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For copies of this Booklet and of the full Review to be sent to addresses
in the Americas, Australasia, or the Far East, visit
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or write to
Particle Data Group
MS 50R6008
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Berkeley, CA 94720-8166, USA
From all other areas, visit
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or write to
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Visit our WWW site: http://pdg.lbl.gov/
The publication of the Review of Particle Physics is supported by
the Director, Oce of Science, Oce of High Energy and Nuclear
Physics, the Division of High Energy Physics of the U.S. Department of
Energy under Contract No. DEAC0205CH11231; by the U.S. National
Science Foundation under Agreement No. PHY-0652989; by the European
Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN); by an implementing arrangement
between the governments of Japan (MEXT: Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology) and the United States (DOE)
on cooperative research and development; and by the Italian National
Institute of Nuclear Physics (INFN).
2010 Regents of the University of California
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PARTICLE PHYSICS BOOKLET
Extracted from the Review of Particle Physics
K. Nakamura et al. (Particle Data Group), JP G 37, 075021 (2010)
(next edition: July 2012)
Particle Data Group
K. Nakamura, K. Hagiwara, K. Hikasa, H. Murayama, M. Tanabashi,
T. Watari, C. Amsler, M. Antonelli, D.M. Asner, H. Baer, H.R. Band,
R.M. Barnett, T. Basaglia, E. Bergren, J. Beringer, G. Bernardi, W. Bertl,
H. Bichsel, O. Biebel, E. Blucher, S. Blusk, R.N. Cahn, M. Carena,
A. Ceccucci, D. Chakraborty, M.-C. Chen, R.S. Chivukula, G. Cowan,
O. Dahl, G. DAmbrosio, T. Damour, D. de Florian, A. de Gouvea,
T. DeGrand, G. Dissertori, B. Dobrescu, M. Doser, M. Drees, D.A. Edwards,
S. Eidelman, J. Erler, V.V. Ezhela, W. Fetscher, B.D. Fields, B. Foster,
T.K. Gaisser, L. Garren, H.-J. Gerber, G. Gerbier, T. Gherghetta,
G.F. Giudice, S. Golwala, M. Goodman, C. Grab, A.V. Gritsan,
J.-F. Grivaz, D.E. Groom, M. Gr
unewald, A. Gurtu, T. Gutsche,
H.E. Haber, C. Hagmann, K.G. Hayes, M. Hener, B. Heltsley, J.J. Hern
andez-Rey,
A. H
ocker, J. Holder, J. Huston, J.D. Jackson, K.F. Johnson, T. Junk,
A. Karle, D. Karlen, B. Kayser, D. Kirkby, S.R. Klein, C. Kolda,
R.V. Kowalewski, B. Krusche, Yu.V. Kuyanov, Y. Kwon, O. Lahav,
P. Langacker, A. Liddle, Z. Ligeti, C.-J. Lin, T.M. Liss, L. Littenberg,
K.S. Lugovsky, S.B. Lugovsky, J. Lys, H. Mahlke, T. Mannel, A.V. Manohar,
W.J. Marciano, A.D. Martin, A. Masoni, D. Milstead, R. Miquel,
K. M
onig, M. Narain, P. Nason, S. Navas, P. Nevski, Y. Nir, K.A. Olive,
L. Pape, C. Patrignani, J.A. Peacock, S.T. Petcov, A. Piepke, G. Punzi,
A. Quadt, S. Raby, G. Raelt, B.N. Ratcli, P. Richardson, S. Roesler,
S. Rolli, A. Romaniouk, L.J. Rosenberg, J.L. Rosner, C.T. Sachrajda,
Y. Sakai, G.P. Salam, S. Sarkar, F. Sauli, O. Schneider, K. Scholberg,
D. Scott, W.G. Seligman, M.H. Shaevitz, M. Silari, T. Sj
ostrand,
J.G. Smith, G.F. Smoot, S. Spanier, H. Spieler, A. Stahl, T. Stanev,
S.L. Stone, T. Sumiyoshi, M.J. Syphers, J. Terning, M. Titov, N.P. Tkachenko,
N.A. T
ornqvist, D. Tovey, T.G. Trippe, G. Valencia, K. van Bibber,
G. Venanzoni, M.G. Vincter, P. Vogel, A. Vogt, W. Walkowiak, C.W. Walter,
D.R. Ward, B.R. Webber, G. Weiglein, E.J. Weinberg, J.D. Wells,
A. Wheeler, L.R. Wiencke, C.G. Wohl, L. Wolfenstein, J. Womersley,
C.L. Woody, R.L. Workman, A. Yamamoto, W.-M. Yao, O.V. Zenin,
J. Zhang, R.-Y. Zhu, P.A. Zyla
Technical Associates:
G. Harper, V.S. Lugovsky, P. Schaner
The full Review lists all the data, with references, used in obtaining
the values given in the Particle Summary Tables. It also contains
much additional information. Some of the material that does appear
in this Booklet is only an abbreviated version of what appears in the
full Review.
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2
PARTICLE PHYSICS BOOKLET TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Physical constants (rev.)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2. Astrophysical constants (rev.)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Summary Tables of Particle Physics
Gauge and Higgs bosons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Leptons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Quarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Mesons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Baryons
Searches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Tests of conservation laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Reviews, Tables, and Plots
. . . . . . . . . . 169
9. Quantum chromodynamics (new)
10. Electroweak model and constraints on new physics (rev.) 172
11. Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa quark mixing matrix (rev.) 181
12. CP violation (rev.)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
13. Neutrino Mass, Mixing and Oscillations (new) . . . . . 193
14. Quark model (rev.)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
16. Structure functions (rev.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
19. Big-bang cosmology (rev.)
21. The Cosmological Parameters (rev.) . . . . . . . . . 214
22. Dark matter (rev.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
23. Cosmic Microwave Background (rev.) . . . . . . . . . 221
24. Cosmic rays (new) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
25. Accelerator physics of colliders (rev.) . . . . . . . . . 225
26. High-energy collider parameters (rev.) . . . . . . . . 226
27. Passage of particles through matter (rev.) . . . . . . . 229
28. Particle detectors at accelerators (rev.) . . . . . . . . 244
. . 256
29. Particle detectors for non-accelerator physics (new)
30. Radioactivity and radiation protection (rev.)
. . . . . 263
31. Commonly used radioactive sources . . . . . . . . . . 265
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
32. Probability (rev.)
33. Statistics (rev.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
36. Clebsch-Gordan coecients, spherical harmonics,
and d functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
39. Kinematics (rev.)
40. Cross-section formulae for specic processes (rev.) . . . 296
41. Plots of cross sections and related quantities (rev.) . . . 301
6. Atomic and nuclear properties of materials . . . . . . 302
4. Periodic table of the elements (rev.)
. . . inside back cover
Abridged
from the full Review of Particle Physics.
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3
The following are found only in the full Review and on the Web:
http://pdg.lbl.gov
3.
5.
7.
8.
15.
17.
18.
20.
34.
35.
37.
38.
International System of Units (SI)
Electronic structure of the elements
Electromagnetic relations
Naming scheme for hadrons
Grand Unied Theories
Fragmentation functions in e+ e annihilation
and lepton-nucleon DIS (rev.)
Experimental tests of gravitational theory (rev.)
Big-bang nucleosynthesis (rev.)
Monte Carlo techniques (rev.)
Monte Carlo particle numbering scheme (rev.)
SU(3) isoscalar factors and representation matrices
SU(n) multiplets and Young diagrams
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8.854 187 817 . . . 1012 F m1
4 107 N A2 = 12.566 370 614 . . . 107 N A2
7.297 352 5376(50)103 = 1/137.035 999 679(94)
2.817 940 2894(58)1015 m
3.861 592 6459(53)1013 m
0.529 177 208 59(36)1010 m
1.239 841 875(31)106 m
13.605 691 93(34) eV
0.665 245 8558(27) barn
0 = 1/0 c2
0
= e2 /40 c
re = e2 /40 me c2
e = /me c = re 1
a = 40 2 /me e2 = re 2
hc/(1 eV)
hcR = me e4 /2(40 )2 2 = me c2 2 /2
T = 8re2 /3
ne-structure constant
classical electron radius
(e Compton wavelength)/2
Bohr radius (mnucleus = )
wavelength of 1 eV/c particle
Rydberg energy
Thomson cross section
me
mp
permittivity of free space
permeability of free space
electron mass
proton mass
0.68, 0.68
2.1
1.4
0.68
25
25
4.1
exact
exact
25, 50
25, 50
0.10, 0.43
25
25, 50
exact
50
50
25
25, 25
25
50
Uncertainty (ppb)
deuteron mass
unied atomic mass unit (u)
e
c
(c)2
electron charge magnitude
conversion constant
conversion constant
s1
299 792 458 m
6.626 068 96(33)1034 J s
1.054 571 628(53)1034 J s
= 6.582 118 99(16)1022 MeV s
1.602 176 487(40)1019 C = 4.803 204 27(12)1010 esu
197.326 9631(49) MeV fm
0.389 379 304(19) GeV2 mbarn
Value
0.510 998 910(13) MeV/c2 = 9.109 382 15(45)1031 kg
938.272 013(23) MeV/c2 = 1.672 621 637(83)1027 kg
= 1.007 276 466 77(10) u = 1836.152 672 47(80) me
md
1875.612 793(47) MeV/c2
(mass 12 C atom)/12 = (1 g)/(NA mol) 931.494 028(23) MeV/c2 = 1.660 538 782(83)1027 kg
c
h
h/2
speed of light in vacuum
Planck constant
Planck constant, reduced
Symbol, equation
Quantity
Table 1.1. Reviewed 2010 by P.J. Mohr (NIST). The set of constants excluding the last group (which come from the Particle Data Group) is
recommended by CODATA for international use. The 1- uncertainties in the last digits are given in parentheses after the values. See the full
edition of this Review for references and further explanation.
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1. Physical constants
12:55
NA k(273.15 K)/(101 325 Pa)
b = max T
= 2 k 4 /603c2
GF /(c)3
Z ) (MS)
sin2 (M
mW
mZ
s (mZ )
Avogadro constant
Boltzmann constant
molar volume, ideal gas at STP
Wien displacement law constant
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
Fermi coupling constant
1 barn 10
m
1 erg 107 J 2.997 924 58 109 esu = 1 C
1 eV/c = 1.782 661 758(44) 10
1 eV = 1.602 176 487(40) 10
e = 2.718 281 828 459 045 235
J
9000
5.6 105
2.9 105
2.3 104
5.9 106
kT at 300 K = [38.681 685(68)]1 eV
= 0.577 215 664 901 532 861
0 C 273.15 K
kg
1 atmosphere 760 Torr 101 325 Pa
36
19
0.231 16(13)
80.399(23) GeV/c2
91.1876(21) GeV/c2
0.1184(7)
50
1700
1700
1700
1700
7000
1.0 105
1.0 105
exact
1.4
1.4
25
25
The meter is the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
At Q2 = 0. At Q2 m2W the value is 1/128. Absolute lab measurements of GN have been made only on scales of about 1 cm to 1 m.
See the discussion in Sec. 10, Electroweak model and constraints on new physics.
The corresponding sin2 for the eective angle is 0.23146(12).
28
1 in 0.0254 m
1 G 10 T
0.1 nm
1A
1 dyne 105 N
= 3.141 592 653 589 793 238
weak-mixing angle
W boson mass
Z 0 boson mass
strong coupling constant
6.022 141 79(30)1023 mol1
1.380 6504(24)1023 J K1
= 8.617 343(15)105 eV K1
22.413 996(39)103 m3 mol1
2.897 7685(51)103 m K
5.670 400(40)108 W m2 K4
gN
NA
k
standard gravitational accel.
