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v r r a p L c L

Ld

Rev 2 15 Jan 82 1 Chapter 25 Pile Installation by Driving

T G. Whipple .
Division Construction Engineer Pennzoil Company Houston, Texas and

W. R. Vines Manager, Offshore Construction Engineering TERA, Inc. Houston, Texas

25.1 INTRODUCTION

Foundation piles for typical template structures are usually installed by

(,i.tlf/,

large

~.+Pw'

hammfe.

driving/, The planning and timely execution of pile driving operations is

critical to the success of an offshore installation, in terms of both cost and foundation adequacy. This chapter discusses elements of plat-

form installation associated with advancing a pile to design grade by impact driving, including handling and connection of pile sections, hammer types and driving operations, and supplemental measures employed when refusal is encountered. These considerations are intended to highlight the importance of planning and analysis in the design phase, and to provide an overview of typical offshore procedures.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 2

25.2 PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS The key to successful pile installation, as in other phases of offshore construction, is detailed'planning of anticipated operations and alternatives. The results of site investigations, structural design, driv'

ability studies that were discussed in earlier chapters, and the details of pile installation discussed in this chapter are the basis for the installation plan that outlines anticipated offshore activities. This

section discusses other considerations that influence the pile installation plan.

A primary consideration in the planning of pile installation is the

r1

sequence in which the piles are placed and advanced.

Soil setup occurs

during delays in driving and must be considered when planning splice points. Jacket stability is also of concern at each step of pile

installation. Another major consideration is the effect of weather on planned operations.

25.2.1

Installation Sequence

The sequence in which piles or pile add-on sections are installed determines, or is determined by, considerations such as the size of the welding crew, the installation vessel and its equipment, jacket stability, set up, installation time requirements, and cost of installation.
..

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 Welding crew size affects the speed of welding operations and consequently affects job progress, unless more welders are available than can be utilized. The installation vessel and its equipment determine the

loads that can be lifted, acceptable sea conditions for continuation of work, and hammer sizes available. Jac.ket stability considerations, as

discussed later, may determine allowable loads to'be supported by the jacket during installation. Installation time is affected by the number

of piles advanced simultaneously and the difficulty of advancement to grade. The cost of installation is closely related to time requirements

in most instances. There are several approaches to sequencing pile installation:

C ,

(1)

All piles installed simultaneously

- pile

add-ons are

stabbed in all legs, welded simkltane~usl~, driven and before next add-ons are stabbed. This method minimizes

welding time for the installation as a whole since all piles are welded simultaneously, but a relatively large welding crew is required. Time required for handling

hammers is minimized, but the risk of delays to pile advancement due to weld repairs, hammer breakdown, equipment maintenance, or weather is increased. On some struc-

tures, especially small four-pile jackets, there may be sufficient pile batter (inclination) to cause dimensional conflicts between hammer leads and other add-ons. Sta..

bility considerations may prevent this approach from being

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 4 employed when soils are soft at the mudline.
(2)

Advance piles to grade individually

- one

pile is

added-on, welded, and driven until that pile is advanced to final penetration. This method tends to minimize

delays to advancement -of the pile, and thus decrease setup time and anticipated driving problems. Welding time for

the platform as a whole is increased compared to method 1 above. Welding crews are usually not well utilized with

this approach unless the piles are large in diameter or the installation vessel is small. Leveling of the jacket

may be adversely affected due to eccentric loads associated with this approach.
(3)

Advance two piles simultaneously design grade together.

two piles are worked to

These piles are usually located in

diagonally opposed legs to help balance loads and settlements. For typical 8-pile jackets, the first piles

installed are usually interior piles since eccentric loads on mudmats are minimized and jacket leveling is facilitated by single-battered piles. The advancement of two

piles in diagonally opposite legs is a common method of pile sequencing with many of the advantages of both of the above procedures.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 5 The circumstances of each installation will dictate which approach or combination of approaches is most likely to result in the most economical pile installation sequence. For example, a common practice is to install

several piles of a platform to a depth where restart capability is certain, then advance the piles to design grade singly to reduce the risk of refusal.

25.2.2 Soil Setup Soil setup describes a phenomenon frequently observed in clay soils and occasionally in other soil types where the resistance to driving is

t )greater after a period of delay (setup time) than during continuous

driving. This increased resistance is generally attributed to an increase in soil-pile adhesion due to factors such as reconsolidation of remolded soils during delays.' The rate of setup varies in an unpredictable manner

from site to site, and is believed to be at least partly related to the dissipation of pore water pressures developed during driving.
2

Setup can

occur quickly enough in some soils to affect restart of a pile after delays for connection of add-ons. The installation plan should recognize 3 and provide for the anticipated effects of setup and guard against preObserved setup rates

mature refusal due to setup during normal delays.

and soil sensitivity at nearby sites (or for the first piles installed) are useful in modifying the installation plan to achieve maximum effic-

iency.

This is frequently done by altering the pile installation sequence

and/or hammer size to be used on particular add-on sections.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 6 When significant soil setup is anticipated, the selection of penetrations at which add-ons will be spliced into the pile is a major consideration of pile design. In order to reduce the risk of refusal, it

is important to plan add-on lengths that minimize the soil resistance encountered when driving is resumed. Long add-ons minimize the number of welds to be made (to save cost), and will reduce the amount of pile embedded in the soil at restart. When driving through stratified soils of

clay and sand (or silt), add-on lengths are usually designed to avoid stopping with the pile tip in granular material since maximum driving resistance can generally be anticipated from high end bearing in sands or silts combined with soil setup in clays.

Performance of pile driving hammers is important in any situation where hard driving is expected, but is even more important in circumstances where soil setup can be expected. Adverse effects of poor hammer

performance or breakdown can be reduced when an operational backup hammer (in offshore leads) is available on the installation vessel.

25.2.3 Jacket Stability

Bottom bay horizontal bracing and mudmats (if required) provide support for the jacket and for piles supported on the jacket during installation. Mudmats should be sized to assure soil pressures and
,

settlements less than allowable for loads from anticipated sea conditions

during installation as well as for jacket and pile loads at each stage of installation. Bottom bay framing should be sized to provide adequate

strength against these anticipated soil loads.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 7 Depending on soil conditions, the sequence of pile installation can affect efforts to maintain jacket stability. At sites with very soft sea-

floor soils, allowable pressures and settlements may dictate special installation sequences or special procedures such as ballasting/deballasting of jac.ket legs and piles. Near-surface.voids or crusts underlain by soft

sediments are cause for concern during installation, since stability of the structure on the seafloor can be threatened by punching through the crust during jacket setting or pile driving operations. Determination of 'anticipated bearing pressures on the soil includes the effects of possible storm loadings as well as load eccentricity(~y/I) and average pressure ( P / A ) due to the structure dead load for each step ,during installation. Steps to be considered include placement of jacket

and piles, ballast/deballast operations, addition of pile add-ons, and achievement of pile self-support. Figure 25-1 illustrates the bottom bay

framing and mudmats for a simplified four-pile jacket along with maximum bearing pressures from the structure dead loads associated with a part of the installation. In this example, the maximum bearing pressures (cal-

culated assuming rigid body movements of the jacket and linear soil stress distribution) occur after lowering of one of the piles to self-support.

25.2.4 Weather Weather may be the single most unpredictable and potentially costly consideration of platform installation. Weather must be considered in the

( werall

pile installation plan when defining operational limits for pile

and hammer handling operations, when analyzing the effect of delays on setup, and in estimating anticipated weather down-time. Weather also

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 8 affects the day-to-day scheduling during installation when uncertainties in anticipated weather conditions have a potential of delaying planned operations that must be completed once initiated. Adverse weather effects can be grouped into three catagories:
(1)

Excessive vessel motions as a result of wind or sea conditions prevent timely or safe installation operations. Even if work is not stopped, progress can be slowed substantially. Limiting conditions are dependent on vessel characteristics, wind speed, and height, direction and period of waves. Vessel motion is critical for operations that inTable 25-1 gives

volve placement of piles or equipment.

limiting sea states for several vessel types for pile installation. Table 25-2 lists some of the currently available Relative motion between vessels is

installation vessels.

critical when lifting piles or equipment from support vessels, and presents a safety hazard when transferring personnel. Delays can occur if the work vessel must be repo-

sitioned to minimize motion in changing weather conditions. Anchor slippage presents a hazard to the safety of vessels, pipelines, and nearby structures when forces on the anchoring system grossly exceed its holding power. Less severe slip-

page may cause delays for resetting of anchors or repositioning of the vessel to minimize forces. Typical anchor line
..

scopes are from six to ten times water depth, with longer scope resulting in lower forces on the anchor. Installation

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 8 2 8a

Table 25-1 Limiting Sea States For Pile Installation

Derrick Barge (35O'x10O1)

Vessel Type Derrick Ship (6OO1x140')

Semisubmersible (45O1x25O')

Limiting sea states shown are very approximate, and assume that

vessels are headed into seas with periods different than the natural period of the vessel. Limiting sea states can vary substantially

depending on specific vessel characteristics, anchoring, direction and period of seas, and required installation operations.

Chapter 25
Rev 2

8b
TABLE 25-2

INSTALLATION VESSEL D T AA

Owner

Vessel

Type

Location

Size

Max. -

Length X Width X Depth, f t

Crew Size

Crane Capacity, t o n s Boom H t , f t ~ixed/~otar~

AA C RMO B i s s o Marine

Queen Mary Ajax .

DLB DB

Brownaker O f f s h o r e Brownaker S e r v i c e Brown & Root,Inc.

Cairo Cappy B i s s o B o r g i l a Dolphin Borgland Dolphin BAR 297 BAR 323 BAR 3 2 4 Foster Parker George R. Brown H.A.Lindsay Hercules Hugh Gordon L.B.Meaders A t l a s No. 1 Ocean B u i l d e r I Semac I Bar 3 3 2 Bar 3 3 3

DB DB
Scv

Scv DB L DLB DB L DB DB DB DB DL B DL B DB DL B SDL DB L DB L

Chapter 25 Rev 2
8c

TABLE 25-2

(continued)

INSTALLATION VESSEL DATA

Owner

Vessel

Type Location

Size -

Length X Width X Depth, ft Constructors Heerema Christianson Construction

CMM

Crane Crew - Boom Ht, ft Capacity, tons Size ~ixed/~otary

Max. -

Moron Rotterdam Barnacle ORCA Sea Line I To1teca 400-7 Cordova DB-5 DB-7 DB-16 DB-17 DB-25 DB-300 PAC 560 PAC 570 Belford Dolphin YAGANA DB DLB DLB DLB DB DB DB DB DB DB DB DB DB DB SCV DLB

Crowley Maritime

Dolphin Services ENAP

a'aa'o
4

0 c * C a' 3 m m n

P MZ

Chapter 25 Rev 2 8e TABLE 25-2 (continued)

INSTALLATION VESSEL D T AA

Owner

Vessel

Type

Location

Size

Max.

