
1
t
2
if A
1
= A
2
(area), then t
1
= t
2
(time)
r
p
r
a
c) Law 3: The square of the orbital period (T) of any planet
is proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis (a) of a
planets orbit about the Sun (harmonic law):
T
2
a
3
. (IX-10)
IX10 PHYS-2010: General Physics I
3. Keplers laws were empirically deduced. Nearly 100 years after
these planetary laws were developed, Newton came along and
showed theoretically why they are valid.
a) Gravity (for a planet in orbit about the Sun [ ]):
F
g
=
GM

M
p
r
2
.
b) Centripetal force: F
c
=
M
p
v
2
r
.
c) Set these two forces equal:
GM

M
p
r
2
=
M
p
v
2
r
,
v
2
=
GM

r
.
d) Note, however, that the orbital velocity of a planet can be
expressed as the length of the circumference C of the orbit
divided by its orbital path. For demonstration purposes,
we will assume that the orbit is circular, but the same
result is obtained for elliptical orbits, then
v =
C
T
=
2r
T
.
e) Plugging this equation into the force equation above gives
v
2
=
_
2r
T
_
2
=
GM

r
4
2
r
2
T
2
=
GM

r
4
2
r
3
GM

= T
2
.
Since we have assumed a circular orbit here, r = a (the
semimajor axis), and
T
2
=
_
_
4
2
GM

_
_
a
3
= K

a
3
. (IX-11)
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU IX11
i) K

=
4
2
GM

= 2.97 10
19
s
2
/m
3
.
ii) K

is independent of the planets mass = K

only depends upon the larger, central objects mass.
iii) T
2
a
3
is valid whether the orbit is circular
(where a = r, the orbital radius) or elliptical (where
a is used intact), though the elliptical orbit solu-
tion has a slightly dierent form for the K

con-
stant. The proof for elliptical orbits requires ad-
vanced calculus (hence we will not show it here).
4. We can base other planets in solar system with respect to the
Earth:
T
2
p
T
2

=
K

a
3
p
K

a
3

=
a
3
p
a
3

. (IX-12)
Since T

= 1 yr and a

= 1 A.U., Eq. (IX-12) becomes

T
2
p
1 yr
2
=
a
3
p
1 A.U.
3
,
or
T
2
yr
= a
3
AU
. (IX-13)
Example IX3. The Voyager 1 spacecraft has just passed the
100 A.U. mark in its distance from the Sun. At this time, the Death
Star from an evil galactic empire intercepts Voyager and gures out
which planet sent it based on the gold record that was included on
the spacecraft. The Death Star alters its course and starts to orbit
the Sun from that point and sets its heading such that it will reach
perihelion at the Earths location. Calculate the following about its
orbit: (a) the semimajor axis (in A.U.); (b) the eccentricity, and (c)
IX12 PHYS-2010: General Physics I
the length of time (in years) it will take to get to Earth.
Solution (a):
We are given that r
p
= 1.00 A.U. and since it starts its free
fall orbit from the position of Voyager 1, that position marks it
aphelion position, r
a
= 100 A.U. (note that we do not have to
convert to SI units for this problem). Using Eq. (IX-9) we can
easily calculate the semimajor axis of the Death Stars orbit:
a =
r
p
+ r
a
2
=
1.00 A.U. + 100 A.U.
2
= 50.5 A.U.
Solution (b):
Using Eq. (IX-7) and solving for e, we get,
e = 1
r
p
a
= 1
1.00 A.U.
50.5 A.U.
= 1 0.0198 = 0.980 ,
nearly a parabolic orbit!
Solution (c):
First we need to calculate the period of a complete orbit from
Keplers 3rd law, then the amount of time it will take to go from
aphelion to perihelion is one-half that period. As such,
_
T
T