1.166 37(1)105 GeV2
6.674 28(67)1011 m3 kg1 s2
= 6.708 81(67)1039 c (GeV/c2 )2
9.806 65 m s2
7555(79)1011 MeV T1
2326(45)1014 MeV T1
150(44)1011 rad s1 T1
92(24)107 rad s1 T1
GN
381
451
820
833
gravitational constant
5.788
3.152
1.758
9.578
B = e/2me
N = e/2mp
e /B = e/m
cycl
e
p
cycl /B = e/mp
Bohr magneton
nuclear magneton
electron cyclotron freq./eld
proton cyclotron freq./eld
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1. Physical constants 5
12:55
GN /c3
gN
Jy
Planck length
standard gravitational acceleration
jansky (ux density)
au, A
pc
ly
2GN M /c2
M
R
L
2GN M /c2
M
R
L
F
AB
R0
v /R0
0
disk
v esc
astronomical unit
parsec (1 au/1 arc sec)
light year (deprecated unit)
Schwarzschild radius of the Sun
Solar mass
Solar equatorial radius
Solar luminosity
Schwarzschild radius of the Earth
Earth mass
Earth mean equatorial radius
luminosity conversion (deprecated)
ux conversion (deprecated)
ABsolute monochromatic magnitude
Solar distance from Galactic center
[Solar circular velocity at R0 ]/R0
circular velocity at R0
local disk density
local dark matter density
escape velocity from Galaxy
tropical year (equinox to equinox) (2011)
yr
sidereal year (xed star to xed star) (2011)
mean sidereal day (2011) (time between vernal equinox transits)
c
G
N
c/GN
Symbol, equation
speed of light
Newtonian gravitational constant
Planck mass
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[5]
[6]
[7]
8.4(4) kpc
30.2 0.2 km s1 kpc1
240(10) km s1
312 1024 g cm3 27 GeV/c2 cm3
canonical value 0.3 GeV/c2 cm3 within factor 23
498 km/s < v esc < 608 km/s
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
3.02 1028 100.4 Mbol W
[14]
(Mbol = absolute bolometric magnitude = bolometric magnitude at 10 pc)
from above
2.52 108 100.4 mbol W m2
(mbol = apparent bolometric magnitude)
2.5 log10 f 56.10 (for f in W m2 Hz1 )
[15]
= 2.5 log10 f + 8.90 (for f in Jy)
149 597 870 700(3) m
3.085 677 6 1016 m = 3.262 . . . ly
0.306 6 . . . pc = 0.946 053 . . . 1016 m
2.953 250 077 0(2) km
1.988 4(2) 1030 kg
6.9551(4) 108 m
3.842 7(1 4) 1026 W
8.870 055 94(2) mm
5.972 2(6) 1024 kg
6.378 137 106 m
[5]
[5]
[5]
31 556 925.2 s 107 s
31 558 149.8 s 107 s
23h 56m 04.s 090 53
exact[4]
[1]
[1]
Reference, footnote
[1]
exact[1]
denition
Value
299 792 458 m s1
6.674 3(7) 1011 m3 kg1 s2
1.220 89(6) 1019 GeV/c2
= 2.176 44(11) 108 kg
1.616 25(8) 1035 m
9.806 65 m s2 2
1026 W m2 Hz1
Quantity
2. ASTROPHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND PARAMETERS
Table 2.1. Revised May 2010 by E. Bergren and D.E. Groom (LBNL). Figures in parentheses give 1- uncertainties in last place(s).
This table represents neither a critical review nor an adjustment of the constants, and is not intended as a primary reference. See the
full edition of this Review for references and detailed explanations.
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2. Astrophysical constants
12:55
T0
2.725(1) K
3.355(8) mK
369(1) km/s towards (, b) = (263.99(14), 48.26(3) )
627(22) km/s towards (, b) = (276(3) , 30(3) )
vLG
s/k
2 889.2 (T /2.725)3 cm3
n
410.5(T /2.725)3 cm3
= nb /n
6.23(17) 1010
5.1 1010 6.5 1010 (95% CL)
nb
(2.56 0.07) 107 cm3
number density of baryons
(2.1 107 < nb < 2.7 107 ) cm3 (95% CL)
100 h km s1 Mpc1 = h(9.777 752 Gyr)1
present day Hubble expansion rate
H0
present day normalized Hubble expansion rate
h
0.72(3)
Hubble length
c/H0
0.925 063 1026 h1 m = 1.28(5) 1026 m
2.852 1051 h2 m2 = 5.5(5) 1051 m2
scale factor for cosmological constant
c2 /3H02
critical density of the Universe
c = 3H02 /8GN
2.775 366 27 1011 h2 M Mpc3
= 1.878 35(19) 1029 h2 g cm3
= 1.053 68(11) 105 h2 (GeV/c2 ) cm3
pressureless matter density of the Universe
m = m /c
0.133(6) h2 = 0.26(2)
b = b /c
0.0227(6) h2 = 0.044(4)
baryon density of the Universe
cdm = m b 0.110(6) h2 = 0.21(2)
dark matter density of the universe
dark energy density of the CDM Universe
0.74(3)
dark energy equation of state parameter
w
1.04+0.09
0.10
CMB radiation density of the Universe
= /c
2.471 105 (T /2.725)4 h2 = 4.8(4) 105
neutrino density of the Universe
0.0005 < h2 < 0.025 0.0009 < < 0.048
tot = m + . . . + 1.006(6)
total energy density of the Universe
8
0.80(4)
uctuation amplitude at 8 h1 Mpc scale
1
curvature uctuation amplitude, k0 = 0.002 Mpc
2R
2.41(11) 109
ns
0.96(1)
scalar spectral index
running spectral index slope, k0 = 0.002 Mpc1
dns /d ln k
0.04(3)
tensor-to-scalar eld perturbations ratio,
k0 = 0.002 Mpc1
r = T /S
< 0.43 at 95% C.L.
z
1090(1)
redshift at decoupling
t
3.80(6) 105 yr
age at decoupling
sound horizon at decoupling
rs (z )
147(2) Mpc
zeq
3180 150
redshift of matter-radiation equality
zreion
11.0 1.4
redshift of reionization
treion
430+90
age at reionization
70 Myr
0.09(2)
reionization optical depth
t0
13.69 0.13 Gyr
age of the Universe
present day CMB temperature
present day CMB dipole amplitude
Solar velocity with respect to CMB
Local Group velocity with respect to CMB
entropy density/Boltzmann constant
number density of CMB photons
baryon-to-photon ratio
[2,3]
[2]
[2]
[2]
[2]
[2]
[2,29]
[2,3]
[2]
[2,3]
[2,3]
[2,3]
[2,3]
[27]
[24]
[28]
[2,3]
[2,3]
[2,3]
[2,3]
[2]
[22]
[2]
[2]
[23]
[14]
[24]
[2]
[25]
from in [2]
from in [25]
[26]
[2,3]
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2. Astrophysical constants 7
12:55
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SUMMARY TABLES OF PARTICLE PROPERTIES
Extracted from the Particle Listings of the
Review of Particle Physics
K. Nakamura et al. (Particle Data Group), JP G 37, 075021 (2010)
Available at http://pdg.lbl.gov
c Regents of the University of California
(Approximate closing date for data: January 15, 2010)
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TESTS OF CONSERVATION LAWS
Updated May 2010 by L. Wolfenstein (Carnegie-Mellon University),
T.G. Trippe (LBNL), and C.-J. Lin (LBNL).
In keeping with the current interest in tests of conservation laws,
we collect together a Table of experimental limits on all weak and
electromagnetic decays, mass dierences, and moments, and on a
few reactions, whose observation would violate conservation laws.
The Table is given only in the full Review of Particle Physics, not in
the Particle Physics Booklet. For the benet of Booklet readers, we
include the best limits from the Table in the following text. Limits
in this text are for CL=90% unless otherwise specied. The Table is
in two parts: Discrete Space-Time Symmetries, i.e., C, P , T , CP ,
and CP T ; and Number Conservation Laws, i.e., lepton, baryon,
hadronic avor, and charge conservation. The references for these
data can be found in the the Particle Listings in the Review. A
discussion of these tests follows.
CP T INVARIANCE
General principles of relativistic eld theory require invariance under the combined transformation CP T . The simplest tests of CP T
invariance are the equality of the masses and lifetimes of a particle
and its antiparticle. The best test comes from the limit on the mass
0
dierence between K 0 and K . Any such dierence contributes to
the CP -violating parameter . Assuming CP T invariance, , the
phase of should be very close to 44 . (See the review CP Violation in KL decay in this edition.) In contrast, if the entire source
0
of CP violation in K 0 decays were a K 0 K mass dierence,
would be 44 + 90 .
Assuming that there is no other source of CP T violation than this
mass dierence, it is possible to deduce that[1]
m
mK 0
2(mK 0 mK 0 ) || ( 32 + + 31 00 SW )
L
sin SW
where SW = (43.51 0.05) , the superweak angle. Using our
best values of the CP -violation parameters, we get |(m 0
K
mK 0 )/mK 0 | 0.8 1018 at CL=90%. Limits can also be placed
on specic CP T -violating decay amplitudes. Given the small value
of (1 |00 /+ |), the value of 00 + provides a measure of
CP T violation in KL0 2 decay. Results from CERN [1] and
Fermilab [2] indicate no CP T -violating eect.
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CP AND T INVARIANCE
Given CP T invariance, CP violation and T violation are equivalent. The original evidence for CP violation came from the
measurement of |+ | = |A(KL0 + )/A(KS0 + )| =
0
(2.232 0.011) 103 . This could be explained in terms of K 0 K
mixing, which also leads to the asymmetry [(KL0 e+ )
(KL0 + e )]/[sum] = (0.334 0.007)%. Evidence for CP violation in the kaon decay amplitude comes from the measurement of
(1 |00 /+ |)/3 = Re( /) = (1.65 0.26) 103. In the Standard Model much larger CP -violating eects are expected. The
rst of these, which is associated with BB mixing, is the parameter sin(2) now measured quite accurately to be 0.671 0.023.
A number of other CP -violating observables are being measured
in B decays; direct evidence for CP violation in the B decay am0
plitude comes from the asymmetry [(B K + ) (B 0
+
K )]/[sum] = 0.098 0.013. Direct tests of T violation are
much more dicult; a measurement by CPLEAR of the dierence
between the oscillation probabilities of K 0 to K 0 and K 0 to K 0 is
related to T violation [3]. Other searches for CP or T violation
involve eects that are expected to be unobservable in the Standard
Model. The most sensitive are probably the searches for an electric
dipole moment of the neutron, measured to be < 2.9 1026 e cm,
and the electron (0.07 0.07) 1026 e cm. A nonzero value requires both P and T violation.
CONSERVATION OF LEPTON NUMBERS
Present experimental evidence and the standard electroweak theory
are consistent with the absolute conservation of three separate lepton numbers: electron number Le , muon number L , and tau number L , except for the eect of neutrino mixing associated with
neutrino masses. Searches for violations are of the following types:
a) L = 2 for one type of charged lepton. The best limit
comes from the search for neutrinoless double beta decay (Z, A)
(Z + 2, A)+e +e . The best laboratory limit is t1/2 > 1.91025
yr (CL=90%) for 76 Ge.
b) Conversion of one charged-lepton type to another. For
purely leptonic processes, the best limits are on e and
3e, measured as ( e)/( all) < 1.2 1011 and
( 3e)/( all) < 1.0 1012 . For semileptonic processes, the best limit comes from the coherent conversion process in a muonic atom, + (Z, A) e + (Z, A), measured as
( Ti e Ti)/( Ti all) < 4.3 1012 . Of special interest
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is the case in which the hadronic avor also changes, as in KL e
and K + + e + , measured as (KL e)/(KL all) <
4.7 1012 and (K + + e + )/(K + all) < 1.3 1011 .