Crane Boom H t , f t Capacity t o n s Fixed/Rotary

Length X Width X Depth, f t

Crew Size

McDermott ( c o n ' t )

Micoper i

DB No. 11 DB No. 12 DB No. 14 DB No. 15 DB No. 16 DB No. 17 DB No. 18 DB No. 19 DB No. 20 DB No. 21 DB No. 22 DB No. 23 DB No. 24 DB No. 25 DB No. 100 Derrick Barge 101 M12 M26 M30 P e a r l Marine Railto

DB L DB DB L DB L DB DB L DB DB DB L DB L DB DB DB DB L SCV DB DB DB DB L DB DB

C h a p t e r 25 Rev 2 8f TABLE 25-2 (continued) INSTALLATION VESSEL D T AA

Owner

Vessel

Type

Location

Size

Max. -

Length X Width X Depth, f t Nippon S t e e l NICK Raymond I n t ' l

Crew Size

Boom H t ,

Crane Capacity tons ft ~ixed/~otar~

Saipem

S a n t a Fe

Kuroshio Kuroshio I1 Kokan P i o n e e r I Cayuga Che l s e a Cree LB-3 LB-22 LB-23 Loretta Polaris Regulus Vega Castoro 2 Castoro 3 Castoro 4 Cherokee Choctaw I1 Seminole Tonkawa

DB L DB L DB L DB DB DB DB DB DB J DLB J DB DB L DB DB DB DB L DB DB L

Chapter 25 1 Rev 2 8g

TABLE 25-2

(continued)

INSTALLATION VESSEL D T AA CONTINUE

Owner

Vessel

Type

Location

Size Length X Width Depth #

Crew Size -

Max -

Crane-Specs Boom Ht,#-Capacity,tons

Selco Pte Smi th-Rue Stolt-Nielsen Teledyne Movible

T r a n s Ocean Contr. Oglands R e d e r i Wilhelmsen WilliamsMcWil l i a m s

S e l c o L-10 S e l c o L-60 D e r r i c k Barge 5 D e r r i c k Barge 24 Super Scoop Seaway Swan Movible DB-1 Movible DB-2 . Movible DB-3 Samson S a r it a Treasure Finder T r e a s u r e Hunter Exxon DB-1 W-70 1

DB DB DB DB DB Scv DB DB DB DLB DLB

S cv

scv

120x50~10 155x75~15 225x78~15 150x54~13 176x70~12 325x221 240x70~15 350x100~25 350x100~25 230x60~15 677x122~51 Aker H-3 Aker H-3

DB L DB L LOCATION VESSEL TYPE 1-GOM D B - D e r r i c k Lay Barge L DB - D e r r i c k Barge 2-N. Sea 3-Mid E a s t SCV - Semi C o n s t r V e s s e l 4-Far E a s t SDL - Semi D e r r i c k Bay Veseel 5-S.A. PD - P i l e D r i v e r 6 - P a c i f i c U.S. 7-Mexico 8-Alaska 9-Africa 10-SE Asia 11-Australia 12-Mediterranean 13-Caribbean

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82

9

vessel positioning should anticipate the effects of anchor slippage during rough weather to avoid damage to the platform and other nearby structures.
(3)

Direct effects of weather conditions present safety hazards to crew and equipment during periods of electrical storms and high winds. Welding operations may be delayed due to rain, Jacket stability is

high winds, or rough sea conditions.

threatened by storm conditions occurring before sufficient ~ile ~enetrationor ballast is provided. Both direct and indirect economic impacts result from adverse weather conditions. Direct impacts include standby time for the installation spread, and loss of or damage to equipment and structures. Indirect costs

' include those associated with delays in commissioning of the platform,

remedial measures required due to soil setup, and jacket leveling required.

25.3 PILE HANDLING

Pile sections are usually transported to the installation site by barge, and must be lifted into place. Piles may be transported on the same barge

as the jacket or on separate material barges, depending on size of the structure and quantity of piling. Although unusual structures may dictate
4

special pile handling procedures andlor equipment

, each

installation

contractor has preferred methods for use under normal conditions.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 10

25.3.1

Positioning Sequence

Pile positioning consists of moving a pile section from the transport vessel to the location and attitude required for connection to the piling string. Additional movement of piles may be required to sort add-on sections or to move sections from a material barge to the deck of the installation vessel; these time-consuming steps can usually be minimized with proper load-out planning. After pile handling equipment has been The crane

placed, the pile section is lifted by the crane (Figure 25-2a).

block supports the weight of the pile and controls the position of the top

1 of

the section.

Control of the lower end is provided by one or more tug-

ger lines, which are relatively light cables controlled manually or connected to compressed air winches (air tuggers) mounted on the crane. Sudden sliding or swinging of the lower end of the pile section is a safety hazard during initial lifting operations (Figure 25-2b). Also,

ovaling or buckling damage to internal stabbing guides may occur at this stage. Damage to the stabbing guides makes the stabbing operation more

difficult and possibly decreases clearance inside the pile (an important consideration if wells are to be drilled through the pile or conductor, or if jetting is subsequently required). After the pile is lifted clear of the barge deck, the crane rotates and positions the pile for placement as shown in Figure 25-2c. During

stabbing operations, the bottom end of the lifted pile section is placed in the jacket leg (initial section) or aligned with the top of the pile string already in place as shown in Figure 25-2d.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 11 Add-ons are placed with the use of internal or external stabbing guides which also hold the pile in place during welding operations. Stabbing guides help align pile sections during placement, and align the sections during connection. Internal stabbing guides (Figure 25-3a) are

normally used unless inside clearance is a controlling factor, since external guides (Figure 25-3b) require more time to set up and make welding more difficult. Internal guides cause problems in the stabbing operation

if damaged (as mentioned above) or if not properly matched to the top of the existing pile string. When mechanical connectors are used instead of welding, special alignment systems are sometimes used

.4

Installation vessel motion is a critical factor in the stabbing

operation. Pile placement is a more critical operation than hammer placement or driving because of the small target and clearances afforded by the pile top or jacket leg. An experienced crane operator can compensate for

relatively large pitching motions of the vessel, but significant roll can make stabbing a time-consuming, dangerous, or impossible operation. Ves-

sel motion is dependent on stability characteristics of the vessel as well as sea conditions including direction, period, and amplitude of waves and swells.

25.3.2 Handling Methods There are many ways to provide lifting points for positioning of pile

sections.

Some of the more commonly used variations are holes or padeyes

near the pile top through which shackles are pinned; choking with slings; bridle arrangements; and elevators.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 J a n 82 12
I

Shackles pinned through h o l e s a t t h e p i l e t o p ( F i g u r e 25-4a)

are
A

simple t o a t t a c h , even i n r e l a t i v e l y cramped s t a c k s of p i l e s e c t i o n s .

p a i r of h o l e s , d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed, a r e c u t s e v e r a l i n c h e s from t h e p i l e top. Shackles a t t a c h e d t o wire rope s l i n g s a r e pinned through t h e h o l e s . t o be d r i v e n , t h e s l i n g s a r e unshackled from Unless a spec-

To d i s c o n n e c t from t h e add-on

t h e p i l e top from a p e r s o n n e l b a s k e t o r bosun's c h a i r .

i a l l y - d e s i g n e d b a s k e t i s used, t h i s o p e r a t i o n can b e d i f f i c u l t and u n s a f e , e s p e c i a l l y i n rough s e a s o r when s h a c k l e s a r e heavy. c u t o f f allowance i n c l u d e s t h e p o r t i o n with h o l e s . The normal p i l e

Holes and s h a c k l e s

should be s i z e d t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e p i l e s e c t i o n ( o r p i l e s t r i n g , i f i t must b e l i f t e d t o remove s t o p s ) can be s a f e l y l i f t e d . Shackles pinned through padeyes welded n e a r t h e p i l e t o p (Fig-

C ure
J

25-4b)

i s a n o t h e r simple way t o provide l i f t i n g p o i n t s .

Attachment

and detachment of s h a c k l e s a r e u s u a l l y s i m i l a r t o t h a t d e s c r i b e d above. I f t h e hammer l e a d s can f i t over t h e padeyes o r i f t h e padeyes a r e posi t i o n e d below t h e l e a d s , t h e l i f t i n g s l i n g s can be detached from t h e c r a n e and l e f t i n p l a c e on t h e p i l e d u r i n g d r i v i n g . For p i l e s e c t i o n s t h a t may

n o t r e q u i r e d r i v i n g , t h e padeyes can be used a s s t o p s t o support t h e p i l e s t r i n g on t h e j a c k e t while making add-ons. Welding of t h e padeyes i s

g e n e r a l l y done i n t h e f a b r i c a t i o n yard t o avoid long d e l a y s o f f s h o r e . Padeyes must be c u t o f f b e f o r e lowering of subsequent p i l e s e c t i o n s . removing padeyes, t h e p i l e must n o t be gouged; i f t i g h t shims o r g r o u t p a c k e r s w i l l be passed, t h e padeye s t u b should be ground smooth. Care should be e x e r c i s e d when d e s i g n i n g padeyes t o account f o r changes i n load When

d i r e c t i o n d u r i n g i n i t i a l l i f t i n g of t h e s e c t i o n .

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 J a n 8 2 13 Long l e a d s e c t i o n s of p i l e a r e sometimes l i f t e d by choking w i t h w i r e rope s l i n g s ( F i g u r e 25-4c). S i n c e no h o l e s o r padeyes a r e r e q u i r e d , This

l i t t l e time i s l o s t a f t e r placement i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r d r i v i n g .

method i s g e n e r a l l y l i m i t e d t o i n i t i a l s e c t i o n s of p i l e s f o r p l a t f o r m s i n r e l a t i v e l y shallow water, where t h e i n i t i a l s e c t i o n i s long enough t o s u p p o r t t h e weight of p i l e and hammer..

A s u p p o r t lug can be welded below

t h e choke p o i n t t o provide support f o r p i l e s t h a t a r e too s h o r t t o reach t h e s e a f l o o r , b u t s c a f f o l d s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r welding of add-ons. Long sec-

t i o n s of p i l e can be handled by choking s i n c e t h e l i f t p o i n t away from t h e end of t h e p i l e reduces bending s t r e s s d u r i n g l i f t i n g . However, c o n t r o l

of t h e p i l e s e c t i o n i s not a s s a t i s f a c t o r y a s w i t h o t h e r methods where t h e p i l e i s l i f t e d e s s e n t i a l l y from t h e top. Choke p o i n t s should be k e p t w e l l

above t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e s e c t i o n t o i n c r e a s e c o n t r o l .
A b r i d l e arrangement ( F i g u r e 25-4d) w i t h w i r e rope s l i n g s shackled t o

a padeye n e a r t h e bottom of t h e s e c t i o n allows f a s t , s a f e d i s c o n n e c t i o n of t h e l i f t i n g s l i n g s from t h e p i l e s i n c e t h e s h a c k l e can be reached from t h e platform. The b r i d l e , t o which l i f t i n g s l i n g s a r e a t t a c h e d , i s f r e e t o

t w i s t o r s l i d e along t h e s e c t i o n and p r o v i d e s c o n t r o l over movement of t h e

p i l e top. T h i s arrangement u s u a l l y r e q u i r e s more p r e p a r a t i o n on t h e deck

of t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n v e s s e l , and makes c o n t r o l of t h e p i l e somewhat more difficult. S i n c e the b r i d l e i s connected a t t h e bottom of t h e s e c t i o n , i t

i s used only f o r add-ons. An e l e v a t o r , o r c o l l a r t h a t b e a r s a g a i n s t s t o p s n e a r t h e p i l e t o p ( F i g u r e 25-4e), i s a n o t h e r method of r i g g i n g p i l e s f o r s a f e d i s c o n n e c t i o n . e l e v a t o r , w i t h padeyes f o r s l i n g attachment, i s

A c i r c u l a r box-section

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 14 clamped around the pile section below the stops. After the section is

lifted and in place, the elevator slides down the pile for unclamping. Hydraulically operated clamps are also available to perform essentially the same function without the need for stops.4 well-suited for handling large pile sections. Elevators are particularly

2 5 . 4 CONNECTION OF PILE SECTIONS

Pile add-ons are connected into the piling string by welding or with special-purpose mechanical connectors. This section discusses the equip-

ment, processes, and problems particular to welding and inspection of welds for offshore pile installation as well as the currently available alternative connection methods. For a more general treatment of welding

and inspection practices for offshore construction as a whole, refer to Chapter 2 7 .