_
2
=
_
a
a

_
3
=
_
50.5 A.U.
1.00 A.U.
_
3
= (50.5)
3
= 1.29 10
5
T
1.00 yr
=

1.29 10
5
T = 359 yr
Since this is the full period of the Death Stars orbit, the time to
get to Earth will be
t =
1
2
T = 180 yr .
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU IX13
C. Conservation of Energy in a Gravitational Field.
1. Up until this point, we handled conservation of mechanical energy
for gravity for a constant surface gravity (i.e., a constant accel-
eration due to gravity). Here, we will relax that requirement and
let g vary with r as shown in Eq. (IX-4).
a) For a constant acceleration due to gravity, we have seen
from Eq. (VI-11) that
PE = mgh , (IX-14)
where m is the mass of the object, g is the surface gravity
(i.e., acceleration), and h is the height above the ground.
b) However, this is not the most general form of the potential
energy of a gravitational eld it is an approximation to
the general form. In higher-level physics, potential energy
is related to a force eld by the equation

F =

(PE) =
d(PE)
dr
r , (IX-15)
where

F =

F
g
as described by Eq. (IX-1) for a gravita-
tional eld and the del symbol

is the spatial deriva-
tive in three dimensions for Eq. (IX-15) to be valid,
we only use the component of

in the r direction (i.e.,
d/dr) since

F
g
only points in the r-direction.
i) Since this is an algebra-based course, we wont
solve that dierential equation with calculus. How-
ever, by realizing that the derivative symbol d just
means innitesimally small delta ( change of)
and we can approximate Eq. (IX-15) with
(PE) =
_
GM m
r
2
_
r
PE PE

=
_
GM m
r
2
_
(r r

) , (IX-16)
where the terms are the initial values.
IX14 PHYS-2010: General Physics I
ii) Now if we dene the initial PE

as 0 at the center
of the gravitating body (so r

= 0), Eq. (IX-16)

becomes
PE =
_
GM m
r
2
_
r
=
GM m
r
.
iii) The calculus solution to the dierential equation
above (Eq. IX-15) would have given exactly the
same answer.
iv) As such, the most general form of the potential
energy of a mass in a gravitating eld is
PE =
GM m
r
. (IX-17)
c) With this general form of the gravitational potential en-
ergy, we can see how the potential energy equation near
the Earths surface (Eq. IX-14) arises.
i) Lets say we have a projectile that we launch from
the ground. While on the ground, r = R

(the
radius of the Earth), which gives a potential energy
of
PE =
GM

m
R

. (IX-18)
ii) Now, when the projectile reaches its highest point
above the ground, h, it is a distance of r = R

+h
from the center of the Earth. At this point, it has
a potential energy of
PE =
GM

m
R

+ h
. (IX-19)
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU IX15
iii) The change in potential energy between these
two points is
PE =
GM

m
R

+h

GM

m
R

= GM

m
_
1
R

1
R

+h
_
= GM

m
_
_
R

+ h
R

(R

+h)

(R

+ h)
_
_
= GM

m
_
_
R

+ h R

(R

+ h)
_
_
= GM

m
_
_
h
R

(R

+h)
_
_
.
iv) If R

is much greater than h (which it will be for

experiments near the Earths surface), h R

. As
such, R

+h R

and the equation above becomes

PE GM

m
_
_
h
R

(R

)
_
_
= GM

m
_
_
h
R
2

_
_
=
GM

mh
R
2

.
v) Now, remembering our dening equation for sur-
face gravity (e.g., Eq. IX-3):
g =
GM

R
2

,
we use this in the potential equation we just wrote:
PE = m
GM

R
2

h = mg h ,
hence we have proven Eq. (IX-14) from rst prin-
ciples.
2. We can now use this general potential energy equation to gure
out high trajectory, orbital, and space trajectory problems. First,
IX16 PHYS-2010: General Physics I
lets develop a relationship between the initial velocity, v

, of a
projectile and the maximum height, h, it will reach.
a) If we were limiting ourselves to vertically directed trajec-
tories near the Earths surface, we would have
KE
i
+ PE
i
= KE
f
+ PE
f
1
2
mv
2

+mgy

=
1
2
mv
2
+mgy .
y

= 0, since it represents the ground and the projectile

will reach its maximum height (y = h) when the velocity
goes to zero (v = 0). From this, we can solve for the
initial velocity and get
v

=
_
2gh .
b) Using the more general form of the potential, our initial
position will be on the surface of the Earth (r = R