Limits on the conversion of into e or are found in decay
and are much less stringent than those for e conversion, e.g.,
( )/( all) < 4.4 108 and ( e)/( all) <
3.3 108 .
c) Conversion of one type of charged lepton into another type of charged antilepton. The case most studied is
+(Z, A) e+ + (Z 2, A), the strongest limit being ( Ti
e+ Ca)/( Ti all) < 3.6 1011 .
d) Neutrino oscillations. It is expected even in the standard
electroweak theory that the lepton numbers are not separately conserved, as a consequence of lepton mixing analogous to CabibboKobayashi-Maskawa quark mixing. However, if the only source of
lepton-number violation is the mixing of low-mass neutrinos then
processes such as e are expected to have extremely small
unobservable probabilities. For small neutrino masses, the leptonnumber violation would be observed rst in neutrino oscillations,
which have been the subject of extensive experimental searches.
Strong evidence for neutrino mixing has come from atmospheric
and solar neutrinos. The SNO experiment has detected the total
ux of neutrinos from the sun measured via neutral current interactions and found it greater than the ux of e . This conrms previous
indications of a decit of e . Furthermore, evidence for such oscillations for reactor has been found by the KAMLAND detector. A
global analysis combining all solar neutrino data (SNO, Borexino,
Super-Kamiokande, Chlorine, Gallium) and the KamLAND data
yields (m2 ) = (7.59 0.20) 105 eV2 [4].
Underground detectors observing neutrinos produced by cosmic
rays in the atmosphere have found a factor of 2 deciency of upward going compared to downward. This provides compelling
evidence for disappearance, for which the most probable explanation is oscillations with nearly maximal mixing.
This mixing space can also be explored by accelerator-based longbaseline experiments. The most recent result from MINOS gives
(m2 ) = (2.43 0.13) 103 eV2 [5].
CONSERVATION OF HADRONIC FLAVORS
In strong and electromagnetic interactions, hadronic avor
is conserved, i.e. the conversion of a quark of one avor
(d, u, s, c, b, t) into a quark of another avor is forbidden. In the
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Standard Model, the weak interactions violate these conservation
laws in a manner described by the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa
mixing (see the section CKM Mixing Matrix). The way in which
these conservation laws are violated is tested as follows:
(a) S = Q rule. In the strangeness-changing semileptonic decay
of strange particles, the strangeness change equals the change in
charge of the hadrons. Tests come from limits on decay rates such
as (+ ne+ )/(+ all) < 5 106 , and from a detailed
analysis of KL e, which yields the parameter x, measured to
be (Re x, Im x) = (0.002 0.006, 0.0012 0.0021). Corresponding
rules are C = Q and B = Q.
(b) Change of avor by two units. In the Standard Model this
occurs only in second-order weak interactions. The classic example
0
is S = 2 via K 0 K mixing, which is directly measured by
s1 . The B =
m(KL ) m(KS ) = (0.5292 0.0009) 1010 h
0
0
2 transitions in the B and Bs systems via mixing are also well
established. The measured mass dierences between the eigenstates
s1 and (mB 0 mB 0 )
are (mB 0 mB 0 ) = (0.5070.005)1012 h
H
sH
sL
s1 . There is now strong evidence of
= (17.77 0.12) 1012 h
C = 2 transition in the charm sector with the mass dierence
+0.59
) 1010 h
s1. All results are consistent
mD0 mD0 = (2.390.63
H
L
with the second-order calculations in the Standard Model.
(c) Flavor-changing neutral currents. In the Standard Model
the neutral-current interactions do not change avor. The low
rate (KL + )/(KL all) = (6.84 0.11) 109 puts
limits on such interactions; the nonzero value for this rate is attributed to a combination of the weak and electromagnetic interactions.
The best test should come from K + + ,
which occurs in the Standard Model only as a second-order weak
process with a branching fraction of (0.4 to 1.2)1010 . Combining results from BNL-E787 and BNL-E949 experiments yield
(K + + )/(K + all) = (1.7 1.1) 1010 [6]. Limits
for charm-changing or bottom-changing neutral currents are much
less stringent: (D0 + )/(D0 all) < 1.3 106 and
(B 0 + )/(B 0 all) < 1.5 108. One cannot isolate
avor-changing neutral current (FCNC) eects in non leptonic decays. For example, the FCNC transition s d+(u+u) is equivalent
to the charged-current transition s u + (u + d). Tests for FCNC
are therefore limited to hadron decays into lepton pairs. Such decays are expected only in second-order in the electroweak coupling
in the Standard Model.
See the full Review of Particle Physics for references and Summary Tables.
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9. Quantum chromodynamics
12:55
169
9. QUANTUM CHROMODYNAMICS
Written October 2009 by G. Dissertori (ETH, Zurich) and G.P. Salam
(LPTHE, Paris).
9.1. Basics
Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD), the gauge eld theory that
describes the strong interactions of colored quarks and gluons, is the SU(3)
component of the SU(3)SU(2)U(1) Standard Model of Particle Physics.
The Lagrangian of QCD is given by
1 A A
C
, (9.1)
q,a (i ab gs tC
L=
ab A mq ab )q,b 4 F F
q
where repeated indices are summed over. The are the Dirac -matrices.
The q,a are quark-eld spinors for a quark of avor q and mass mq , with
a color-index a that runs from a = 1 to Nc = 3, i.e. quarks come in three
colors. Quarks are said to be in the fundamental representation of the
SU(3) color group.
The AC
correspond to the gluon elds, with C running from 1 to
2
Nc 1 = 8, i.e. there are eight kinds of gluon. Gluons are said to be in
the adjoint representation of the SU(3) color group. The tC
ab correspond
to eight 3 3 matrices and are the generators of the SU(3) group. They
encode the fact that a gluons interaction with a quark rotates the quarks
color in SU(3) space. The quantity gs is the QCD coupling constant.
A is given by
Finally, the eld tensor F
A
A
B C
F
= AA
A gs fABC A A
[tA , tB ] = ifABC tC ,
(9.2)
where the fABC are the structure constants of the SU(3) group.
Neither quarks nor gluons are observed as free particles. Hadrons are
color-singlet (i.e. color-neutral) combinations of quarks, anti-quarks, and
gluons.
Ab-initio predictive methods for QCD include lattice gauge theory
and perturbative expansions in the coupling. The Feynman rules of QCD
involve a quark-antiquark-gluon (q qg) vertex, a 3-gluon vertex (both
proportional to gs ), and a 4-gluon vertex (proportional to gs2 ).
A
Useful color-algebra relations include: tA
ab tbc = CF ac , where CF
2
(Nc 1)/(2Nc) = 4/3 is the color-factor (Casimir) associated with gluon
emission from a quark; f ACD f BCD = CA AB where CA Nc = 3 is the
B
color-factor associated with gluon emission from a gluon; tA
ab tab = TR AB ,
where TR = 1/2 is the color-factor for a gluon to split to a q q pair.
g2
The fundamental parameters of QCD are the coupling gs (or s = s )
4
and the quark masses mq .
9.1.1. Running coupling : In the framework of perturbative QCD
(pQCD), predictions for observables are expressed in terms of the renormalized coupling s (2R ), a function of an (unphysical) renormalization
scale R . When one takes R close to the scale of the momentum transfer
Q in a given process, then s (2R Q2 ) is indicative of the eective
strength of the strong interaction in that process.
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170
12:55
9. Quantum chromodynamics
The coupling satises the following renormalization group equation
(RGE):
ds
(9.3)
2R 2 = (s ) = (b0 2s + b1 3s + b2 4s + )
dR
where b0 = (11CA 4nf TR )/(12) = (33 2nf )/(12) is the 1-loop
beta-function coecient, and the 2, 3 and 4-loop coecients are
2 n T (10C + 6C ))/(24 2 ) = (153 19n )/(24 2 ),
b1 = (17CA
A
F
f R
f
325 2
149753 + 3564 )
3
b2 = (2857 5033
3
9 nf + 27 nf )/(128 ), and b3 = (( 6
6508
50065
6472
1093 3
2
4
( 1078361
162 + 27 3 )nf + ( 162 + 81 3 )nf + 729 nf )/(4) [9,10], the last
two specically in the MS scheme (here 3 1.2020569). The minus sign
in Eq. (9.3) is the origin of asymptotic freedom, i.e. the fact that the
strong coupling becomes weak for processes involving large momentum
transfers (hard processes), s 0.1 for momentum transfers in the
100 GeV TeV range.
The -function coecients, the bi , are given for the coupling of an
eective theory in which nf of the quark avors are considered light
(mq R ), and in which the remaining heavier quark avors decouple
from the theory. One may relate the coupling for the theory with nf + 1
light avors to that with nf avors through an equation of the form
n
2
(n +1) 2
(n )
(n )
s f
(R ) = s f (2R ) 1 +
cn [s f (2R )]n ln R2 , (9.4)
mh
n=1
=0
where mh is the mass of the (nf + 1)th avor, and the rst few cn
1 , c = 0, c = c2 , c = 19 , and c = 11
coecients are c11 = 6
10
22
20
11 21
24 2
72 2
7
when mh is the MS mass at scale mh (c20 = 24
2 when mh is the pole
mass see the review on Quark Masses). Terms up to c4 are to
be found in Refs. 11, 12. Numerically, when one chooses R = mh , the
matching is a small eect, owing to the zero value for the c10 coecient.
Working in an energy range where the number of avors is constant, a
simple exact analytic solution exists for Eq. (9.3) only if one neglects all
but the b0 term, giving s (2R ) = (b0 ln(2R /2 ))1 . Here is a constant
of integration, which corresponds to the scale where the perturbativelydened coupling would diverge, i.e. it is the non-perturbative scale of
QCD. A convenient approximate analytic solution to the RGE that
includes also the b1 , b2 , and b3 terms is given by (e.g. Ref. 13),
b1 ln t b21 (ln2 t ln t 1) + b0 b2
1
1 2
+
s (2R )
b0 t
b0 t
b40 t2
b31 (ln3 t
5 2
1
1
ln t 2 ln t + ) + 3b0 b1 b2 ln t b20 b3
2
2
2
,
b60 t3
2
t ln R2 ,
(9.5)
again parametrized in terms of a constant . Note that Eq. (9.5) is one of
several possible approximate 4-loop solutions for s (2R ), and that a value
for only denes s (2R ) once one knows which particular approximation
is being used. An alternative to the use of formulas such as Eq. (9.5)
is to solve the RGE exactly, numerically (including the discontinuities,
Eq. (9.4), at avor thresholds). In such cases the quantity is not dened
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9. Quantum chromodynamics
12:55
171
at all. For these reasons, in determinations of the coupling, it has become
standard practice to quote the value of s at a given scale (typically MZ )
rather than to quote a value for .
The value of the coupling, as well as the exact forms of the b2 , c10 (and
higher order) coecients, depend on the renormalization scheme in which
the coupling is dened, i.e. the convention used to subtract innities in
the context of renormalization. The coecients given above hold for a
coupling dened in the modied minimal subtraction (MS) scheme [14],
by far the most widely used scheme.