25.4.1

Welded Pile Connections

Welding is the most common method of connecting pile sections together. As in onshore fabrication, shielded metgl arc (SMAW) and flux cored arc welding (FCAW) are the two usual processes. SMAW makes use of the fam-

iliar consumable stick electrode while FCAW is a semi-automatic process which uses a continuous innershield electrode. Because of the necessity

of changing electrodes in SMAW, FCAW is a faster process, but the equip-

ment used is more difficult to set up properly.

FCAW is more prone to

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 15 produce cracking in high strength applications than SMAW, especially in. windy or wet conditions, becaue of faster colling of weld bead. Also, the

electrode reels used in FCAW require storage procedures similar to low hydrogen SMAW electrodes to prevent pickup of moisture which can reult in porosity and cold cracking of welds. Welding time required for connection of pile add-ons is dependent mainly on the wall thickness and the number of welders available. Welders are usually spaced at a minimum of 3 ft around the pile perimeter to reduce interference and b u m unjuries. Welding time is influenced by welder

experience and performance, bevel width, wall thickness, specific process used, and weather (discussed below). Bevel width must be large enough to

allow access and visibility, and to prevent slag inclusions but as small
i

as practical to reduce welding time.

A total angle of 45 to 60 degrees,

depending on wall thickness, is typical for large piles. Table 25-3 lists typical welding times for the SMAW process for several common wall thicknesses. Repairs to welds for correction of

defects substantially increase connection time requirements. The use of high strength steels (sometimes used to reduce required wall thickness) requires more time-consuming procedures, including preheating in some cases. In offshore installations, preheating cannot be as well-

controlled as in shop conditions since torches are used to heat the joint, resulting in somewhat uneven temperatures. Environmental conditions such as wind speed and rain affect the prob..

ability of defects and determine the feasibility of continuing welding operations. Code provisions require windbreaks when winds are in excess of

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15a TABLE 25-3

TYPICAL WELDING TIME REQUIRED

Wall Thickness (in. Typical Welding Time (hrs. )

>

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 J a n 8 2 16

5 mph; i n p r a c t i c e , t h e l e v e l of e x p e r i e n c e of t h e welding crew may a l l o w

p r o d u c t i o n of a c c e p t a b l e welds a t h i g h e r windspeed without b e n e f i t of windbreaks. To avoid c r a c k s due t o c o o l i n g from e v a p o r a t i o n , welding Even though t h e weld may

should not be attempted d u r i n g p e r i o d s of r a i n .

b e p r o t e c t e d from d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h r a i n , m o i s t u r e from h i g h e r e l e v a t i o n s on t h e p i l e add-on can e v e n t u a l l y reach t h e weld.

I n rough s e a

c o n d i t i o n s , s p l a s h i n g of seawater may h a l t welding b e f o r e t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n v e s s e l i s forced t o p u l l o f f l o c a t i o n . Welds should be allowed t o c o o l

( t o a temperature commensurate w i t h t h e welding procedures used) b e f o r e lowering p i l e s e c t i o n s t o prevent cracking.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 J a n 82 17

25.4.2

I n s p e c t i o n of Welds

I n s p e c t i o n of welds t h a t connect p i l e add-ons normally c o n s i s t s of b o t h ' v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n and n o n d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g .

A s i n o t h e r phases of t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s , i t i s t o t h e mutual b e n e f i t of c o n t r a c t o r and ope r a t o r f o r t h e welding s u p e r v i s o r s t o understand t h e c r i t e r i a of t h e ins p e c t i o n team f o r acceptance and r e j e c t i o n of welders, procedures, and welds. The primary g o a l of i n s p e c t i o n i s t o m a i n t a i n a t l e a s t a spec-

i f i e d minimum l e v e l of weld q u a l i t y . Due t o t h e p o s s i b l y s e v e r e economic p e n a l t i e s , both f o r i n - s e r v i c e f a i l u r e of a weld and f o r r e p a i r of d e f e c t s d u r i n g o f f s h o r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o p e r a t i o n s , acceptance c r i t e r i a f o r f i e l d welds becomes v e r y important. I f an o v e r l y s t r i c t c r i t e r i a i s used, t h e c o s t of i n s t a l l a t i o n i s i n creased. I f acceptance c r i t e r i a o r l e v e l of i n s p e c t i o n i s r e l a x e d t o a

degree not compatible w i t h d e s i g n assumptions, t h e r i s k of i n - s e r v i c e f a i l u r e s is increased. I n s p e c t i o n of p i l e s e c t i o n s d u r i n g f a b r i c a t i o n h e l p s a s s u r e e f f i c i e n c y of f i e l d welding a c t i v i t i e s . I n o r d e r t o h e l p prevent weld

d e f e c t s , p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n i s paid t o p i p e diameter, w a l l t h i c k n e s s , and out-of-roundness; b e v e l shape; and m a t e r i a l l a m i n a t i o n s a t t h e bevel.

I n s p e c t i o n of f i t - u p and alignment p r i o r t o t h e s t a r t of welding i s an important f a c t o r i n r e d u c i n g r e p a i r s and i n c r e a s i n g confidence i n weld quality.

..

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 18 Ultrasonic examination is the usual nondestructive testing technique used for pile add-on welds. The extent of ultrasonic testing ranges from In general, more

a random sampling to full inspection (100% of welds).

nondestructive testing is required for offshore work than for onshore fabrication.
5

25.4.3 Mechanical Connectors

The economic penalties for welding time and possible repairs, which include pile refusal in some cases as well as spread time, have prompted the development of alternate pile connection methods. lower used with skirt piles is one alternate method. The gravity folSpecialized mechan-

ical connectors are finding more frequent application as offshore platforms are constructed in deeper water. Gravity followers (Fig. 25-5a) are used when driving skirt piles to avoid the necessity of underwater cutting when separating follower and pile. The follower itself m s t usually consist of welded add-ons that The only

are separated at the surface when extracting the follower.

connection between the pile and the follower is through gravity, and as a result no tensile forces can be transmitted from one to the other. gy losses occur during driving at the follower-pile interface. Mechanical pile connectors are designed to provide a positive connection without welding. Two basic types are currently available. The Ener-

6 breechblock, shown in Fig 25-5b, connects sections with a mated set' of

interlocks which are twisted together in a system similar to the locking

Chapter 25 Rev 2 i5 Jan 82 19 mechanism of a bolt-action rifle. Rydraulic connectors7 use hydrauli-

cally-controlled lugs as shown in Fig. 25-5c to connect the pile sections. Alignment guides are used to reduce delays in mating the

sections. Mechanical connectors are most frequently used on followers for installation of skirt piles in deep water to minimize setup and time required to retrieve follower sections. Although time requirements and the risk of refusal are reduced, the cost of mechanical connectors is such that total costs of pile connection are of the same order of magnitude of welded connections.

25.5 HAMMERS AND ACCESSORIES Pile driving hammers supply the impact forces with which a pile is driven. Hammers available for offshore applications have progressed from

maximum rated energies of about 200,000 ft-lb in 1970 to 1,800,000 ft-lb in 1980. During this period, hydraulically operated hammers and hammers

capable of driving in an underwater environment have also become available.

25.5.1

General

There are three major classifications of hammers by power source: (1) AirlSteam Hammers (2) Diesel Hammers

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 20

(3)

Hydraulic Hammers

Hammers can be further classified as (1) single acting, in which the power source is used only to raise the ram, which then drops under the force of gravity; and (2) double acting, in which the power source is used to move the ram both upwards and downwards. Most large air/steam
'

and diesel hammers are single acting, while currently available hydraulic hammers are double acting. The mating of hammers to piles is accomplished with pilecaps (anvils). Pilecaps can be specially fabricated for specific pile sizes,

but are usually stepped to allow use with a wide range of pile diameters. Conical transitions in the piling string can be used to mate normal pilecap sizes to large diameter piles to avoid the need for special pilecaps. In addition to transferring impact forces from the ram to the pile, the pilecap acts to center the hammer over the pile to minimize eccentricity of the hammer blow. Cushions are used with virtually all pile driving hammers. In

airlsteam and diesel hammers, the cushion is packed into a recess in the top of the pilecap. Cushion materials commonly used for airlsteam

hammers include Bongassi hardwood, asbestos, and sandwich-type cushions made up of combinations of steel plate, asbestos, wire rope, aluminum and/or micarta. In hydraulic hammers, a cushioning effect is provided by

compressed gas in the ram cylinder or by a specially designed flexible pilecap. The cushion serves to protect the ram and the pile from damage

due to impact stresses.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 21

An offshore cage, or leads, is a support frame commonly used to

handle hammers and to align the hammer and pile during driving. In the

case of hammers with underwater capabilities, the housing of the hammer fulfills a similar role in supporting and aligning the hammer while also acting as a barrier to seawater. Leads act as a protective cage for

storage and transportation, and support the hammer during lifting and placement. Once the hammer is in place on the pile, the leads help align

the hammer with the pile and reduce disturbance to the hammer from installation vessel motion. In case a pile "runs" (increases penetration

without driving), the leads allow a skilled operator to prevent the hammer from following the pile and damage the jacket structure. Figure 25-6 illustrates a typical hammer in offshore leads.

25.5.2 Air/Steam Hammers

Hammers powered by steam or compressed air are currently the most common type used for driving foundation piles for typical offshore structures. Hammers in the 500,000 to 1,000,000 ft-lb range are commonly available. At least one model is capable of operating underwater.' Table 25-4 lists

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 8 2 22 rated energy, maximum stroke, weight data, rated operating pressure, steam and air consumption rates, supply hose requirements, and rated blows per minute for typical airlsteam hammers with rated energies of 50,000 ft-lb or more. Figure 25-7 illustrates the major features of two types of singleacting air/steam hammers, one with a fixed piston and one with a fixed cylinder. Airlsteam hammers can be visualized as a one-cylinder steam engine. The ram is guided by a lubricated column or columns as it is At the top of a stroke, the

pushed upward by compressed air or steam.

valved inlet is closed and the exhaust port, through which the compressed air or steam escapes, is opened.

The ram then decelerates and falls

Forces

under the influence of gravity, guided by the lubricated columns.

such as friction along the guide columns, cylinder walls, and packing, and air or steam pressure in the cylinder act against gravity during drop of the ram, slowing its impact velocity. Immediately after impact the

valved inlet opens to admit air or steam and the ram is raised to the top of its stroke. Timing of the cycle, exhaust of air or steam, and lubri-

cation are all important factors in the efficient operation of the harmner

Performance data (hammer efficiencies and cushion properties) for steam hammers is presented in Section 25.6.7.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 J a n 82 23

25.5.3

D i e s e l Hammers shows t h e components of a t y p i c a l , s i n g l e - a c t i n g d i e s e l d i e s e l engine.