)
and we will reach a distance from the center of the Earth
of r = R

+ h, which we will simply write as r. The

conservation of mechanical energy then gives
KE(R

) + PE(R

) = KE(r) + PE(r)
1
2
mv
2

GM

m
R

=
1
2
mv
2

GM

m
r
.
c) Once again, v = 0 at the top of the trajectory, and as
such, the initial velocity is
1
2
mv
2

GM

m
R

= 0
GM

m
r
1
2
mv
2

=
GM

m
R

GM

m
r
1
2
mv
2

= GM

m
_
1
R

1
r
_
v
2

=
2GM

m
m
_
1
R

1
r
_
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU IX17
v
2

= 2GM

_
1
R

1
r
_
v

_
2GM

_
1
R

1
r
_
. (IX-20)
d) Now if we once again dene g to be the acceleration due
to gravity at the Earths surface (i.e., surface gravity), we
can rewrite Eq. (IX-3) to read
GM

= g R
2

.
e) Plugging this into Eq. (IX-20) gives
v

_
2gR
2

_
1
R

1
r
_
, (IX-21)
and replacing r by R

+h, we get
v

_
2gR
2

_
1
R

1
R

+ h
_
=

_
2gR
2

_
_
R

+h
R

(R

+ h)

(R

+ h)
_
_
=

_
2gR
2

_
_
R

+ h R

(R

+ h)
_
_
=

_
2gR
2

_
_
h
R

(R

+ h)
_
_
=

_
2gR

_
h
R

+ h
_
v

_
2ghR

+ h
. (IX-22)
f) Finally, one can immediately see that if h R

, then
R

+h R

and Eq. (IX-22) becomes

v

_
2ghR

=
_
2gh .
IX18 PHYS-2010: General Physics I
As can be seen, this equation (as written above) is just
an approximation to a more general equation (i.e., Eq.
IX-22).
Example IX4. Problem 7.39 (Page 220) from the Serway
& Faughn textbook: A satellite of mass 200 kg is launched from
a site on the Equator into an orbit at 200 km above the Earths
surface. (a) If the orbit is circular, what is the orbital period of this
satellite? (b) What is the satellites speed in orbit? (c) What is the
minimum energy necessary to place this satellite in orbit, assuming
no air friction?
Solution (a):
The radius of the satellites orbit is
r = R

+ h = 6.38 10
6
m + 200 10
3
m = 6.58 10
6
m ,
m = 200 kg is the satellites mass, and M

= 5.98 10
24
kg is
the Earths mass. The orbital velocity will just be the tangen-
tial velocity of the circular orbit. Since the gravitational force
provides the centripetal acceleration, we have
F
c
= F
g
m
_
_
v
2
orb
r
_
_
=
GM

m
r
2
v
2
orb
=
GM

r
v
orb
=

_
GM

r
=

_
(6.67 10
11
N m
2
/kg
2
)(5.98 10
24
kg)
6.58 10
6
m
= 7.79 10
3
m/s .
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU IX19
For a circular orbit, the orbital period is
T =
2r
v
orb
=
2(6.58 10
6
m)
7.79 10
3
m/s
= 5.31 10
3
s = 1.48 hr .
Solution (b):
The orbital period was computed in part (a):
v
orb
= 7.79 10
3
m/s .
Solution (c):
The minimum energy to reach orbit can be determined by calcu-
lating the dierence between the total mechanical energy of the
satellite in orbit and total mechanical energy of the satellite prior
to launch. The satellite itself prior to launch is not moving, but
the surface of the Earth is moving due to the Earths rotation (we
will ignore the Earths orbital velocity here since we are not leav-
ing the Earths gravitational inuence). Hence, minimum launch
energy = E
min
= (KE + PE)
orb
(KE + PE)
rot
. The Earths
rotational period is the denition of a day, so T
rot
= 1.000 day
= 86,400 s. From this, we get the Earths rotation velocity of
v
rot
=
2R

T
rot
=
2(6.38 10
6
m)
8.6400 10
4
s
= 464 m/s .
Hence, the minimum launch energy is
E
min
=
_
1
2
mv
2
orb