9.3.4. Measurements of the strong coupling constant : For this
review it was decided to quote a recent analysis by Bethke [172], which
incorporates results with recently improved theoretical predictions and/or
experimental precision. The central value is determined as the weighted
average of the individual measurements. For the error an overall, a-priori
unknown, correlation coecient is introduced and determined by requiring
that the total 2 of the combination equals the number of degrees of
freedom. The world average quoted in Ref. 172 is
s (MZ2 ) = 0.1184 0.0007 .
It is worth noting that a cross check performed in Ref. 172, consisting in
excluding each of the single measurements from the combination, resulted
in variations of the central value well below the quoted uncertainty,
and in a maximal increase of the combined error up to 0.0012. Most
notably, excluding the most precise determination from lattice QCD gives
only a marginally dierent average value. Nevertheless, there remains an
apparent and long-standing systematic dierence between the results from
structure functions and other determinations of similar accuracy. This is
evidenced in Fig. 9.2 (left), where the various inputs to this combination,
evolved to the Z mass scale, are shown. Fig. 9.2 (right) provides strongest
evidence for the correct prediction by QCD of the scale dependence of the
strong coupling.
0.5
July 2009
s(Q)
Deep Inelastic Scattering
e+e Annihilation
Heavy Quarkonia
0.4
-decays (N3LO)
Quarkonia (lattice)
0.3
decays (NLO)
DIS F2 (N3LO)
DIS jets (NLO)
0.2
e+e jets & shps (NNLO)
electroweak fits (N3LO)
e+e jets & shapes (NNLO)
0.11
0.1
0.12
QCD
0.13
s ( Z)
s ( Z) = 0.1184 0.0007
10
Q [GeV]
100
Figure 9.1: Left: Summary of measurements of s (MZ2 ), used as
input for the world average value; Right: Summary of measurements
of s as a function of the respective energy scale Q. Both plots are
taken from Ref. 172.
Further discussion and all references may be found in the full Review.
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10. Electroweak model and constraints on new physics
10. ELECTROWEAK MODEL AND
CONSTRAINTS ON NEW PHYSICS
Revised November 2009 by J. Erler (U. Mexico) and P. Langacker
(Institute for Advanced Study).
10.1. Introduction
The standard electroweak model (SM) is based on the gauge
group [1] SU(2) U(1), with gauge bosons Wi , i = 1, 2, 3, and
B for the SU(2) and U(1) factors, respectively, and the corresponding gauge coupling constants g and g . The left-handed
fermion
the ith fermion family transform as doublets
elds
of
i
u
i =
and di under SU(2), where di j Vij dj , and V
i
is the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa mixing matrix. (Constraints on V
and tests of universality are discussed in Ref. 2 and in the Section on
The CKM Quark-Mixing Matrix. The extension of the formalism to
allow an analogous leptonic mixing matrix is discussed in the Section on
Neutrino Mass, Mixing, and Flavor Change.) The right-handed elds
are SU(2) singlets. In the minimal model
thereare three fermion families
+
and a single complex Higgs doublet 0 which is introduced for
mass generation.
After spontaneous symmetry breaking the Lagrangian for the fermion
elds, i , is
gmi H
i i mi
LF =
i
2MW
i
g
i (1 5 )(T + W+ + T W ) i
2 2 i
e
qi i i A
i
g
i 5
i (gVi gA
) i Z .
2 cos W
(10.1)
W tan1 (g /g) is the weak angle; e = g sin W is the positron electric
3
charge; and A B cos
W + W sin W is the (massless) photon eld.
W (W 1 iW 2 )/ 2 and Z B sin W + W 3 cos W are the massive
charged and neutral weak boson elds, respectively. T + and T are the
weak isospin raising and lowering operators. The vector and axial-vector
couplings are
gVi t3L (i) 2qi sin2 W ,
(10.2a)
i
gA
(10.2b)
t3L (i),
where t3L (i) is the weak isospin of fermion i (+1/2 for ui and i ; 1/2
for di and ei ) and qi is the charge of i in units of e.
The second term in LF represents the charged-current weak interaction [3,4]. For example, the coupling of a W to an electron and a neutrino
is
e
(10.3)
W e (1 5 ) + W+ (1 5 )e .
2 2 sin W
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For momenta small compared to MW , this term gives rise to the eective
four-fermion interaction with the Fermi constant
given (at tree level, i.e.,
2 . CP violation
lowest order in perturbation theory) by GF / 2 = g 2 /8MW
is incorporated in the SM by a single observable phase in Vij . The third
term in LF describes electromagnetic interactions (QED), and the last is
the weak neutral-current interaction.
In Eq. (10.1), mi is the mass of the ith fermion i . In the presence
of right-handed neutrinos, Eq. (10.1) gives rise also to Dirac neutrino
masses. The possibility of Majorana masses is discussed in the Section on
Neutrino Mass, Mixing, and Flavor Change.
H is the physical neutral Higgs scalar which is the only remaining part
of after spontaneous symmetry breaking. The Yukawa coupling of H
to i , which is avor diagonal in the minimal model, is gmi /2MW . In
non-minimal models there are additional charged and neutral scalar Higgs
particles [10].
10.2. Renormalization and radiative corrections
The SM has three parameters (not counting the Higgs boson mass,
MH , and the fermion masses and mixings). A particularly useful set
contains the Z-boson mass, MZ = 91.1876 0.0021 GeV, which has
been determined from the Z lineshape scan at LEP 1; the ne structure
constant, = 1/137.035999084(51), which is currently best determined
from the e anomalous magnetic moment; and the Fermi constant, GF =
1.166364(5) 105 GeV2 , which is derived from the muon lifetime
formula. See the full Review for more details.
With these inputs, sin2 W and the W boson mass, MW , can be
calculated when values for mt and MH are given; conversely (as is done at
present), MH can be constrained by sin2 W and MW . The value of sin2 W
is extracted from Z pole observables and neutral-current processes [11,60],
and depends on the renormalization prescription. There are a number of
popular schemes [6168] leading to values which dier by small factors
depending on mt and MH , including the MS denition s
2Z and the on-shell
2 /M 2 .
denition s2W 1 MW
Z
Experiments are at such level of precision that complete O() radiative
corrections must be applied. These are discussed in the full edition of this
Review. A variety of related cross-section and asymmetry formulae are
also discussed there.
10.3.1. W and Z decays :
The partial decay width for gauge bosons to decay into massless
fermions f1 f 2 (the numerical values include the small electroweak
radiative corrections and nal state mass eects) is
(W + e+ e ) =
(W + ui dj ) =
(Z i i ) =
3
GF MW
226.31 0.07 MeV ,
6 2
(10.33a)
3
CGF MW
|Vij |2 706.18 0.22 MeV |Vij |2(10.33b)
6 2
CGF MZ3 i2
i2
gV + gA
6 2
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10. Electroweak model and constraints on new physics
167.21 0.02 MeV (),
83.99 0.01 MeV (e e ),
300.20 0.06 MeV (uu),
382.98
0.06 MeV (dd),
375.94 0.04 MeV (bb).
For leptons C = 1, while for quarks
2
3
4
s (MV )
+ 1.409 2s 12.77 3s 80.0 4s ,
C =3 1+
(10.33c)
(10.34)
where the 3 is due to color and the factor in brackets represents the
universal part of the QCD corrections [164] for massless quarks [165].
The O(4s ) contribution in Eq. (10.34) is new [166]. The Z f f widths
contain a number of additional corrections: universal (non-singlet) top
quark mass contributions [167]; fermion mass eects and further QCD
corrections proportional to m
2q (MZ2 ) [168] which are dierent for vector
and axial-vector partial widths; and singlet contributions starting from
two-loop order which are large, strongly top quark mass dependent, family
universal, and avor non-universal [169]. The QED factor 1 + 3qf2 /4,
as well as two-loop order s and 2 self-energy corrections [170] are also
included. Working in the on-shell scheme, i.e., expressing the widths in
3 , incorporates the largest radiative corrections from the
terms of GF MW,Z
running QED coupling [61,171]. Electroweak corrections to the Z widths
i2
are then incorporated by replacing g i2
V,A by the eective couplings g V,A
dened in Eq. (10.31) of the full Review. Hence, in the on-shell
scheme the
Z widths are proportional to 1 + t , where t = 3GF m2t /8 2 2 . The MS
normalization accounts also for the leading electroweak corrections [66].
There is additional (negative) quadratic mt dependence in the Z bb
vertex corrections [172] which causes (bb) to decrease with mt . The
dominant eect is to multiply (bb) by the vertex correction 1 + bb ,
m2
where bb 102 ( 1 t2 + 1 ). In practice, the corrections are included
2M
5
Z
in g bV,A , as discussed before.
For 3 fermion families the total widths are predicted to be
Z 2.49570.0003 GeV ,
W 2.09100.0007 GeV . (10.35)
We have assumed s (MZ ) = 0.1200. An uncertainty in s of 0.0016
introduces an additional uncertainty of 0.05% in the hadronic widths,
corresponding to 0.8 MeV in Z . These predictions are to be compared
with the experimental results Z = 2.4952 0.0023 GeV [11] and
W = 2.085 0.042 GeV [173] (see the Gauge & Higgs Boson Particle
Listings for more details).
10.4. Precision flavor physics
In addition to cross-sections, asymmetries, parity violation, W and
Z decays, there is a large number of experiments and observables testing
the avor structure of the SM. These are addressed elsewhere in this
Review, and generally not included in this Section. However, we identify
three precision observables with sensitivity to similar types of new physics
as the other processes discussed here. The branching fraction of the avor
changing transition b s is of comparatively low precision, but since
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it is a loop-level process (in the SM) its sensitivity to new physics (and
SM parameters, such as heavy quark masses) is enhanced. The -lepton
lifetime and leptonic branching ratios are primarily sensitive to s and
not aected signicantly by many types of new physics. However, having
an independent and reliable low energy measurement of s in a global
analysis allows the comparison with the Z lineshape determination of s
which shifts easily in the presence of new physics contributions. By far the
most precise observable discussed here is the anomalous magnetic moment
of the muon (the electron magnetic moment is measured to even greater
precision, but its new physics sensitivity is suppressed by an additional
factor of m2e /m2 ). Its combined experimental and theoretical uncertainty
is comparable to typical new physics contributions. See the full Review for
more details.
10.5. Experimental results
The values for mt [6], MW [160,207], neutrino scattering [98,114116],
the weak charges of the electron [125], cesium [132,133] and thallium [134],
the b s observable [174175], the muon anomalous magnetic
moment [189], and the lifetime are listed in Table 10.5. Likewise, the
principal Z pole observables can be found in Table 10.6 where the LEP 1
averages of the ALEPH, DELPHI, L3, and OPAL results include common
systematic errors and correlations [11]. The heavy avor results of LEP 1
and SLD are based on common inputs and correlated, as well [11]. Note
that the values of ( + ), (had), and (inv) are not independent of
Z , the R , and had and that the SM errors in those latter are largely
dominated by the uncertainty in s . Also shown in both Tables are the
(3)
SM predictions for the values of MZ , MH , s (MZ ), had and the heavy
quark masses shown in Table 10.4 in the full Review. The predictions
result from a global least-square (2 ) t to all data using the minimization
package MINUIT [208] and the electroweak library GAPP [90]. In
most cases, we treat all input errors (the uncertainties of the values)
as Gaussian. The reason is not that we assume that theoretical and
systematic errors are intrinsically bell-shaped (which they are not) but
because in most cases the input errors are combinations of many dierent
(including statistical) error sources, which should yield approximately
Gaussian combined errors by the large number theorem. Thus, it suces if
either the statistical components dominate or there are many components
of similar size. An exception is the theory dominated error on the
lifetime, which we recalculate in each 2 -function call since it depends
itself on s . Sizes and shapes of the output errors (the uncertainties of
the predictions and the SM t parameters) are fully determined by the t,
and 1 errors are dened to correspond to 2 = 2 2min = 1, and do
not necessarily correspond to the 68.3% probability range or the 39.3%
probability contour (for 2 parameters).