On t h e

F i g u r e 25-8

hammer, which i s b a s i c a l l y a one-cylinder

downstroke, t h e ram f a l l s under t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y guided by t h e c y l i n d e r which forms t h e hammer housing. Exhaust p o r t s a r e c l o s e d , and The extreme

f u e l i s i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e c y l i n d e r j u s t p r i o r t o impact.

compression of t h e trapped a i r c a u s e s an i n c r e a s e i n temperature such t h a t t h e d i e s e l f u e l explodes j u s t a f t e r impact. The f o r c e of t h e

combustion pushes t h e ram t o t h e t o p of i t s s t r o k e , completing t h e cycle. I n d i e s e l hammers, t h e s t r o k e of t h e ram can be c o n t r o l l e d by t h e amount of f u e l i n j e c t e d . hannner performance. The timing of t h e combustion i s v e r y c r i t i c a l t o I f t h e f u e l i s i g n i t e d t o o soon, t h e ram impact T a b l e 25-4 l i s t s t h e r a t e d energy,

v e l o c i t y i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced.

s t r o k e and weight d a t a , f u e l consumption, and r a t e d blows p e r minute f o r t y p i c a l d i e s e l hammers w i t h more than 50,000 f t - l b s of r a t e d energy.

25.5.4

Hydraulic Hanrmers i l l u s t r a t e s two h y d r a u l i c hammer types. The HBM hammers

..

F i g u r e 25-9

f e a t u r e a ram which c o n t a i n s h y d r a u l i c f l u i d and n i t r o g e n a c t i n g a s a

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 24 cushion to limit the impact force delivered to the The char-

acteristics of the impact force can be altered by remote control of the amount of hydraulic fluid in the ram cylinder. The Menck hydraulic

hammers utilize a solid steel ram and a flexible steel pilecap designed' to limit impact forces to approximate those produced by a steam hammer of the same size using a Bongassi hardwood cushion." Both hammer types are

double-acting and are capable of operating underwater, with some models designed to be guided through skirt pile guides. Hydraulic fluid under

high pressure is used to force a piston or set of pistons, and in turn the ram, up and down. Remote diesel or electric powered pumps supply the Table 25-4

required hydraulic energy to move the piston (or pistons).

lists the rated energy, stroke and weight data operating pressure, oil flow requirements, and rated blows per minute for typical hydraulic hammers with more than 50,000 ft-lbs of rated energy.

25.5.5

Comparison of Hammer Types

Considerations that affect the selection of hammer type for a particular application include availability, restrictions imposed by the installation vessel or by construction methods, and required hammer size (broadly expressed in terms of rated energy). Availability may

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 25 depend on geographic location and/or contractor chosen for installation. Steam and diesel hammers are widely available, while hydraulic hammers have limited availability in some areas. The installation vessel may

impose restrictions on hammer weight that can be lifted or on support capabilities such as power or steam supply capacity. Diesel hammers tend

to be lighter than steam or hydraulic hammers, and do not require an external power source, so support requirements are less than for steam or hydraulic hammers. Most installation vessels are equipped with steam

boilers to power air/steam hammers, but hydraulic hammers require fairly large power pumps for operation. Some construction methods require special hammer types. For

example, hammers with underwater driving capabilities are required when driving skirt piles without the use of followers. Hammer size requirements may eliminate some hammer types from consideration due to inappropriate ranges of rated energy. Air/steam hammers with up to 1,800,000

ft-lbs rated energy are available, and models with 300,000 to 500,000 ft-lb are common. Diesel hammers are manufactured with up to 280,000

ft-lbs rated energy, with models of 80,000 to 150,000 ft-lbs widely available. Hydraulic hammers are available with up to 1,200,000 ft-lbs

rated energy.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82

26

Air/steam hammers are the most counnonly used type for driving foundation piles of offshore structures. Diesel hammers are used mostly

for driving of conductors (drive pipes) from a small vessel or with a drilling rig, although the larger models can be used to drive main foundation piles. Hydraulic hammers are not presently common, but their use

is increasing, especially for underwater driving in deepwater applicat ions.

25.5.6

Selection of Hammer Size

The selection of hammer size strongly affects cost effectiveness of pile

I*,

installation by determining the success of driving to planned penetrations, the rate of pile advancement, and the cost of pile installation equipment (hammers, remedial advancement equipment, and possibly installation vessel) required. The choice of hammer sizes to be used at various stages of installation affects the pile schedule and add-on lengths and thus impacts the pile handling and connection rime requirements. The

major influence is the ability of the hammer to drive the pile as planned, without damaging the pile, thus avoiding the need for remedial advancement measures. Selection of hammer size is based on experience with similar situations and on analysis of driving for each particular site. Prior ex-

perience in a given area yields broad guidelines for hammer size selec-

tion, and suggests ranges of parameters for use in the analysis.

Ex-

pected ranges of driving resistance are estimated based on soil boring

Chapter 25 Rev 2 ' 15 Jan 82 information and comparisons of predicted and measured blow counts at nearby or similar sites. Drivability studies indicate the capa-

bilities of different driving systems to overcome the estimated driving resistance Aor a particular pile-soil system. The most commonly used

analysis tool for this purpose is a one-dimensional stress wave equation computer program. 14,15 In a wave equation analysis, the hammer, cushion, pilecap and pile are modeled as a series of masses and springs. The ram of a steam hammer

is normally represented by a mass with an initial velocity; the cushion is modeled as a weightless spring; and the pilecap is represented as a mass of infinite stiffness. The pile is divided into segments, each The soil resistance is distributed

represented by a mass and a spring.

along the side of each element below the mudline and at the tip of the pile. An elastic-plastic (bi-linear) spring model is used for static

soil resistance while the dynamic soil resistance is modeled as linear viscous damping. Wave equation programs and drivability studies are

discussed in detail in Chapter 23. Parameter selection is critical to sucessful modeling of hammers, cushions, piles, and soil for predicting drivability. The parameters

that characterize the driving system are the rated energy and efficiency of the hammer, and the stiffness and weight of driving accessories (cushion, pilecap, and followers). The choice of these parameters affects the

character of the force pulse imparted to the pile and influences predicted 'pile drivability. Pile schedule, material type, and length together with soil stratigraphy and strength determine (1) how the force pulse is modified as it travels the length of the pile, and ( 2 ) the associated pile motions in the soil.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 28 The modeling of driving system parameters for steam hammers has been studied in detail using wave equation analyses and field measurements of the force input to piles during driving operations. 16'17 From

parametric studies of driving system models, some general tendencies ark apparent :

Ram weight and shape influences primarily the width

of the force pulse with secondary effects on the magnitude of the force. Stroke is a primary factor in the magnitude of maximum forces.

Cushion stiffness influences both the magnitude and width of the force pulse. Pilecap and follower weights have secondary although not negligible influence on the magnitude and width of the force pulse.

Statistical descriptions of estimated driving system parameters from field measurements are presented in Section 25.6.7. These descriptions

indicate the extreme variability of driving system performance and can be used to estimate driving system parameters for widely varying conditions. Initial selection of hammer sizes for analysis with drivability studies is usually based on experience with similar installation circumstances. In the absence of such experience, preliminary wave equation

analyses can be used to choose hammer sizes for study. Figure 25-10 gives broad guidelines for preliminary hammer size selection as a function of soil type, expected driving resistance, and pile area in the form of blow count vs. resistance curves. These curves are based on the

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 J a n 82 29 nominal d r i v i n g system, p i l e , and s o i l parameters shown i n t h e f i g u r e , and a r e not intended t o model any s p e c i f i c d r i v i n g systems o r s i t e conditions. However, t h e i n f o r m a t i o n shown does i n d i c a t e t y p i c a l i n f l u e n c e s

of hammer s i z e , p i l e a r e a , and s o i l type on t h e d r i v i n g r e s i s t a n c e t h a t . can be overcome. S i n c e t h e e f f e c t of v a r i a t i o n i n d r i v i n g system, p i l e ,

and s o i l parameters i s not e a s i l y accounted f o r o t h e r w i s e , s p e c i f i c hammer-pile-soil tion analysis. systems should be i n d i v i d u a l l y analyzed with a wave equa-

25.6 D R I V I N G OPERATIONS T h i s s e c t i o n d i s c u s s e s hammer placement, p i l e p e n e t r a t i o n under s e l f weight and hammer weight, t y p i c a l d r i v i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r s e v e r a l s o i l t y p e s , and p r e s e n t s p i l e i n s t a l l a t i o n c a s e h i s t o r i e s f o r v a r i o u s r e g i o n s of t h e world. C r i t e r i a and consequences of p i l e r e f u s a l , and

q u a l i t y c o n t r o l of p i l e d r i v i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d .

25.6.1

Hammer Placement

Placement of t h e p i l e d r i v i n g hammer i n f a i r weather i s a r o u t i n e o p e r a t i o n which i s c a r r i e d o u t w i t h l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y . Unfavorable

weather c o n d i t i o n s can complicate t h e s i t u a t i o n , s i n c e t h e a b i l i t y of an i n s t a l l a t i o n v e s s e l t o d r i v e p i l e s i n rough weather i s l i m i t e d by

Chapt r 2 Eev 15 Jan 82 30 the response characteristics of the vessel and the height, direction, and period of seas or swells. As vessel motions increase, the time

required to properly position the hammer over the pile, and the risk of damage to the pile and hammer are also increased. The hammer is supported by the offshore leads which are lifted by the crane of the installation vessel (Figure 25-lla). A tugger line

connected to the lower portion of the leads aids in controlling movements of the hammer. The bell of standard offshore leads acts as a stabbing

guide when positioning the hammer over a pile and is especially helpful in rough weather. Once the leads are positioned over the pile (Figure

25-llb), the hammer (resting in the bottom of the leads) is lowered until the pilecap contacts the pile top.

4 7

The impact force experienced by the

pile during initial placement is dependent on the relative velocity between hammer and pile and generally increases with vessel motion. When

properly positioned, the pilecap aligns the hammer and tends to "lock" it into place. The leads are then lowered in preparation for pile driving Failure to align the pilecap concentrically with the

(Figure 25-lld).

pile will result in the pile top spanning more than one step of the pile cap, causing damage to the pile top when driving begins. Pile tops must

be squarely cut to avoid damage to the pile top or loss of energy transfer. To position the pilecap properly, it is sometimes necessary to

tighten the tugger line and swing the top of the offshore leads to align the hammer with the batter of the pile (Figure 25-llc). When the pilecap

locks, the hammer and pile top will move together, possibly resulting in large arresting forces.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 31 Each add-on should be designed to prevent bending or buckling failure for placement and in-place (operating) conditions. Static

in-place stresses are typically calculated using an empirical procedure similar to that described in API RP 2 ~ , in which the full weight of hammer and leads in place is assumed to be supported by the pile. Dynam-

ic stresses associated with driving are estimated from wave equation analyses. It should be noted that stress concentrations due to wall thick-

ness changes or due to high end bearing resistance can control the wall thickness required for pile driving. When sizing add-on length or wall

thickness for pile-hammer combinations with which installation experience is limited, more refined analysis of placement and in-place conditions may be appropriate to avoid pile damage.

A rational analysis of place-

ment and operating stresses will involve the effects of pile add-on length, wall thickness schedule, batter, weight and dimensions of hammer and leads, and impact stresses associated with initial placement and arrest of lateral motion as well as driving stresses.

25.6.2 Pile Penetration without Driving

One of the hazards associated with early stages of pile installation occurs when the bearing capacity of the pile at a particular penetration

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 J a n 8 2 32 i s l e s s than t h e weight of t h e p i l e . I n such c a s e s , t h e p i l e w i l l "run",

o r p e n e t r a t e t h e s o i l i n an e s s e n t i a l l y u n c o n t r o l l e d manner, u n t i l t h e load can be supported. T h i s tendency i s common i n a r e a s with r e l a t i v e l y I f competent s o i l s a r e . p r e s e n t a t t h e

s o f t s o i l s a t o r n e a r t h e mudline.

mudline and t h e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y .of t h e p i l e i n c r e a s e s f a i r l y r a p i d l y w i t h d e p t h , t h e tendency f o r a p i l e t o run i s reduced. However, i f p i l e

b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y i s n e a r t h e weight of t h e p i l e and i n c r e a s e s slowly, o r i f t h e r e i s a d e c r e a s e i n c a p a c i t y a t some depth ( f o r example a s o f t c l a y beneath a r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g c r u s t ) , running may be a hazard. p e n e t r a t i o n under p i l e self-weight Some

i s normal.