GmM

r
_

_
1
2
mv
2
rot

GmM

_
= m
__
1
2
v
2
orb

GM

r
_

_
1
2
v
2
rot

GM

__
= m
_
_
v
2
orb
v
2
rot
2
+ GM

_
1
R

1
r
_
_
_
IX20 PHYS-2010: General Physics I
E
min
= (200 kg)
_
_
(7.79 10
3
m/s)
2
(464 m/s)
2
2
+
=
_
_
6.67 10
11
N m
2
kg
2
_
_
(5.98 10
24
kg)
_
1
6.38 10
6
m
=
1
6.58 10
6
m
__
= (200 kg)
_
3.02 10
7
m
2
/s
2
+ 1.90 10
6
m
2
/s
2
_
= 6.43 10
9
J .
3. The absolute magnitude of the potential energy due to a large
gravitating body is often times larger than the kinetic energy of
the object in motion.
a) We can dene the total mechanical energy E
tot
of body in
motion as the sum of the kinetic and potential energies:
E
tot
= KE +PE . (IX-23)
b) Since PE is negative in a gravitational eld, E
tot
< 0 (i.e.,
negative) for projectile (i.e., bound) trajectories.
4. For an object to just overcome any gravitating bodys (like the
Earths) potential eld, an object has to be launched with zero
total energy, that is, |KE| = |PE| to escape the primary bodys
(e.g., Earths) gravitational eld = the escape velocity.
a) Hence, to calculate the escape velocity from the surface of
a large body of mass M and radius R, we just have to set
the initial kinetic and potential energy sum to zero and
solve for the velocity:
E
tot
=
1
2
mv
2
esc

GMm
R
= 0 . (IX-24)
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU IX21
b) This gives the equation for the escape velocity (or es-
cape speed):
v
esc
=

_
2GM
R
. (IX-25)
c) As can be seen from Eq. (IX-25), the escape velocity does
not depend upon the mass of the rocket. Using the values
for Earth in Eq. (IX-25), we get
v
esc
=

_
2GM

, (IX-26)
or v
esc
= 11.2 km/s to leave the Earths gravitational eld.
d) For an object to escape the gravitational eld of a primary
body, it must achieve a velocity greater than or equal to
the escape velocity: v v
esc
.
5. Astrophysics has shown that stars evolve. They start out as
gaseous nebulae and collapse down until thermonuclear reactions
start in their cores. A star then lives for billions and billions of
years (except for the most massive ones) until their nuclear fuel
runs out.
6. Eventually, every star dies leaving one of three types of corpses:
a) White dwarfs: Low mass stars become these types of
objects. Here, the weight of the star is balanced by de-
generate electron pressure.
b) Neutron stars: High mass stars supernovae (i.e., blow
themselves apart) leaving a core of solid neutrons. Here,
the weight of the star is balanced by degenerate neutron
pressure.
IX22 PHYS-2010: General Physics I
c) Black holes: Ultra-high mass stars collapse down to
zero volume objects known as singularities. As the stel-
lar core collapses, the escape velocity from the star gets
higher and higher until a point is reached where v
esc
c,
the speed of light.
i) Once this point is reach, the light that the burnt
out core emits (due to its high temperature) cannot
escape the surface of the star = this burnt out
core is call a black hole as a result of this. (Note
that the hole part comes from general relativity
which we dont have time to discuss.)
ii) The region around a black hole singularity where
v
esc
= c is called the event horizon.
iii) The event horizon lies at a distance from the sin-
gularity which astronomers call the Schwarzschild
radius, R
S
(after the astronomer who rst calcu-
lated it):
R
S
=
2GM
c
2
. (IX-27)
iv) Using solar values, the Schwarzschild radius of
the Sun (if it were shrunk to the size of a black
hole) would be about 3 km.
Example IX5. (a) What is the Schwarzschild radius of a body
with the mass of the Earth? (b) What would be the average density
of that body if its radius were the same as the Schwarzschild radius?
Solution (a):
The radius is found from Eq. (IX-27):
R
S
=
2GM

c
2
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU IX23
=
2(6.67 10
11
N m
2
/kg
2
)(5.98 10
24
kg)
(3.00 10
8
m/s)
2
= 8.86 10
3
m = 8.86 mm .
Solution (b):
The density is determined from
=
M
V
=
M

4
3
R
3
S
=
3M

4R
3
S
=
3(5.98 10
24
kg)
4(8.86 10
3
m)
3
= 2.05 10
30
kg/m
3
.