The agreement is generally very good. Despite the few discrepancies
discussed in the following, the t describes well the data with a
(0,b)
2 /d.o.f. = 43.0/44. Only the nal result for g 2 from BNL and AF B
from LEP 1 are currently showing large (2.5 and 2.7 ) deviations.
In addition, A0LR (SLD) from hadronic nal states diers by 1.8 . The
SM prediction of had (LEP 1) moved closer to the measurement value
which is slightly higher. Rb , whose measured value deviated in the past
by as much as 3.7 from the SM prediction, is now in agreement, and
2 from NuTeV is
a 2 discrepancy in QW (Cs) has also been resolved. gL
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10. Electroweak model and constraints on new physics
Table 10.3: Principal non-Z pole observables, compared with
the SM best t predictions. The rst MW value is from the
Tevatron [207] and the second one from LEP 2 [160]. The values
of MW and mt dier from those in the Particle Listings when they
2 , which has been adjusted
include recent preliminary results. gL
2
as discussed in Sec. 10.3, and gR are from NuTeV [98] and have
a very small (1.7%) residual anti-correlation. e-DIS [123] and
the older -DIS constraints from CDHS [92], CHARM [93], and
CCFR [94] are included, as well, but not shown in the Table. The
e are dominated by the CHARM II [116]
world averages for gV,A
e = 0.503 0.017. The errors
results, gVe = 0.035 0.017 and gA
are the total (experimental plus theoretical) uncertainties. The
value is the lifetime world average computed by combining the
direct measurements with values derived from the leptonic branching
ratios [5]; in this case, the theory uncertainty is included in the
SM prediction. In all other SM predictions, the uncertainty is from
(MZ ), and s , and their correlations have
M Z , M H , mt , mb , mc ,
been accounted for. The column denoted Pull gives the standard
deviations for the principal t with MH free, while the column
denoted Dev. (Deviation) is for MH = 117 GeV xed.
Quantity
mt [GeV]
MW [GeV]
2
gL
2
gR
gVe
e
gA
QW (e)
QW (Cs)
QW (Tl)
[fs]
(bs)
(bXe)
1 (g 2 )
2
Value
Standard Model
Pull Dev.
173.1 1.3
80.420 0.031
80.376 0.033
0.3027 0.0018
0.0308 0.0011
0.040 0.015
0.507 0.014
0.0403 0.0053
73.20 0.35
116.4 3.6
291.09 0.48
3
3.38+0.51
0.44 10
173.2 1.3
80.384 0.014
0.1 0.5
1.2 1.5
0.2 0.1
0.7 0.6
0.7 0.7
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
1.3 1.2
0.1 0.1
0.1 0.1
0.5 0.5
(3.11 0.07) 103
0.6
0.6
(4511.07 0.77) 109
(4509.13 0.08) 109
2.5
2.5
0.30399 0.00017
0.03001 0.00002
0.0398 0.0003
0.5064 0.0001
0.0473 0.0005
73.15 0.02
116.76 0.04
290.02 2.09
currently in agreement with the SM but this statement is preliminary (see
Sec. 10.3).
(0,b)
Ab can be extracted from AF B when Ae = 0.1501 0.0016 is taken
from a t to leptonic asymmetries (using lepton universality). The result,
Ab = 0.881 0.017, is 3.2 below the SM prediction and also 1.6 below
B
Ab = 0.923 0.020 obtained from AF
LR (b) at SLD. Thus, it appears that
Alternatively, one can use A = 0.1481 0.0027, which is from LEP 1
alone and in excellent agreement with the SM, and obtain Ab = 0.8930.022
which is 1.9 low. This illustrates that some of the discrepancy is related
to the one in ALR .
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Table 10.4: Principal Z pole observables and their SM predictions
(0,q)
(cf. Table 10.3). The rst s2 (AF B ) is the eective angle extracted
from the hadronic charge asymmetry while the second is the
combined lepton asymmetry from CDF [157] and D [158]. The
three values of Ae are (i) from ALR for hadronic nal states [152];
(ii) from ALR for leptonic nal states and from polarized Bhabba
scattering [154]; and (iii) from the angular distribution of the
polarization at LEP 1. The two A values are from SLD and the
total polarization, respectively.
Quantity
MZ [GeV]
Z [GeV]
(had) [GeV]
(inv) [MeV]
( + ) [MeV]
had [nb]
Re
R
R
Rb
Rc
(0,e)
AF B
Value
Standard Model Pull Dev.
91.1876 0.0021
2.4952 0.0023
1.7444 0.0020
499.0 1.5
83.984 0.086
41.541 0.037
20.804 0.050
20.785 0.033
20.764 0.045
0.21629 0.00066
0.1721 0.0030
0.0145 0.0025
91.1874 0.0021 0.1 0.0
2.4954 0.0009 0.1 0.1
1.7418 0.0009
501.69 0.07
84.005 0.015
41.484 0.008
1.5 1.5
20.735 0.010
1.4 1.4
20.735 0.010
1.5 1.6
20.780 0.010 0.4 0.3
0.21578 0.00005 0.8 0.8
0.17224 0.00003 0.0 0.0
0.01633 0.00021 0.7 0.7
AF B
(0,)
0.0169 0.0013
0.4
0.6
AF B
(0, )
0.0188 0.0017
1.5
1.6
(0,b)
AF B
(0,c)
AF B
(0,s)
AF B
(0,q)
s2 (AF B )
Ae
A
A
Ab
Ac
As
0.0992 0.0016
0.1034 0.0007 2.7 2.3
0.0707 0.0035
0.0739 0.0005 0.9 0.8
0.0976 0.0114
0.2324 0.0012
0.2316 0.0018
0.15138 0.00216
0.1544 0.0060
0.1498 0.0049
0.142 0.015
0.136 0.015
0.1439 0.0043
0.923 0.020
0.670 0.027
0.895 0.091
0.1035 0.0007 0.6 0.4
0.23146 0.00012
0.1475 0.0010
0.9348 0.0001
0.6680 0.0004
0.9357 0.0001
0.8
0.1
1.8
1.1
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.1
0.4
0.7
0.0
2.2
1.3
0.6
0.3
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.1
0.4
(0,b)
at least some of the problem in AF B is experimental. Note, however, that
(0,b)
AF B
is strongly statistics dominated. The combined
the uncertainty in
value, Ab = 0.899 0.013 deviates by 2.8 . It would be dicult to account
for this 4.0% deviation by new physics that enters only at the level of
radiative corrections since about a 20% correction to
b would be necessary
to account for the central value of Ab [211]. If this deviation is due to
new physics, it is most likely of tree-level type aecting preferentially
the third generation. Examples include the decay of a scalar neutrino
resonance [209], mixing of the b quark with heavy exotics [210], and
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10. Electroweak model and constraints on new physics
a heavy Z with family-nonuniversal couplings [212,213]. It is dicult,
however, to simultaneously account for Rb , which has been measured on
the Z peak and o-peak [214] at LEP 1. An average of Rb measurements
at LEP 2 at energies between 133 and 207 GeV is 2.1 below the SM
(b)
prediction, while AF B (LEP 2) is 1.6 low [160].
The left-right asymmetry, A0LR = 0.15138 0.00216 [152], based on all
hadronic data from 19921998 diers 1.8 from the SM expectation of
0.1475 0.0010. The combined value of A = 0.1513 0.0021 from SLD
(using lepton-family universality and including correlations) is also 1.8
above the SM prediction; but there is now experimental agreement between
this SLD value and the LEP 1 value, A = 0.1481 0.0027, obtained from
(0,)
a t to AF B , Ae (P ), and A (P ), again assuming universality.
The observables in Table 10.3 and Table 10.4, as well as some other
less precise observables, are used in the global ts described below. In
all ts, the errors include full statistical, systematic, and theoretical
uncertainties. The correlations on the LEP 1 lineshape and polarization,
the LEP/SLD heavy avor observables, the SLD lepton asymmetries,
and the deep inelastic and -e scattering observables, are included. The
(5)
theoretical correlations between had and g 2, and between the charm
and bottom quark masses, are also accounted for.
The data allow a simultaneous determination of MZ , MH , mt , and
(3)
the strong coupling s (MZ ). (m
c, m
b , and had are also allowed to
oat in the ts, subject to the theoretical constraints [5,17] described
in Sec. 10.1Sec. 10.2. These are correlated with s .) s is determined
mainly from R , Z , had , and and is only weakly correlated with the
other variables. The global t to all data, including the CDF/D average
mt = 173.1 1.3 GeV, yields the result in Table 10.4 (the MS top quark
mass given there corresponds to mt = 173.2 1.3 GeV). The weak mixing
angle is determined to
s
2Z = 0.23116 0.00013,
s2W = 0.22292 0.00028,
where the larger error in the on-shell scheme is due to the stronger
sensitivity to mt , while the corresponding eective angle is related by
Eq. (10.32), i.e., s2 = 0.23146 0.00012.
The weak mixing angle can be determined from Z pole observables,
MW , and from a variety of neutral-current processes spanning a very
wide Q2 range. The results (for the older low energy neutral-current
data see Refs. 58 and 59) shown in Table 10.7 of the full Review are in
reasonable agreement with each other, indicating the quantitative success
of the SM. The largest discrepancy is the value s
2Z = 0.23193 0.00028
from the forward-backward asymmetries into bottom and charm quarks,
which is 2.7 above the value 0.23116 0.00013 from the global t to
all data. Similarly, s
2Z = 0.23067 0.00029 from the SLD asymmetries
(in both cases when combined with MZ ) is 1.7 low. The SLD result
has the additional diculty (within the SM) of implying very low and
excluded [161] Higgs masses. This is also true for s
2Z = 0.23100 0.00023
from MW and MZ and as a consequence for the global t. We
have therefore included in Table 10.3 and Table 10.4 an additional column
(denoted Deviation) indicating the deviations if MH = 117 GeV is xed.
The extracted Z pole value of s (MZ ) is based on a formula with
negligible theoretical uncertainty if one assumes the exact validity
of the SM. One should keep in mind, however, that this value,
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Table 10.5: Values of s
2Z , s2W , s , and MH [in GeV] for various
(combinations of) observables. Unless indicated otherwise, the top
quark mass, mt = 170.9 1.9 GeV, is used as an additional constraint
in the ts. The () symbol indicates a xed parameter.