This i n i t i a l penetration

can be e s t i m a t e d by comparing t h e weight of t h e p i l e t o t h e c a l c u l a t e d p i l e c a p a c i t y ( u s i n g remolded s o i l s h e a r s t r e n g t h i n c l a y s ) . I f t h e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y of t h e p i l e i s n e a r l y e q u a l t o i t s s e l f weight and a hammer i s placed on t o p of t h e p i l e , t h e p i l e may plunge w i t h o u t warning. The same s i t u a t i o n can occur d u r i n g a p p a r e n t l y normal

d r i v i n g i f t h e p i l e t i p p e n e t r a t e s i n t o a void o r s u b s t a n t i a l l y weaker m a t e r i a l and reduces b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y below t h a t r e q u i r e d t o support p i l e and hammer weight. The sudden removal of support f o r t h e hammer can be

dangerous, s i n c e t h e hammer weight w i l l c a u s e a dynamic load t o be app l i e d t o t h e c r a n e of t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n v e s s e l . For a hammer t h a t i s n e a r

t h e l i m i t of l i f t i n g c a p a b i l i t y f o r a p a r t i c u l a r c r a n e , such a l o a d could r e s u l t i n damage t o t h e boom. I f t h e b r a k i n g system cannot c o n t r o l t h e I f t h e p i l e t o p plu.nges

hammer's f a l l , damage w i l l occur t o t h e j a c k e t .

p a s t t h e t o p of t h e j a c k e t l e g , remedies a r e time consuming, c o s t l y , and can be dangerous.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 33

25.6.3 Effect of Stratigraphy-onBlow Counts Driving records show that soil stratigraphy markedly affects driving characteristics of a given pile-hammer combination. This section discusses the general driving behavior patterns of piles for clays, sands, and silts. Piles driven into clay soils generally meet resistance to driving that is dominated by skin friction, with minimal tip resistance. The result is that sudden blow count changes due to soil resistance are unusual. Another characteristic of clays is a reduced soil-pile adhesion during driving (as discussed in Section 2 . . ) 523. As a result, blow

counts may remain constant or even decrease with penetration in a highly sensitive clay. Predictability of pile driving in clay soils with cur-

rent analytical techniques is relatively good, with the most significant uncertainties related to the degree of remolding reduction of adhesion that occurs during driving and the rate of setup during delays. Resistance to driving in sands is characterized by much higher tip resistance than in clays. The resistance encountered when driving Density

through sands is closely related to the density of the material.

increases resulting from driving a closely-spaced group of piles (or conductors) may progressively increase the resistance encountered during driving of the piles. The tip resistance encountered in dense sands may

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 34 in some cases be limited only by the crushing strength of individual sand particles underneath the pile wall. Thus, a resistance higher than that

predicted by static pile capacity computations may be encountered. End bearing resistance is markedly influenced by the formation of a soil plug during driving, which is more coqnnon in sands than in clays.

A reduction

in skin friction during driving is not usually experienced in sands, and thus, setup is not normally a problem, but blow counts are typically higher than in clays. Exceptions have been noted in calcareous sands.

Predictability of pile driving in sands by present analytical methods is less reliable than in clays due to 1) uncertainties in prediction of driving resistance, especially in predicting plug formation, and 2 ) inadequate mathematical modeling of soil behavior for sands. Further

discussion of problems with prediction of pile drivability in sands is available in the literature. 19 Driving in silts is even less predictable than that in sands. silts a fairly high tip resistance can be expected and setup is not usually significant. Experience has shown more variability in blow In

counts between piles of a particular platform in silts than in either clays or sands, with a corresponding decrease in the reliability of drivability predictions.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 J a n 82

35
I n most c a s e s , p i l e s a r e d r i v e n through a s o i l s t r a t i g r a p h y which i s not uniform. Changes i n blow count can be expected a s t h e p i l e t i p I n some c a s e s , changes i n d r i v i n g

p e n e t r a t e s i n t o a new s o i l s t r a t a .

system performance can be confused w i t h changes i n s o i l s t r a t a o r resistance. Rates of set-up i n c-lay s o i l s can be i n c r e a s e d by t h e Resist-

d r a i n i n g e f f e c t of nearby o r i n t e r l a y e r e d g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l s .

ance t o d r i v i n g can be very high a f t e r long d e l a y s when t h e p i l e t i p i s l o c a t e d i n a g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l o v e r l a i n mostly by c l a y s . Records of p i l e i n s t a l l a t i o n a t nearby o r s i m i l a r s i t e s a r e h e l p f u l when planning. p i l e d r i v i n g o p e r a t i o n s . Most r e c o r d s a r e p r o p r i e t a r y , b u t

i n s t a l l a t i o n s i n many p a r t s of t h e world have been documented i n t h e lit-

c,l

erature.

Table 25-5 l i s t s some c a s e h i s t o r i e s by l o c a t i o n .

25.6.4

P i l e Refusal

T h e o r e t i c a l l y , r e f u s a l w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r d r i v i n g system. i s t h e p o i n t a t which no f u r t h e r p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e p i l e can be achieved by d r i v i n g w i t h t h a t system. P r a c t i c a l l y , r e f u s a l must be d e f i n e d i n terms of a minimum

r a t e of p e n e t r a t i o n where f u r t h e r advancement of t h e p i l e by d r i v i n g i s no longer f e a s i b l e because of t h e time r e q u i r e d , o r p o s s i b l e damage t o

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 36 hammer .or pile. Each hammer-pile-soil combination will have a different rate of increase in blow count as driving resistance increases; this relationship can be predicted in drivability studies. Useful alternatives to driving for advancing the pile depend on soil conditions, pile make-up and installation vessel capabilities. Anticipated drivability and available advancement alternatives along with economics should be considered when.defining refusal to maximize the cost effectiveness of pile installation. The application of refusal criteria can have an effect on the penetration at which refusal is defined. Refusal can be defined for a

particular hammer as (1) the first unit of penetration for which a blow count rate maximum is exceeded, ( 2 ) a given unit of penetration for which a blow count rate maximum is exceeded, or ( 3 ) the penetration at which a maximum blow count total is recorded for less than a given number of units of penetration. Option 1 is useful when easy driving is anticipated prior to encountering a strata where pile damage might occur. Option 2

is commonly used when a relatively thin strata of dense material is to be penetrated. Option 3 is desirable when refusal is expected in a massive Typically, different criteria is specified for In addition, a maximum number of blows

layer of dense material.

restarting a pile after delays.

is usually specified for a minimal penetration (for example, 800 blows for less than 6 inches of penetration) to protect the pile and driving system from damage in case of sudden refusal. A minimum driving system

performance level is sometimes specified along with refusal blow count criteria. In contracts where remedial measures are considered extra

Chapter 25 Rev 2 36 a

TABLE 25-5
CASE HISTORIES

thor I

Locat i o n Gulf of M e x i c o ~

Hammers Used

P i l e Size

Penetrat'ion

, y f i e l d , e t a 120 21 "g

M i s s i s s i p p i Canyon Area

R B M 3000

Menck 3000 Vulcan 560

& 5100

22 ick, et a 1

Main P a s s Area Main P a s s Area Main P a s s Area South Marsh I s l a n d Area High I s l a n d Area High I s l a n d Area Eugene I s l a n d Area E a s t Cameron Area Hign I s l a n d Area

Vulcan 560 Vulcan 560

& 5150

x
rora

hr i s t y 23

Vulcan 030 H M 500 B Vulcan 060 Vulcan 060 M T 0s-60 K Vulcan 040 Vulcan 0 2 0 ,
0 4 0 , 060
& Menck 3000

High I s l a n d Area

Vulcan 040
& 560

Vermilion Area S h i p Shoal Area West Cameron Area

Vulcan 040
& 560

Vulcan 020 Vulcan 040

& 060

Chapter 25 Rev 2 TABLE 25-5 CASE HISTORIES (continued)

.u thor tockard
24

Location Offshore Louisiana Offshore Louisiana Offshore Louisiana Offshore Louisiana Offshore Texas
&

Hammers Used
. Vulcan 040

Pile Size
42 "0 48 "0 42 "0 48 "41 42'0 36 "0 30 "0 30 "0

Penetration
200 ft 325 ft 280 ft 340 ft

Vulcan 020
040 & 060

Vulcan 040
& 060

Vulcan 340
& 560

Vulcan 340
& 560

280 ft 240 ft 140 ft 170 ft

Louisiana

Offshore Texas Offshore Texas Offshore Texas

Menck 7 5 0
& 1800

Conmaco 020 Vulcan 020

U. S. West Coast Inningham 25 ugh ton

&

Santa Barbara Channel

Vulcan 3 4 0 ,
3100 & Menck 4600

Vulcan 340
& 3100

U. S. East Coast Offshore North Carolina Vulcan 0 4 0 ,

Chapter 25 Rev 2 36c TABLE 25-5 CASE HISTORIES (continued)

ithor

i m i n g , e t a 127

Location North Sea Heather F i e l d

Hammers Used Vulcan 560, Menck 4600, 8000, 12500

& MRBU 6000

P i l e Size

Penetration 102-140 f t

28 )ung,et a 1 ~ v i v i e r& !nst o c k 2 9 i t t o n , e t a 130

Thistle Field Piper Field Forties Field Forties Field Forties Field

Vulcan 560 Vulcan 060, 560 & Kobe 150 Menck 3000
& 7000

Menck 2500, 2500SL & 7000 Menck 7000 Vulcan 200L

MKT 0s-60
&

32 x, e t a 1

West S o l e F i e l d West S o l e F i e l d

Menck 1500 j ayvergiya, 33 a1 Rough F i e l d Menck 1500, 2500 & 2500SL Rough F i e l d Menck 2500, 2500SL, 7000
& 8000

India s r w a l , e t a 134 Arabian Sea A r a b i a n Sea

Vulcan 560 Vulcan 560

48"0 48 "0

193-270 f t
..

160-260 it

Chapter 25 Rev 2 36d TABLE 25-5 CASE HISTORIES (continued)

uthor -

Location

Hammers Used Arabian Gulf

Pile Size

Penetration

ettgast

35

Offshore Abu Dhabi Offshore Qatar

Delmag D-55 Menck 1500

& 3000

4 2"0 30"Q 36 "0

14-42 ft 278 ft 306 ft

agaya, et a136

Menck 1500
& 3000

New Zealand ennie & ~ried"

.,

Maui Field

Menck 3000
& 4600

48"0 26"0

230 ft 240 ft

Delmag D-46, D-62 & Menck 1800

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 37 work, the definition of refusal can affect the total installation cost dramatically by determining when extra work begins. A widely quoted and generally practical rate of penetration.for defining refusal is 300 blows per foot. l8 At this blow count, a typicai For most ham,

hammer would drive a pile one foot in 6 to 8 minutes.

mer-pile-soil systems, wave equation analyses and experience both indicate that very little additional driving resistance can be overcome with higher blow counts. When a pile reaches refusal at less than design penetration, an important and sometimes difficult decision must be made as to pile adequacy. In many cases, this question is evaluated in terms of how near

the penetration at refusal is to the design penetration, but adequacy of the foundation is more rationally decided on the basis of acceptable risk (in terms of factor of safety against failure), confidence in capacity predictions, and cost of remedial measures. Required pile bending and In con-

shear capacity near the mudline may also affect acceptability.

sidering the question of adequacy, the possible detrimental effects of remedial advancement techniques must also be considered, since load bearing capacity (not penetration) is the rational criteria for eval-' uating pile acceptability. 25.7. The high cost of advancing a pile after refusal is reached has resulted in much emphasis being placed on evaluation of pile adequacy in
..