Data
All data
s
2Z
s2W
s (MZ )
0.23116(13) 0.22292(28) 0.1183(15)
MH
90+27
22
All indirect (no mt ) 0.23118(14) 0.22283(34) 0.1183(16) 112+110
52
Z pole (no mt )
0.23121(17) 0.22311(59) 0.1198(28) 90+114
44
LEP 1 (no mt )
SLD + MZ
(b,c)
0.23152(21) 0.22376(67) 0.1213(30) 170+234
93
0.23067(29) 0.22201(54) 0.1183 ()
33+27
17
AF B + MZ
0.23193(28) 0.22484(76) 0.1183 ()
389+264
158
MW + MZ
0.23100(23) 0.22262(48) 0.1183 ()
67+38
28
MZ
0.23128(6)
0.22321(17) 0.1183 ()
117 ()
QW (APV)
0.2314(14)
0.2233(14)
0.1183 ()
117 ()
QW (e)
0.2332(15)
0.2251(15)
0.1183 ()
117 ()
-N DIS (isoscalar) 0.2335(18)
0.2254(18)
0.1183 ()
117 ()
Elastic ( )-e
0.2311(77)
0.2230(77)
0.1183 ()
117 ()
e-D DIS (SLAC)
0.222(18)
0.213(19)
0.1183 ()
117 ()
Elastic ( )-p
0.211(33)
0.203(33)
0.1183 ()
117 ()
s (MZ ) = 0.1198 0.0028, is very sensitive to such types of new physics
as non-universal vertex corrections. In contrast, the value derived from
decays, s (MZ ) = 0.1174+0.0018
0.0016 , is theory dominated but less sensitive
to new physics. The two values are in remarkable agreement with each
other. They are also in agreement with other recent values, such as
from jet-event shapes at LEP [215] (0.1202 0.0050) the average
from HERA [216] (0.1198 0.0032), and the most recent unquenched
lattice calculation [217] (0.1183 0.0008). For more details and other
determinations, see our Section 9 on Quantum Chromodynamics in this
Review.
Using (MZ ) and s
2Z as inputs, one can predict s (MZ ) assuming
grand unication. One predicts [218] s (MZ ) = 0.130 0.001 0.01 for
the simplest theories based on the minimal supersymmetric extension
of the SM, where the rst (second) uncertainty is from the inputs
(thresholds). This is slightly larger, but consistent with the experimental
s (MZ ) = 0.1183 0.0015 from the Z lineshape and the lifetime, as
well as with other determinations. Non-supersymmetric unied theories
predict the low value s (MZ ) = 0.073 0.001 0.001. See also the note
on Supersymmetry in the Searches Particle Listings.
The data indicate a preference for a small Higgs mass. There is
a strong correlation between the quadratic mt and logarithmic MH
terms in
in all of the indirect data except for the Z bb vertex.
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10. Electroweak model and constraints on new physics
Therefore, observables (other than Rb ) which favor mt values higher
than the Tevatron range favor lower values of MH . MW has additional
r W which is not coupled to m2t eects. The
MH dependence through
strongest individual pulls toward smaller MH are from MW and A0LR ,
(0,b)
while AF B favors higher values. The dierence in 2 for the global t is
2 = 2 (MH = 300 GeV) 2min 25. Hence, the data favor a small
value of MH , as in supersymmetric extensions of the SM. The central
value of the global t result, MH = 90+27
22 GeV, is below the direct lower
bound, MH 114.4 GeV (95% CL) [161].
The 90% central condence range from all precision data is
55 GeV MH 135 GeV.
(10.36)
Including the results of the direct searches at LEP 2 [161] and the
Tevatron [219] as extra contributions to the likelihood function drives
the 95% upper limit to MH 147 GeV. As two further renements, we
account for (i) theoretical uncertainties from uncalculated higher order
contributions by allowing the T parameter (see next subsection) subject
to the constraint T = 0 0.02, (ii) the MH dependence of the correlation
matrix which gives slightly more weight to lower Higgs masses [220]. The
resulting limits at 95 (90, 99)% CL are, respectively,
MH 149 (145, 194) GeV.
(10.37)
10.7. Constraints on new physics
A number of authors [226231] have considered the general eects on
neutral-current and Z and W boson observables of various types of heavy
(i.e., Mnew MZ ) physics which contribute to the W and Z self-energies
but which do not have any direct coupling to the ordinary fermions. In
addition to non-degenerate multiplets, which break the vector part of weak
SU(2), these include heavy degenerate multiplets of chiral fermions which
break the axial generators. These eects can be described, for example,
by the so-called T and S parameters, respectively, where the latter is
typically rather large in Technicolor theories.
1.25
Z, had, Rl, Rq
1.00
asymmetries
0.75
MW
0.50
e scattering
scattering
APV
0.25
0.00
-0.25
all: MH = 117 GeV
-0.50
all: MH = 340 GeV
-0.75
-1.00
-1.5 -1.25
all: MH = 1000 GeV
-1 -0.75 -0.5 -0.25
0.25 0.5 0.75
1.25 1.5 1.75
Figure 10.1: 1 constraints (39.35%) on S and T from various
inputs combined with MZ . S and T represent the contributions of
new physics only.
Further discussion and all references may be found in the full Review.
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181
11. The CKM quark-mixing matrix
11. THE CKM QUARK-MIXING MATRIX
Revised February 2010 by A. Ceccucci (CERN), Z. Ligeti (LBNL), and
Y. Sakai (KEK).
11.1. Introduction
The masses and mixings of quarks have a common origin in the
Standard Model (SM). They arise from the Yukawa interactions of the
quarks with the Higgs condensate. When the Higgs eld acquires a vacuum
expectation value, quark mass terms are generated. The physical states are
obtained by diagonalizing the up and down quark mass matrices by four
u,d
unitary matrices, VL,R . As a result, the charged current W interactions
couple to the physical up and down-type quarks with couplings given by
Vud Vus Vub
u d
(11.2)
VCKM VL VL = Vcd Vcs Vcb .
Vtd Vts Vtb
This Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM) matrix [1,2] is a 3 3
unitary matrix. It can be parameterized by three mixing angles and a
CP -violating phase,
s12 c13
s13 ei
c12 c13
V = s12 c23 c12 s23 s13 ei c12 c23 s12 s23 s13 ei s23 c13 , (11.3)
s12 s23 c12 c23 s13 ei c12 s23 s12 c23 s13 ei c23 c13
where sij = sin ij , cij = cos ij , and is the phase responsible for all
CP -violating phenomena in avor changing processes in the SM. The
angles ij can be chosen to lie in the rst quadrant.
It is known experimentally that s13 s23 s12 1, and it is
convenient to exhibit this hierarchy using the Wolfenstein parameterization.
We dene [46]
V
|Vus |
,
s23 = A2 = cb ,
s12 = =
Vus
|Vud |2 + |Vus |2
3
2
+ i
) 1 A 4
A (
s13 ei = Vub
= A3 ( + i) =
.
(11.4)
2
1 [1 A2 4 (
+ i
)]
)/(V V ) is phase-convention
These ensure that + i
= (Vud Vub
cd cb
independent and the CKM matrix written in terms of , A, and is
unitary to all orders in . To O(4 ),
A3 ( i)
1 2 /2
+ O(4 ) .
1 2 /2
A2
(11.5)
V =
A3 (1 i)
A2
1
Unitarity implies
i Vij Vik = jk and
j Vij Vkj = ik . The six
vanishing combinations can be represented as triangles in a complex plane.
The most commonly used unitarity triangle arises from
+ Vcd Vcb
+ Vtd Vtb = 0 ,
Vud Vub
(11.6)
(see Fig. 1). The vertices are exactly (0, 0),
by dividing each side by Vcd Vcb
(1, 0) and, due to the denition in Eq. (11.4), (
, ). An important goal of
avor physics is to overconstrain the CKM elements, many of which can
be displayed and compared in the , plane.
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12:56
11. The CKM quark-mixing matrix
Figure 11.1: Sketch of the unitarity triangle.
11.2. Magnitudes of CKM elements
11.2.1. |Vud | :
The most precise determination of |Vud | comes from the study of
superallowed 0+ 0+ nuclear beta decays, which are pure vector
transitions. Taking the average of the nine most precise determinations [8]
yields [9]
(11.7)
|Vud | = 0.97425 0.00022.
11.2.2. |Vus | :
The magnitude of Vus is extracted from semileptonic kaon decays or
0 e, K 0 ,
leptonic kaon decays. Combining the data on KL
L
K 0 e , K 0 and KS0 e gives |Vus | = 0.2246 0.0012
with the unquenched lattice QCD calculation value, f+ (0) = 0.9644
0.0049 [12]. The KLOE measurement of the K + + () branching
ratio [16] with the lattice QCD value, fK /f = 1.189 0.007 [17] leads
to |Vus | = 0.2259 0.0014. The average of these two determinations is
quoted by Ref. [9] as
|Vus | = 0.2252 0.0009.
(11.8)
11.2.3. |Vcd | :
The most precise determination of |Vcd | is based on neutrino and
antineutrino interactions. The dierence of the ratio of double-muon
to single-muon production by neutrino and antineutrino beams is
proportional to the charm cross section o valence d-quarks. Combining
the results [2629], we obtain
|Vcd | = 0.230 0.011.
(11.9)
11.2.4. |Vcs | :
The determination of |Vcs | is possible from semileptonic D or leptonic
Ds decays. Using the recent Ds+ + [37,38,40] and Ds+ + [38,41]
data gives |Vcs | = 1.030 0.038 with fDs = (242.8 3.2 5.3) MeV [42].
The recent D K measurements [24,25,43] combined with the lattice
QCD calculation of the form factor [23] gives |Vcs | = 0.98 0.01 0.10.
Averaging these two determinations, we obtain
|Vcs | = 1.023 0.036.
(11.10)
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183
11.2.5. |Vcb | :
The determination of |Vcb | from inclusive semileptonic B decays use
the semileptonic rate measurement together with the leptonic energy
and the hadronic invariant-mass spectra. Determinations from exclusive
decays are based on the fact that in the mb,c QCD limit
B D()
all form factors are given by a single Isgur-Wise function [49], which is
normalized at zero recoil. The Vcb and Vub minireview [48] quotes the
combination with a scaled error as
|Vcb | = (40.6 1.3) 103 .
(11.11)
11.2.6. |Vub | :
decay suers from
The determination of |Vub | from inclusive B Xu
backgrounds. In most regions of phase space where the
large B Xc
charm background is kinematically forbidden the rate is determined by
nonperturbative shape functions. At leading order in QCD /mb there is
only one such function, which is related to the photon energy spectrum
in B Xs [50,51]. The large and pure BB samples at the B factories
decays in events where the other B is
permit the selection of B Xu
fully reconstructed [56]. With this full-reconstruction tag method, one can
measure the four-momenta of both the leptonic and hadronic systems, and
access wider kinematic regions because of improved signal purity.
To extract |Vub | from exclusive channels, the form factors have to be
known. Unquenched lattice QCD calculations of the B
form factor
for q 2 > 16 GeV2 are available [57,58]. The theoretical uncertainties in
the inclusive and exclusive determinations are dierent. The Vcb and Vub
minireview [48] quotes the combination
|Vub | = (3.89 0.44) 103 .
(11.12)
11.2.7. |Vtd | and |Vts | :
These CKM elements cannot be measured from tree-level top quark
decays, so one has to use BB oscillations or loop-mediated rare K
and B decays. The mass dierence of the two neutral B meson mass
eigenstates is well measured, md = (0.507 0.005) ps1 [60]. For the Bs0
system, CDF measured ms = (17.77 0.10 0.07) ps1 [61] with more
than 5 signicance. Using unquenched lattice QCD calculations [63] and
assuming |Vtb | = 1, we nd
|Vtd | = (8.4 0.6) 103 ,
|Vts | = (38.7 2.1) 103 .
(11.13)
Several uncertainties are reduced in the lattice QCD calculation of the
ratio md /ms , which gives a new and signicantly improved constraint,
Vtd /Vts = 0.211 0.001 0.005.
(11.14)
11.2.8. |Vtb | :
The determination of |Vtb | from top decaysuses the ratio of branching
fractions B(t W b)/B(t W q) = |Vtb |2 /( q |Vtq |2 ) = |Vtb |2 , where
q = b, s, d [69,70]. The direct determination of |Vtb | without assuming
unitarity has become possible from the single top quark production cross
section. The (2.76+0.58
0.47 ) pb [71] average cross section measured by D [72]
and CDF [73] implies
|Vtb | = 0.88 0.07 .
(11.15)
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12:56
11. The CKM quark-mixing matrix
11.3. Phases of CKM elements
The angles of the unitarity triangle are
Vcd Vcb
Vtd Vtb
= 1 = arg
=
arg
,
2
Vtd Vtb
Vud Vub
Vud Vub
= 3 = arg
.
(11.16)
Vcd Vcb
Since CP violation involves phases of CKM elements, many measurements
of CP -violating observables can be used to constrain these angles and the
, parameters.
11.3.1. and :
The measurement of CP violation in K 0 K 0 mixing, || = (2.233
0.015) 103 [75], provides constraints in the , plane bounded by
hyperbolas approximately. The dominant uncertainties are due to the bag
parameter and the parametric uncertainty proportional to (A4 ) [i.e.,
(|Vcb |4 )].
The measurement of provides a qualitative test of the CKM
mechanism because its nonzero experimental average, Re( /) =
(1.67 0.23) 103 [75], demonstrated the existence of direct CP
violation, a prediction of the KM ansatz. While Re( /) Im(Vtd Vts ),
this quantity cannot easily be used to extract CKM parameters, because
of large hadronic uncertainties.
11.3.2. / 1 :
The time-dependent CP asymmetry of neutral B decays to a nal state
f common to B 0 and B 0 is given by [85,86]
(B 0(t) f ) (B 0(t) f )
= Sf sin(m t) Cf cos(m t),
(B 0(t) f ) + (B 0(t) f )
(11.18)
where Sf = 2 Imf /(1 + |f |2 ), Cf = (1 |f |2 )/(1 + |f |2 ), and
f = (q/p)(Af /Af ). Here q/p describes B 0 B 0 mixing and, to a good
Af =
= e2i+O( ) in the usual
approximation in the SM, q/p = Vtb Vtd /Vtb Vtd
phase convention. Af (Af ) is the amplitude of B 0 f (B 0 f ) decay.
If f is a CP eigenstate and amplitudes with one CKM phase dominate,
then |Af | = |Af |, Cf = 0 and Sf = sin(arg f ) = f sin 2, where f is
the CP eigenvalue of f and 2 is the phase dierence between the B 0 f
and B 0 B 0 f decay paths.
0 )
The b c
cs decays to CP eigenstates (B 0 charmonium KS,L
are the theoretically cleanest examples, measuring Sf = f sin 2. The
world average is [64]
sin 2 = 0.673 0.023 .
(11.20)
This measurement of has a four-fold ambiguity. Of these, /2
(but not + ) has been resolved by a time-dependent angular
analysis of B 0 J/K 0 [90,91] and a time-dependent Dalitz plot
analysis of B 0 D 0 h0 (h0 = 0 , , ) [92,93].
The b s
q q penguin dominated decays have the same CKM phase
as the b c
cs tree dominated decays, up to corrections suppressed
by 2 . Therefore, decays such as B 0 K 0 and K 0 provide sin 2
measurements in the SM. If new physics contributes to the b s
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185
loop diagrams and has a dierent weak phase, it would give rise to
Sf = f sin 2 and possibly Cf = 0. The results and their uncertainties
are summarized in Fig. 12.3 and Table 12.1 of Ref. [86].
11.3.3. / 2 :
V , only time-dependent
Since is the phase between Vtb Vtd and Vub
ud
CP asymmetries in b u
ud dominated modes can directly measure it.
In such decays the penguin contribution can be sizable. Then S+ no
longer measures sin 2, but can still be extracted using the isospin
relations among the B 0 + , B 0 0 0 , and B + + 0
amplitudes and their CP conjugates [94]. Because the isospin analysis
gives 16 mirror solutions, and the sizable experimental error of B 0 0 0 ,
only a loose constraint is obtained at present.
The B 0 + decay can in general have a mixture of CP -even and
CP -odd components. However, the longitudinal polarization fractions in
B + + 0 and B 0 + are measured to be close to unity [96], which
implies that the nal states are almost purely CP -even. Furthermore,
6 implies that the eect of the penguin
B(B 0 0 0 ) = (0.73+0.27
0.28 ) 10
diagrams is small. The isospin analysis gives = (89.9 5.4) [95] with a
mirror solution at 3/2 .
The nal state in B 0 + decay is not a CP eigenstate, but
mixing induced CP violations can still occur in the four decay amplitudes,
B 0 , B 0 . Because of the more complicated isospin relations, the
time-dependent Dalitz plot analysis of B 0 + 0 gives the best
model independent extraction of [99]. The Belle [100] and BABAR [101]
measurements yield = (120+11
7 ) [95].
Combining these three decay modes [95], is constrained as
= (89.0+4.4
4.2 ) .
(11.23)
11.3.4. / 3 :
The angle does not depend on CKM elements involving the top
quark, so it can be measured in tree level B decays. This is an important
distinction from and , implying that the measurements of are unlikely
to be aected by physics beyond the SM.
us) and B D 0 K
The interference of B D0 K (b c
(b u
cs) transitions can be studied in nal states accessible in both
D0 and D0 decays [85]. It is possible to extract from the data the B
and D decay amplitudes, the relative strong phases, and . Analyses in
two-body D decays using the GLW [103,104] and ADS methods [105] have
been made by the B factories [106], as well as in a Dalitz plot analysis
of D0 , D0 KS + [109,110]. Combining these analyses [95], is
constrained as
(11.25)
= (73+22
25 ) .
11.4. Global fit in the Standard Model
Using the independently measured CKM elements mentioned in
the previous sections, the unitarity of the CKM matrix can be
checked. We obtain |Vud |2 + |Vus |2 + |Vub |2 = 0.9999 0.0006 (1st row),
|Vcd |2 + |Vcs |2 + |Vcb |2 = 1.101 0.074 (2nd row), |Vud |2 + |Vcd |2 + |Vtd |2 =
1.002 0.005 (1st column), and |Vus |2 + |Vcs |2 + |Vts |2 = 1.098 0.074
(2nd column), respectively. For the second row, a more stringent check
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11. The CKM quark-mixing matrix
L
at C
ed
lud
exc
1.5
excluded area has CL > 0.95
.95
>0
1.0
md & ms
sin 2
0.5
md
K
0.0
Vub
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
sol. w/ cos 2 < 0
(excl. at CL > 0.95)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Figure 11.2: 95% CL constraints on the , plane.
is obtained
subtracting the sum of the rst row from the measurement
2
of
u,c,d,s,b |Vij | from the W leptonic branching ratio [35], yielding
2
2
|Vcd | + |Vcs | + |Vcb |2 = 1.002 0.027. The sum of the three angles,
+ + = (183+22
25 ) , is also consistent with the SM expectation.
The CKM matrix elements can be most precisely determined by a
global t that uses all available measurements and imposes the SM
constraints. There are several approaches to combining the experimental
data [6,95,102,118], which provide similar results. The results for the
Wolfenstein parameters are
= 0.2253 0.0007 ,
=
0.132+0.022
0.014 ,
A = 0.808+0.022
0.015 ,
= 0.341 0.013 .
(11.26)
The allowed ranges of the magnitudes of all nine CKM elements are
0.97428 0.00015 0.2253 0.0007 0.00347+0.00016
0.00012
+0.00015
+0.0011
0.04100.0007 ,
VCKM = 0.2252 0.0007 0.973450.00016
+0.0011
+0.000030
0.00862+0.00026
0.0403
0.999152
0.00020
0.0007
0.000045
(11.27)
+0.19
5
and the Jarlskog invariant is J = (2.910.11 ) 10 . Fig. 11.2 illustrates
the constraints on the , plane from various measurements and the global
t result. The shaded 95% CL regions all overlap consistently around the
global t region.
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187
11.5. Implications beyond the SM
The eects in B, K, and D decays and mixings due to high-scale physics
(W , Z, t, h in the SM, or new physics particles) can be parameterized by
operators composed of SM elds, obeying the SU (3) SU (2) U (1) gauge
symmetry. The observable eects of non-SM interactions are encoded in
the coecients of these operators, and are suppressed by powers of the
new physics scale. In the SM, these coecients are determined by just the
four CKM parameters, and the W , Z, and quark masses. For example,
md , (B ), and (B Xd + ) are all proportional to |Vtd Vtb |2
in the SM, however, they may receive unrelated new physics contributions.
Similar to measurements of sin 2 in tree- and loop-dominated decays,
overconstraining the magnitudes and phases of avor-changing neutral
current amplitudes give good sensitivity to new physics.
To illustrate the level of suppression required for non-SM contributions,
consider a class of models in which the dominant eect of new physics is to
modify the neutral meson mixing amplitudes [121] by (zij /2 )(q i PL qj )2 .
New physics with a generic weak phase may still contribute to meson
mixings at a signicant fraction of the SM [125,118]. The data imply that
/|zij |1/2 has to exceed about 104 TeV for K 0 K 0 mixing, 103 TeV for
D0 D0 mixing, 500 TeV for B 0 B 0 mixing, and 100 TeV for Bs0 B 0s
mixing [118,123]. Thus, if there is new physics at the TeV scale, |zij | 1
is required. Even if |zij | are suppressed by a loop factor and |Vti Vtj |2 (in
the down quark sector), as in the SM, one expects percent-level eects,
which may be observable in forthcoming experiments.
The CKM elements are fundamental parameters, so they should be
measured as precisely as possible. The overconstraining measurements of
CP asymmetries, mixing, semileptonic, and rare decays severely constrain
the magnitudes and phases of possible new physics contributions to
avor-changing interactions. When new particles are seen at the LHC, it
will be important to know the avor parameters as precisely as possible to
understand the underlying physics.
Further discussion and all references may be found in the full Review of
Particle Physics. The numbering of references and equations used here
corresponds to that version.
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12. CP violation in meson decays
12. CP VIOLATION IN MESON DECAYS
Revised September 2009 by D. Kirkby (UC Irvine) and Y. Nir (Weizmann
Institute).
The CP transformation combines charge conjugation C with parity
P . Under C, particles and antiparticles are interchanged, by conjugating
all internal quantum numbers, e.g., Q Q for electromagnetic charge.
Under P , the handedness of space is reversed, x x. Thus, for example,
a left-handed electron e
L is transformed under CP into a right-handed
positron, e+
.
R
We observe that most phenomena are C- and P -symmetric, and
therefore, also CP -symmetric. In particular, these symmetries are
respected by the gravitational, electromagnetic, and strong interactions.
The weak interactions, on the other hand, violate C and P in the strongest
possible way. For example, the charged W bosons couple to left-handed
+
electrons, e
L , and to their CP -conjugate right-handed positrons, eR ,
but to neither their C-conjugate left-handed positrons, e+
,
nor
their
L
P -conjugate right-handed electrons, e
R . While weak interactions violate C
and P separately, CP is still preserved in most weak interaction processes.
The CP symmetry is, however, violated in certain rare processes, as
discovered in neutral K decays in 1964 [1], and observed in recent years
in B decays.
The present measurements of CP asymmetries provide some of
the strongest constraints on the weak couplings of quarks. Future
measurements of CP violation in K, D, B, and Bs meson decays
will provide additional constraints on the avor parameters of the
Standard Model, and can probe new physics. In this review, we give the
formalism and basic physics that are relevant to present and near future
measurements of CP violation in meson decays.
12.1. Formalism
In this section, we present a general formalism for, and classication
of, CP violation in the decay of a pseudoscalar meson M that might
be a charged or neutral K, D, B, or Bs meson. Subsequent sections
describe the CP -violating phenomenology, approximations, and alternative
formalisms that are specic to each system.