Remedial measures are discussed in Section

recent years. 31'38'39940

Pile installation monitoring data (discussed in

Section 25.6.6) quantifies driving system performance (hammer efficiency

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 38 and cushion properties) and thus allows more meaningful interpretation of recorded blow counts. The result is more information available for asAlthough the evaluation of pile

sessing the adequacy of a refused pile.

bearing capacity is still based mainly on static pile capacity predictions, the soil stratigraphy shown by the original exploratory boring can be checked and better estimates can be made of driving resistance when monitoring data is a ~ a i l a b l e . ~ ~ Setup can be evaluated if instrumented piles are redriven after periods of delay. The additional confidence in

pile capacity predictions is recognized by reduced conservatism when determining acceptable factors of safety.

25.6.5 Quality Control

Quality control of driving operations normally consists of visual inspection of installation procedures to assure compliance with the installation plan, and sometimes includes measurements of pile and/or hammer behavior with specialized equipment (discussed in Section 25.6.7). The intent of quality control measures is 1) to increase confidence in foundation adequacy by confirming that piles are installed in a manner consistent with design assumptions, and 2 ) to provide a record of pile

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 39 installation for reference when planning subsequent pile installations for the same platform or at nearby locations, and when planning' modifications to the platform. Visual inspection of driving operations verifies pile length, diameter, and wall thickness schedule; hammer sizes used, performance, and general operating condition; blow counts experienced during driving; delays during installation; and circumstances accompanying refusal, if it occurs. The length and wall thickness schedule of individual pile add-

ons, and cutoff lengths are checked to assure that the installed pile schedule corresponds to that shown on the plans. Hammer sizes for each

add-on are compared to those shown in the installation plan to avoid

C !

overstressing of the pile due to hammer weight and to confirm correct rated hammer energy. Recorded blow counts and delays to driving are

verified to insure accuracy. This information is also used in planning strategies for efficient installation of subsequent piles of the platform. If refusal is encountered, factors such as delays, hammer oper-

ating condition, and sudden changes in blow count are carefully documented in an effort to determine the cause of refusal. Pile driving records should be maintained for all ~ i l e (and conductor) installations. Complete driving records contain the following information for each pile:

1.
2 .

Dimensional data ( ~ i l e diameter and wall thickness schedule), Measured pile add-on lengths and cutoffs,
..

3. Blow count record, including

a. Penetration under pile self-weight,

Chapt r 2

fie, 1

15 Jan 82 40
b. c. d. e. Penetration under weight of hammer, Hammers used (referenced to penetration), Blow count for each foot of driving, Delays to driving (length of time and cause), referenced to penetration,

4. Comments or records of hammer and pile performance, including

a .
b. Monitoring data, if available, Observed hammer stroke and speed of operation (blows per minute), c. d.
5.

Steam pressure, Pile damage, if any,

Soil plug and internal water level elevations before and after driving of each pile section, and

6.

Documentation of remedial measures and grouting.

Figure 25-12 illustrates a blow count record in graphical form showing pile schedule, hammers used, delays, and soil stratigraphy.

25.6.6

Performance Monitoring Methods have been developed in recent years to monitor pile and

hammer performance during pile driving using specialized measurement and

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 41 recording systems. Current measurement and evaluation techniques are .

based on research efforts developed at several universities in the 1960's. Although directed to bearing capacity predictions for onshore

applications, the research established that hammer efficiency and cushion properties varied substantially during the course of normal pile driving operations. Performance monitoring for offshore pile installations began

in the North Sea in the 1970's. Performance monitoring has three primary benefits. First, driving

system performance is quantified, which allows better control over the installation process since ineffective components can be repaired or replaced before a critical situation arises. Thus, the risk of refusal due to an inefficient driving system is reduced. Second, additional

input is provided for assessment of pile adequacy since driving system performance is eliminated as a variable when interpreting blow count records to evaluate soil stratigraphy and driving resistance distrib u t i ~ n . Third, the records of performance form a data base that is ~~ available for use in predictions of drivability for future pile installations and in studying the reliability of such predictions. The most valuable applications for performance monitoring are in situations where difficult driving is expected, or where the reliability of analytical predictions is uncertain. These uncertainies may be due to

limited experience in a new area of exploration or with new equipment, or 43 In such situations, monitoring redue to variable soil conditions. duces the risk of refusal associated with inefficient driving systems and provides a more complete picture of pile adequacy if refusal is encountered.

Chapt'er 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 42

25.6.7

Hammer Performance Statistics

This section contains statistical descriptions of measured performance parameters for steam hammers. These statistics were compiled by TERA, Inc. from performance monitoring data gathered on 32 platform installations from 1977 to 1980.44 Statistics are presented for hammer efficiency, cushion stiffness, and cushion coefficient of restitution. Typical histograms of hammer efficiency, cushion stiffness, and cushion coefficient of restitution are presented to indicate the distribution of measured data. The values of parameters that form the data base were

estimated by matching measured force-time characteristics with predicted characteristics from wave equation analyses of hammer blows. These statistics and histograms are useful for estimating driving system parameters for use in drivability studies.
The data base on which the statistics and histograms are based

includes a broad range of hammer sizes, cushion materials, and pile configurations. Data for 13 hammer types ranging from 60,000 to 750,000 Cushion types are bongassi

ft.-lbs. of rated energy is in the data base.

hardwood, asbestos and steel plate sandwich, and wire rope and steel plate sandwich cushions. Pile sizes range from 36 to 144 inches in diameter, with wall thicknesses from 1 to 4 inches.

A total of 2439

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 J a n 8 2 43 i n t e r p r e t e d blows a r e included i n t h e s e s t a t i s t i c s . F i g u r e 25-13 shows a h i s t o g r a m of hammer e f f i c i e n c y ( p e r c e n t of r a t e d energy) f o r a l l measurements i n t h e d a t a base and s t a t i s t i c s describing the distribution. Hammer e f f i c i e n c y i s d e f i n e d h e r e a s a

f u n c t i o n of ram v e l o c i t y only, by t h e following r e l a t i o n s h i p :

where V = ram v e l o c i t y a t impact, g = a c c e l e r a t i o n of g r a v i t y , h e nominal s t r o k e , efficiency, Few s i g n i f i c a n t s t a t i s t i -

and t h u s i s independent of cushion p r o p e r t i e s .

c a l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e noted between t h e hannner types i n t h e d a t a base. F i g u r e 25-14 shows a t y p i c a l h i s t o g r a m of c u s h i o n s t i f f n e s s f o r b o n g a s s i hardwood, S i m i l a r l y , F i g u r e s 25-15 and 25-16 show t y p i c a l p l a t e and w i r e r o p e / s t e e l p l a t e

histograms f o r a s b e s t o s - c o n c r e t e / s t e e l sandwich cushions, r e s p e c t i v e l y .

S t a t i s t i c s describing the d i s t r i b u t i o n

of s t i f f n e s s f o r t h e s e cushions w i t h s e v e r a l hammer s i z e s a r e given i n Table 25-6. T y p i c a l time h i s t o r i e s of s t i f f n e s s f o r t h e t h r e e cushions

a r e shown i n F i g u r e 25-17 t o i l l u s t r a t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n cushion b e h a v i o r w i t h time.

A h i s t o g r a m of cushion c o e f f i c i e n t of r e s t i t u t i o n f o r a l l measure-

ments i s shown i n F i g u r e 25-18.

S t a t i s t i c s f o r s g v e r a l hammer and

"

cushion types a r e l i s t e d i n Table 25-7.

TABLE 25-6

CUSHION STIFFNESS STATISTICS

Cushion Type Bongass i

Hammer Type Menck 1800

Standard Mean Deviation (Kips/in) (Kips/in) 27,400 8,700

Coefficient of Variation 0.32

Steel

Vulcan 020

7,790

800

0.10

Wire rope/ Steel

11

"

040 060 560 5100 5150

26,100 48,500 119,000 141,000 183,000

13,800 10,300 78,400 61,900 51,900

0.53 0.21 0.66 0.44 0.28

"

1I

"

11

"
"

11

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 45

TABLE 25-7

CUSHION COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION

Cushion Type Bongassi Asbestos/Steel Wire rope/Steel

Mean 0.68 0.71

Standard Deviation 0.10 0.09

Coefficient of Variation 0.15

0.74

0.09

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 46

25.7

SUPPLEMENTAL PROCEDURES

When advancement of a pile by driving alone becomes impractical and

mar;

penetration is required to obtain a satisfactory factor of safety against failure, there are several alternative installation methods that can be used to obtain additional pile penetration and/or capacity.45'46947 There

are four basic alternatives to driving alone: ( I ) removal of the soil plug, ( 2 ) removal of soil below the pile tip, ( 3 ) use of insert piles, and ( 4 ) use of belled footings. Other supplemental measures, such as electrosmosis offshore. The use of supplemental procedures normally implies significantly higher cost and sometimes results in less confidence in foundation adequacy compared to piles installed by driving alone. However, when
48

, have been

developed but are not in widespread use

supplemental procedures are carefully planned and executed with strict quality control, the probability of degredation of pile capacity is reduced. In some cases, creative use of alternative foundation installation procedures that take advantage of unique site conditions or structure configuration can result in cost savings compared to pile driving alone. The need for supplemental pile advancement procedures is assessed in the design phase as a part of pile drivability studies. Indications of a
..

possible hard driving situation call for planning of remedial measures in

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 47 case of pile refusal at a penetration where pile capacity is unacceptable. Depending on the probable need and the economic penalties for

delays, required equipment may be specified to be mobilized to the installation site with the installation vessel to if remedial measures ark required. Attainment of additional piie load capacity, not simply penetration, is the reason for implementing remedial measures; achievement of a design penetration by arbitrary means will not necessarily result in satisfactory foundation performance. Therefore, the pile tip elevation required to obtain a particular level of confidence for a specified load capacity is dependent on the method of installation. The following paragraphs describe couunon supplemental advancement techniques, situations in which they are useful, and associated risks.

25.7.1 Soil Removal Methods Jetting and drilling are two commonly used soil removal methods. In

jetting, a pump delivers high-pressure water through a drill string and nozzle to loosen the soil. An air lift return is usually employed when

removal of jetted material from the pile is desired. Airlifting consists of introducing compressed air above the jet nozzle to lift the loosened soil up a return pipe and out of the pile. sands and clays. Jetting is commonly used in
..

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 48 Drilling is usually accomplished with a crane-supported hydraulic' power swivel, a pile top drilling rig, or a skid-mounted rig. Drilling

is used when hard clays, cemented materials or rock must be removed frog the pile. Occasionally, jetting and drilling with a power swivel are

used in combination to remove strong clays.

25.7.2

Removal of Soil Plug

The most common supplemental advancement procedure is to remove the soil plug inside the pile by controlled jetting or drilling (Figure 25-19a),

tr 1

followed by redriving of the pile.

This technique is effective when end

bearing resistance due to plugging action is a significant portion of the the driving resistance. Airlift jetting is more economical for removal of most clays and sands; drilling is used when hard clays, cemented materials or rock must be removed from the pile. If end bearing is not a major contributor to soil resistance or if the pile tip bears on a material which provides high bearing resistance regardless of the soil plug (such as rock), removal of the soil plug is not likely to be an effective supplemental advancement technique. Sim-

ilarly, if much of the pile is embedded in clays where setup is anticipated, part or all of the reduction in driving resistance from removal of the soil plug may be eliminated by increased resistance due to setup
..

during delays for jetting or drilling operations.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 J a n 82

49
Behavior of the s o i l plug when driving i s resumed i s not p r e s e n t l y predictable.

riving records i n d i c a t e t h a t a t deep penetrations it is

possible f o r increases i n end bearing r e s i s t a n c e (due t o e i t h e r s o i l compaction or plug formation) t o occur f a i r l y soon a f t e r r e d r i v i n g of t h e p i l e begins, causing refusal. I n such cases several c y c l e s of plug re-

moval and driving a r e conrmonly required t o advance the p i l e t o the desired penetration. A f t e r redriving i s completed, the plug length inI f computations i n d i c a t e t h a t the plug

s i d e the p i l e should be checked.

alone is not long enough t o mobilize f u l l end bearing, a grout plug should be i n s t a l l e d i n the p i l e . Controlled removal of the s o i l plug within the p i l e poses r e l a t i v e l y few r i s k s of decreasing p i l e capacity i f s t r i c t c o n t r o l i s exetcised. Removal of the plug by j e t t i n g c l o s e r t o the p i l e t i p than 10 ft.

i s generally not reconnnended because of the r i s k of a reduction i n p i l e

capacity. Special s i t e conditions may present r i s k s &en the s o i l plug

i s removed.

For example, i n granular s t r a t a with excesia porewater pres-

sures, the removal of the s o i l plug overburden may cauae a flow of water and s o i l i n t o the p i l e which would reduce the density o r s t r e n g t h of the m a t e r i a l supporting the p i l e .

25.7.3

Removal of S o i l Below P i l e T i p

I n cases where end bearing r e s i s t a n c e is too high even a f t e r ~ e m v a l

of the s o i l plug, controlled removal of m a t e r i a l below the p i l e

trip

m y

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 50 be a reasonable supplemental advancement alternative. Drilling of a pilot hole smaller in diameter than the pile (Figure 25-19b) is the normally recommended procedure for removal of the material. Pilot hole dia-

meters are usually about 75 percent of pile diameter in clay and about 50 percent of pile diameter in sand4' to minimize reductions in skin fric-

tion resistance. The pile is driven as soon as possible after drilling is completed to reduce the time the hole remains open. As in the case when only the soil plug is removed, several cycles of drilling and driving may be necessary to achieve the desired penetration. If driving is

still not possible after removal of this material, an insert pile (discussed below) may be required. A grout plug is placed in the hole after

redriving to assure full end bearing capacity. Close supervision and carefully planned procedures are necessary to assure a straight hole that remains stable.45 Alignment of the hole is

determined by centralizer effectiveness, drill string stiffness, pile batter, and length. Hole stability is affected by hole diameter, soil

type, drilling mud characteristics, and return velocity.

A stable,

straight hole is necessary to prevent loss of skin friction due to the pile wall being located in the void created by drilling. Jetting or uncontrolled drilling below the pile tip is not recommended. Although these methods can allow relatively easy redriving of

the pile, tests have shown that little confidence can be placed in the load capacity.

46

Uncontrolled removal of soil from below the pile tip

results in unpredictable changes in the supporting soils and, in many

cases, a reduction in pile capacity.

Chapter 25 Rev 2 15 Jan 82 51

25.7.4 Insert Piles Insert piles are used to increase total pile penetration when further driving of the main pile is not feasible, and/or to increase pile moment capacity, especially near the mudline. Inserts are frequently

used after other supplemental methods have proven inadequate. Insert piles are smaller than and driven (or drilled and grouted) inside a main pile as illustrated in Fig. 25-19c. If insert drivability

is a problem, the soil plug is usually removed from the main pile prior to driving of the insert. oversized drilled hole. Alternatively, inserts may be grouted in an Centralizers are used to provide a uniform

annulus for the grouted connection between main and insert piles.

25.7.5

Belled ~ootings

Underreamed or belled footings (Figure 25-19d) can be practical in some applications to increase pile capacity without additional driving. After driving is completed, a footing is drilled and underreamed, an$ reinforced concrete is used to fill the footing. Relatively high foun-

dation loads can be supported in this manner with minimal pile penetrati~n.~' Placement of reinforcement and concrete for deep footings must be carefully executed and monitored to assure the desired configuration.

r,
1.

References Randolph, M F., Carter, J. P. and Wroth, C P. Driven Piles in Clay . . The Effects of Installation and Subsequent Reconsolidation. Geotechnique 29(4): 361-393, 1979.

2.

Bozozuk, M , Fellenius, B. H, and Samson, L. Soil Disturbance from . Pile Driving in Sensitive Clay. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 1 ( ) 53: 346-361, 1978.

3. Aurora, R. P. Case Studies of Pile'Setup in the Gulf of Mexico. 12th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3824, 2 : 281-290, 1980.

4 Boyadjieff, G., House, H. and Roussel, H. A. New Offshore Pile .

Aligning System. 9th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 2839, 2: 257- 266, 1977. 5. Reconanended Practice for Ultrasonic Examination of Offshore Structural Fabrication and Guidelines for Qualification of Ultrasonic Technicians. API RPZX, First Edition, March 1980.

6 Drouin, A. H. A New Method for Fast and Economical Connection of . Large-Diameter Pipe. Proceedings of the 49th Annual Fall Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME Paper No. SPE 5040, 1974. i
7. Riemert, I E. and Hettinger, F. L. New Mechanical Pile Connector. , . Ocean Industry 1 ( ) 4 3 : 53-56, 1979.

8 Gendron, G J., Holland, H. A. N and Ranft, E V Underwater Pile . . . . . Driving at Maui Field. 10th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3270, 3: 1887-1894, 1978.

9.

Jansz, J. W North Sea Pile Driving Experience with a Hydraulic . Hammer. 9th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 2840, 2: 267-274, 1977.

10. Jansz, J. W. Underwater Piledriving, Today's Experiences and What is About to Come. Proceedings of the Second International Conference : on the Behavior of Off-Shore Structures Paper No. 35, 1 447-474, 1979. 11. 12. Rusen, J. New Slender Hydraulic Hammer Saves Time Offshore. Petroleum Engineer International 1 ( 2 : 114, 1980. 25) Toolan, F. E. and Fox, D. A. Geotechnical Planning of Piled Foundations for Offshore Platforms. Proceedings of the Institute of Civil Engineers, Part 1, 62: 221-294., 1977.
.

13. Kindel, C E. Mechanism of Soil Resistance for Driven Pipe Piles. . Ports '77 (ASCE) 2: 251-268, 1977.

References
\

Page

Smith, E. A. L. Pile Driving Analysis by the Wave Equation. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 86(SM4): 35-61, 1960.

15. Holloway, D. M., Audibert, J. M. E. and Dover, A. R. Recent Advances in Predicting Pile Drivability. 10th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3273, 2: 1917-1924, 1978. 16. Samson, C H., Hirsch, T. J. and Lowery L. L. Jr. Computer Study of . Dynamic Behavior of Piling. Journal of the Structural Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 89(S~4): 413-449, 1963. Naughton, H. R and Miller, T. W. The Prediction and Subsequent . Measurement of Pile Driving Behavior at the Hondo Platform in Santa Barbara. European Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 11, 1 : 95-100, 1978. Recommended Practice for Planning Designing, and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms. API RP 2A, 12th Edition, January 1981.

17.

18.

C
Y

19. Mes, M J. Pile Driveability is Unpredictable in Sand or Silt . Foundation Strata. Petroleum Engineer 48(12): 76-92, 1976.

'

20.

Mayfield, J. G., Strohbeck, E. E., Olivier, J. C and Wilkins, J. R. . Installation of the Pile Foundation for the Cognac Platform. llth Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3497, 2: 1221-1232, 1979. Lang, G. R. Jr. Predicting the Drivability of Large Diameter Offshore Piling. 12th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3827, 3: 301-312, 1980. Irick, J. T., Birdwell, J. R., Henkhaus, E. J., Hayes, D. A and . Mannina, G. A. Design and Installation of the Main Pass 72 Mud Slide Resistant Platform. 12th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3878, 4 223-230, 1980. : Cox, B E. and Christy, W. W. Underwater Pile Driving Test Offshore . Louisiana. 8th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 2478, 1: 611-616, 1976. Stockard, D. M. Case Histories Pile Driving in the Gulf of Mexico. llth Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3443, 2: 737-746, 1979. Cunningham, G. R. and Naughton, H. R Design and Installation of the . Piling Foundation for the Hondo Platform in 850 Feet of Water in the Santa Barbara Channel. 9th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 2843, 2 291-298, 1977. :

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

References Page 3 26. Ling, S. C Four Offshorer Liled Structures Installed on Outer . Continental Shelf of the Atlantic Coast of the United States. 10th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3088, 1 345-352, : 1978. 27. Durning, P. J., Rennie, I. A,, Thompson, J. M., and Ruckstuhl, E. J. ~nstallinga Piled Foundation in Hard, Overconsolidated North Sea Clay for the Heather Platform. European Offshore Petroleum Conference Paper No. 46, 1 375-382, : '978* 28. Young, A. G., Sullivan, R. A. and R~bicki,C A. Pile Design and . Installation Features of the Thistle Platform. European OffshorePetroleum Conference Paper No. 12, 1 101-110, 1978. :

29.

Duvivier, S., and Henstock, P. L. Installation of the Piled Foundations and Production Modules on Occidental's Piper A Platform. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Part 1, 66: 407-436, 1979. Sutton, V. J., Rigden, W. J., James, E. L., St. John, H. D. and Poskitt, R. J. A Full Scale Instrumented Pile Test in the North Sea. llth Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3489, 2: 1117-1133, 1979.

30.

. ;J1. Hirsch, T J., Koehler, A. M. and Sutton, V. J. R. Selection of Pile Driving Equipment and Field Evaluation of Pile Bearing Capacity During Driving for the North Sea Forties Field. 7th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 2247, 2: 37-49, 1975. 32, Fox, D. A., Parker, G. F. and Sutton, V. J. R. Pile Driving into North Sea Boulder Clays. 2nd Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 1200, 1: 535-548, 1970. 33. Vijayvergia, V. N., Cheng, A. P. and Kolk, H. J. Effect of Soil Set Up on Pile Drivability in Chalk. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 103(GT10): 1069-1082, 1977.

. 34. Agarwal, S. L., Rawat, P. C and Paintal, S. S. Problems Encountered in Installation of Offshore Piles for Fixed Platforms. 10th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3274, 3: 1925-1936, 1978.

35.

Settgast, R. H. Marine Pile Load Testing in Carbonate Rocks. 12th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3868, 4 131-141, : 1980. Tagaya, K., Heerema, E P., Uchino, T and Kusaka, T Pile . . . rivea ability Test on Actual Offshore Platform in Calcareous Clay for Qatar NGL Offshore Project. llth Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3440, 2: 713-720, 1979.

36.

References Page 3

'

26. Ling, S. C Four Offshore-Piled Structures Installed on Outer . Continental Shelf of the Atlantic Coast of the United States. 10th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3088, 1: 345-352, 1978. 27.

. Durning, P. J., Rennie, I A., Thompson, J. M., and Ruckstuhl, E. J. Installing a Piled Foundation in Hard, Overconsolidated North Sea Clay for the Heather Platform. European Offshore Petroleum . Conference Paper No. 46, 1 375-382, 1978. :

28. Young, A. G., Sullivan, R. A. and Rybicki, C A. Pile Design and . Installation Features of the hist tie Platform. European OffshorePetroleum Conference Paper No. 12, 1 101-110, 1978. : 29. Duvivier, S., and Henstock, P. L. Installation of the Piled Foundations and Production Modules on Occidental's Piper A Platform. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Part 1, 66: 407-436, 1979. Sutton, V. J , Rigden, W. J., James, E. L., St. John, H. D. and . Poskitt, R. J. A Full Scale Instrumented Pile Test in the North Sea. llth Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3489, 2: 1117-1133, 1979. Hirsch, T. J., Koehler, A. M. and Sutton, V. J. R. Selection of Pile Driving Equipment and Field Evaluation of Pile Bearing Capacity ' During Driving for the North Sea Forties Field. 7th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 2247, 2 37-49, 1975. : Fox, D. A., Parker, G. F. and Sutton, V. J. R. Pile riving into North Sea Boulder Clays. 2nd Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 1200, 1 535-548, 1970. : Vijayvergia, V N., Cheng, A. P and Kolk, H. J. Effect of Soil Set . . Up on Pile Drivability in Chalk. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 103(GT10): 1069-1082, 1977.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34. Agarwal, S. L., Rawat, P. C and Paintal, S. S Problems Encauntered . . in Installation of Offshore Piles for Fixed Platforms. 10th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3274, 3: 1925-1936, 1978. 35. Settgast, R H. Marine Pile Load Testing in Carbonate Rocks. 12th . Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3868, 4 131-141, : 1980.

f w

36. Tagaya, K , Heerema, E. P., Uchino, T and Kusaka, T. Pile . . Driveability Test on Actual Offshore Platform in Calcareous Clay for Qatar NGL Offshore Project. llth Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3440, 2 713-720, 1979. :

37.

Rennie, I. A. and Fried, P. An Account of the Piling Problems Encountered and the Innovative Solutions Devised During the Installation of the Maui "A" Tower in New Zealand. 11th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3442, 2: 723-740, 1979. Scanlan, R. R. and Tomko, J. J. Dynamic Prediction of Pile Static Bearing Capacity. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 95(SM2): 583-604, 1969. Rausche, F., Moses, F., and Goble, G G Soil Resistance Predictions . . from Pile Dynamics. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, Proceeding of the American Society of Civil Engineers 98(9): 917-937, 1972. Ruiter, J. de and Berigen, F. L. Pile Foundations for Large North Sea Structures. Marine Geotechnology 3 3 : 267-314, 1979. () Vines, W. R. Stress Measurements for Offshore Pile Driving. Symposium on Deep Foundations (ASCE), 475-494, 1980. Rausche, F. Pile Driving Measurements on the Heather Platform Installation. European Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 51, 1 : 423-430, 1978. Vines, W. R. and Verner, E. A. Monitoring Driving System Performance During Offshore Pile Installation. Soundings, a publication of McClelland Engineers, Houston, Texas, l3: 10-12, 1979. () Pile Monitoring Statistics. December 1980. Internal Report No. 80-801, TERA, Inc.,

. Sullivan, R. A. and Ehlers, C J. Practical Planning for Driving Offshore Pipe Piles. 4th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Paper No. 1600, 1: 807-822, 1972. McClelland, B., Focht, J. A., Jr. and Emrich, W J. Problems in . Design and Installation of Offshore Piles. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 95(SM6): 1491-1514, 1969. Gerwick, B. C. Jr. Techniques for Increasing the Capacities of Pin Piles in New and Existing Offshore Construction. 3rd Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 1473, 2 543-552, 1971. : 48. Esrig, M I. Increasing Offshore Pile Driveability Through . Electroosmosis. 10th Annual Offshore Technology Conference Paper No. 3269. 3 1877-1885. 1978. :

'

References

49.

. Ehlers, C J. and Bowles, W R. Underreamed Footings Support . Offshore Platforms in the North Sea. 5th Annual Offshore Technology : Conference Paper No. 1895, 2 693-700, 1973.

CHAPTER 25
\ ,

CAPTIONS

25-1

Example calculation of soil bearing pressure at various stages of pile installation. Pile positioning sequence: A) add-on lifted from barge deck; B) crane rotates to position add-on; C) stabbing point maneuvered into pile top; D) add-on lowered into pile string. Typical stabbing guides: stabbing guide. A) internal stabbing guide; B) external

Pile lifting methods: A) shackles through holes near pile top; B) padeyes; C) choking with slings; D) bridle; E) elevator. Mechanical connectors: A) breechblock connector; B) detail of hydraulic connector. Typical offshore hammer with leads. Steam hammers types: A) moving piston; B) fixed piston. Single-acting diesel hammer operation: A) tripping at start of stroke; B) fuel injection; C) compression and impact; D) diesel fuel explosion; E) top of stroke. Hydraulic Hammer types: A) Hydroblock type; B) Menck type. Drivability barameter study: A) 80,000 ft-lb hammer, clay profile; B) 80,000 ft-lb hammer, sand profile; C) 180,000 ft-lb hammer, clay profile; D) 180,000 it-lb hammer, sand profile; E) 300,000 ft-lb hammer, clay profile; F) 300,OO ft-lb hammer, sand profile; G) 500,000 ft-lb hammer, clay profile; H) 500,000 ft-lb hammer, sand profile; I) 1,500,000 ft-lb hammer, clay profile; J) 1,500,000 ft-lb hammer, sand profile; K) assumptions. Hammer placement sequence: A) hammer lifted from barge deck; B) hammer positioned overpile by booming out or in; C) pilecap seated by rocking hammer; D) leads lowered after hammer in place. Typical blowcount record showing recorded blowcount at 1-ft increments of penetration, length of delays, soil stratigraphy, pile add-on schedule, and hammers used. Histogram and statistics of hammer efficiency for all hammers in data base. 25-14 Histogram of cushion stiffness for bongassi hardwood cushions used with Menck 3000 hammers.

25-15
\

Histogram of cushion stiffness for asbestos concrete/steel plate sandwich cushions used with Vulcan 560 hammers. Histogram of cushion stiffness for wire ropelsteel plate sandwich cushions used with Vulcan 560 hammers. Typical time histories of cushion stiffness for cushions used in 300,000 f t-lb hammers. Histogram of coefficient of restitution for all cushions in data base.

& ' 25-16

25-17
.

25-18

25-19

B) drilling below pile tip;

Supplemental installation procedures: A) removal of soil plug; C) insert pile; D) belled footing.

GIVEN

. 0
Q
Y

' I L

2
PLAN VIEW @ MUDLINE

C. G. @ center o f jocket Weight o f jacket (on bottom ) = 400 Weight o f pi/e sections ( i n p/oce l : P/ /OO k @ ex=ey=36' k PZ 120 @ ex=ey=/5' Pi/es reach se/f support during /owering of P 2 sections.

- No o7aphrogms in jocket /eg, - Bottom bay fram~ngdesigned t o resisf soil /oo ds. Ignore ZO'$ due to f/mibi/ity.

F R FRAMING + MUDMATS, O
A = 4//90)
+

4/78] /072F,+ =

Sf ep

CP
400 500 600 720 840 620 400

ZMx=ZjMy
0
3000 0 1800 0 4800 0

% 0.37 0.47 0.56 0.67 0. 78 0.58 0.37

f& + My /C
0 0.15

I.

JACKET ONLY

1 - - 0.3 7
0.3 7 0.3 2 0.5 6 0.58 0.62 0.5 6
0.76

Beoring Pressure. ks f Max. Min.

2. ADD PI/AI

3. ADD PI/B2
4. ADD P2/AI

0
0.09

5. ADD P2/B2
6. L W R 0 2 O E

0
0.25 0

0.78 0.83 0.37

0.78
.0.33 0.37

? ,

LOWER A l

Fig. 2 5 - 1

SOIL BEARING PRESSURE EXAMPLE

CRANE BLOCK

Fig. 2 5 - 2

PILE POSITIONING

TO CRANE

(El

Fig. 2 5

-4
4

LIFTING
N C.

METHODS

PILE WALL

Fig. 2 5 - 5
0

STEAM INLET PISTON CHAMBER STEAM CON1ROL PISTON STROKE CONTROL BAR

STEAM INLET CONTROL VALVE

v.' - Y

EXHAUST PORT E l VALVE GUIDE COLUMN PISTON

RAM STEAM OUTLET

FIXED PISTON

STROKE CONTROL BAR RAM

CUSHION HOUSING PILECAP

PILECAP

PlLE

PlLE

(A)
MOVING PISTON

CUSHION

(B)
F I X E D PISTON

Fig. 25 - 7
STEAM HAMMER

HYDRAULIC FLUID

PISTON ( DOUBLE ACTING )

4 -

HOUSING AIR FLOATING PISTON RAM RAM CYLINDER IMPACT HEAD HYDRAULIC CYLINDER ( DOUBLE ACTING ) SHOCK ABSORBERS

PILE SLEEVE

(B) HYDROBLOK TYPE

MENCK- TYPE

Fig. 25

-9

HYDRAULIC HAMMER

DRIVING RESISTANCE, KIPS DRIVING RESI STANCE,KI PS

>

-.-

---

LEGEND
A =I000in2 A = 500in2 A = 250in2

1 . 3 -

-.-

L ---EGEND3 0 0 0 i n ' ~~ A = 1 5001n2 A = 7501G 0 100 LOO 300 400 RATE OF PE@ATION, BLOWSIFT.
I

DRIVING
RA TED ENERGY
/ F 7: / L B . J

SYSTEM

STROKE
fm.1

CUSHION ST/FFffESS
IK/INI

C. ff. 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7

P/LECAP WEIGHT EFUC/EffCY

IN/

80,000 1 80,000 300,000 500,000 1500,000

4 4 5

5
6

12,500 30,000 50,000 90,000 250,000

10

22
36 60 120

6 0 O/o 60% 60 O/O 60 O/o 60 O/o

3 pile oreo

pa/. homer, As nofed. 400' pi/e length r/300 'penr frofion

2 Set of so;/ poromelen* for eoch pi/@ hummer combinofion : c l o y - 0s =Qp SO./: Js :0.05, J, = 0 . / 5 , % @ ~ ; p = / o %

* Domping

sand

- 4 = Qp

= 0.I'; .Is = 0.08, J p 1 .5 , % @ Tip ~ 5 0 % 0/ ond quake poromefen from &usse/ //979/5'

Fig. 25-10

(CONT'D)

RATE OF PENETRATION ( BLOWS / FT )

f)

MENCK 3 0 0 0

3 DAY I 8 H R DELAY

1 HR 2

- 38

MIN DELAY

LEGEND
SILTY FINE SAND

lNTERMlXED SILTY FINE SAND AND CLAY

[I] IISANDY

SILT

CLAY

Fig. 25-12

: J

I '/ "

STANDARD DEVIATION COEFFIClENT VARIATION

18O o / 0.30

RANGE OF VALUES,

O o /

Fig. 25

- I3

HISTOGRAM OF HAMMER EFFICIENCY A L L MEASUREMENTS

: : 4o b * e o , P o o
STIFFNESS,

s F n o g 8
I
I

1 K/IN 3

Fig. 25 - 1 4
HISTOGRAM OF CUSHION STIFFNESS

Fig. 25

- 15

HISTOGRAM OF CUSHION STIFFNESS

Fig. 25

- 16

HISTOGRAM OF CUSHION STIFFNESS

ELAPSED TIME, MINUTES

Fig. 25

- 17

.
RANGE OF VALUES

Fig. 25

- 18

HISTOGRAM OF COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION

ALL MEASUREMENTS