12.1.1. Charged- and neutral-meson decays : We dene decay
amplitudes of M (which could be charged or neutral) and its CP
conjugate M to a multi-particle nal state f and its CP conjugate f as
Af = f |H| M , Af = f |H| M ,
Af = f |H| M , Af = f |H| M ,
where H is the Hamiltonian governing weak interactions.
(12.13)
12.1.2. Neutral-meson mixing : A state that is initially a superposi0
tion of M 0 and M , say
0
(12.17)
|(0) = a(0)|M 0 + b(0)|M ,
will evolve in time acquiring components that describe all possible decay
nal states {f1 , f2 , . . .}, that is,
0
(12.18)
|(t) = a(t)|M 0 + b(t)|M + c1 (t)|f1 + c2 (t)|f2 + .
If we are interested in computing only a(t) and b(t), we can use a simplied
formalism. The simplied time evolution is determined by a 2 2 eective
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189
Hamiltonian H that is not Hermitian, since otherwise the mesons would
only oscillate and not decay. Any complex matrix, such as H, can be
written in terms of Hermitian matrices M and as
i
(12.19)
H=M .
2
The eigenvectors of H have well-dened masses and decay widths. To
0
specify the components of the strong interaction eigenstates, M 0 and M ,
in the light (ML ) and heavy (MH ) mass eigenstates, we introduce two
complex parameters, p and q:
0
|ML p |M 0 + q |M
0
|MH p |M q |M ,
with the normalization |q|2 + |p|2 = 1.
Solving the eigenvalue problem for H yields
2
M (i/2)12
q
= 12
.
p
M12 (i/2)12
(12.20)
(12.22)
12.1.3. CP -violating observables : All CP -violating observables in M
and M decays to nal states f and f can be expressed in terms of phaseconvention-independent combinations of Af , Af , Af , and Af , together
with, for neutral-meson decays only, q/p. CP violation in charged-meson
decays depends only on the combination |Af /Af |, while CP violation
0
in neutral-meson decays is complicated by M 0 M oscillations, and
depends, additionally, on |q/p| and on f (q/p)(Af /Af ).
Dening x m/ and y /(2), one obtains the following
time-dependent decay rates:
0
d Mphys
(t) f /dt
=
et Nf
|Af |2 + |(q/p)Af |2 cosh(yt) + |Af |2 |(q/p)Af |2 cos(xt)
+ 2 Re((q/p)Af Af ) sinh(yt) 2 Im((q/p)Af Af ) sin(xt) ,
(12.30)
0
d M phys (t) f /dt
=
et Nf
|(p/q)Af |2 + |Af |2 cosh(yt) |(p/q)Af |2 |Af |2 cos(xt)
+ 2 Re((p/q)Af Af ) sinh(yt) 2 Im((p/q)Af Af ) sin(xt) ,
(12.31)
where Nf is a common, time-independent, normalization factor.
12.1.4. Classication of CP -violating eects : We distinguish three
types of CP -violating eects in meson decays:
I.
CP violation in decay is dened by
|Af /Af | = 1 .
(12.34)
In charged meson decays, where mixing eects are absent, this is
the only possible source of CP asymmetries:
|Af /Af + |2 1
(M f ) (M + f + )
=
.
(12.35)
Af
(M f ) + (M + f + )
|Af /Af + |2 + 1
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12. CP violation in meson decays
II. CP (and T ) violation in mixing is dened by
|q/p| = 1 .
(12.36)
In charged-current semileptonic neutral meson decays M, M
X (taking |A+ X | = |A X | and A X = A+ X = 0, as is the
case in the Standard Model, to lowest order in GF , and in most of
its reasonable extensions), this is the only source of CP violation,
and can be measured via the asymmetry of wrong-sign decays
induced by oscillations:
0
0
(t) X
d/dt M phys (t) + X d/dt Mphys
ASL (t)
0
0
d/dt M phys (t) + X + d/dt Mphys
(t) X
1 |q/p|4
.
(12.37)
1 + |q/p|4
Note that this asymmetry of time-dependent decay rates is
actually time-independent.
III. CP violation in interference between a decay without mixing,
0
M 0 f , and a decay with mixing, M 0 M f (such an
eect occurs only in decays to nal states that are common to M 0
0
and M , including all CP eigenstates), is dened by
Im(f ) = 0 ,
(12.38)
with
q Af
f
.
(12.39)
p Af
=
This form of CP violation can be observed, for example, using the
asymmetry of neutral meson decays into nal CP eigenstates fCP
0
0
(t) fCP
d/dt M phys (t) fCP d/dt Mphys
AfCP (t)
0
. (12.40)
0
d/dt M phys (t) fCP + d/dt Mphys
(t) fCP
If = 0 and |q/p| = 1, as expected to a good approximation for
B mesons, but not for K mesons, then AfCP has a particularly
simple form (see Eq. (12.74), below). If, in addition, the decay
amplitudes fulll |AfCP | = |AfCP |, the interference between
decays with and without mixing is the only source of the
asymmetry and AfCP (t) = Im(fCP ) sin(xt).
12.2. Theoretical Interpretation: The KM Mechanism
Of all the Standard Model quark parameters, only the KobayashiMaskawa (KM) phase is CP -violating. The Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa
(CKM) mixing matrix for quarks is described in the preceding CKM
review and in the full edition.
12.3. K Decays
The decay amplitudes actually measured in neutral K decays refer to
the mass eigenstates KL and KS , rather than to the K and K states
referred to in Eq. (12.13). The nal + and 0 0 states are CP -even.
In the CP limit, KS (KL ) would be CP -even (odd), and therefore would
(would not) decay to two pions. We dene CP -violating amplitude ratios
for two-pion nal states,
0 0 |H|KL
+ |H|KL
00 0 0
.
(12.50)
, + +
|H|KS
|H|KS
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12:56
191
Another important observable is the asymmetry of time-integrated
semileptonic decay rates:
(KL + ) (KL + )
.
(12.51)
L
(KL + ) + (KL + )
CP violation has been observed as an appearance of KL decays to
two-pion nal states [19],
|00 | = (2.222 0.010) 103
|+ | = (2.233 0.010) 103 (12.52)
|00 /+ | = 0.9950 0.0008 ,
(12.53)
where the phase ij of the amplitude ratio ij has been determined:
00 = (43.7 0.08) ,
+ = (43.4 0.07) ,
(12.54)
CP violation has also been observed in semileptonic KL decays [19]
L = (3.32 0.06) 103 ,
(12.56)
where L is a weighted average of muon and electron measurements, as
well as in KL decays to + and + e+ e [19]. CP violation in
K 3 decays has not yet been observed [19,29].
Historically, CP violation in neutral K decays has been described in
terms of parameters and . The observables 00 , + , and L are related
to these parameters, and to those of Section 12.1, by
1 0 0
1 +
00 =
= 2 , + =
= + ,
1 + 0 0
1 + +
L =
1 |q/p|2
1 + |q/p|2
2Re( )
1 + | |2
(12.57)
12.4. D Decays
First evidence for D0 D0 mixing has been recently obtained [3436].
Long-distance contributions make it dicult to calculate the Standard
Model prediction for the D0 D0 mixing parameters. Therefore, the goal of
the search for D0 D0 mixing is not to constrain the CKM parameters, but
rather to probe new physics. Here CP violation plays an important role.
Within the Standard Model, the CP -violating eects are predicted to be
negligibly small, since the mixing and the relevant decays are described,
to an excellent approximation, by physics of the rst two generations.
Observation of CP violation in D0 D0 mixing (at a level much higher
than O(103 )) will constitute an unambiguous signal of new physics.
At present, the most sensitive searches involve the D K + K and
D K modes.
12.5. B and Bs Decays
The upper bound on the CP asymmetry in semileptonic B decays [20]
0
implies that CP violation in B 0 B mixing is a small eect (we use
ASL /2 1 |q/p|, see Eq. (12.37)):
ASL = (0.4 5.6) 103 = |q/p| = 1.0002 0.0028.
(12.70)
Thus, for the purpose of analyzing CP asymmetries in hadronic B
decays, we can use
i
(12.72)
f = e M(B) (Af /Af ) ,
where M (B) refers to the phase of M12 appearing in Eq. (12.42) that
0
is appropriate for B 0 B oscillations. Within the Standard Model, the
corresponding phase factor is given by
e
iM(B)
= (Vtb Vtd )/(Vtb Vtd
).
(12.73)
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12. CP violation in meson decays
Some of the most interesting decays involve nal states that are
0
common to B 0 and B [40,41]. It is convenient to rewrite Eq. (12.40) for
B decays as [4244]
Af (t) = Sf sin(mt) Cf cos(mt),
2
2 Im(f )
1 f
Sf
(12.74)
2 , Cf
2 ,
1 + f
1 + f
where we assume that = 0 and |q/p| = 1. An alternative notation in
use is Af Cf , but this Af should not be confused with the Af of
Eq. (12.13).
A large class of interesting processes proceed via quark transitions of
the form b qqq with q = s or d. For q = c or u, there are contributions
from both tree (t) and penguin (pqu , where qu = u, c, t is the quark in the
loop) diagrams (see Fig. 12.2) which carry dierent weak phases:
Vqu b Vqu q pqfu .
Vqq tf +
(12.75)
Af = Vqb
qu =u,c,t
s processes, we can neglect the pqu
For B J/KS and other b cc
terms. Consequently, within
the
Standard
Model, we have:
Vtb Vtd Vcb Vcd
SKS = Im
, CKS = 0.
V V
Vtb Vtd
cb cd
12.6. Summary and Outlook
CP violation has been experimentally established in neutral K and B
meson decays:
1. All three types of CP violation have been observed in K
decays:
1 A0 0 A+
Re( ) =
= (2.5 0.4) 106 (I)
6 A0 0 A+
q
1
(II)
Re( ) =
1 = (1.66 0.02) 103
2
p
1
Im( ) = Im(()I=0 ) = (1.57 0.02) 103 .
(III)
2
(12.86)
2. Direct CP violation has been observed, rst in B 0 K + decays
(and more recently also in B + , B 0 K 0 , and B + 0 K +
decays), and CP violation in interference of decays with and without
mixing has been observed, rst in B J/KS decays and related
modes (as well as other nal CP eigenstates: KS , K + K KS ,
J/ 0 and + ):
|AK + /AK + |2 1
AK + =
= 0.098 0.013 (I)
|AK + /AK + |2 + 1
(III)
SK = Im(K ) = 0.673 0.023 .
(12.87)
Searches for additional CP asymmetries are ongoing in B, D, and
K decays, and current limits are consistent with Standard Model
expectations.
Further discussion and all references may be found in the full Review of
Particle Physics.
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13. Neutrino mixing 193
13. NEUTRINO MASS, MIXING, AND OSCILLATIONS
Written May 2010 by K. Nakamura (IPMU, U. Tokyo and KEK) and
S.T. Petcov (SISSA/INFN, Trieste and IPMU, U. Tokyo).
I. Massive neutrinos and neutrino mixing. It is a well-established
experimental fact that the neutrinos and antineutrinos which take part
in the standard charged current (CC) and neutral current (NC) weak
interaction are of three varieties (types) or avours: electron, e and e ,
muon, and , and tauon, and . The notion of neutrino type or
avour is dynamical: e is the neutrino which is produced with e+ , or
produces an e , in CC weak interaction processes, etc. The avour of
a given neutrino is Lorentz invariant. Among the three dierent avour
neutrinos and antineutrinos, no two are identical.
The experiments with solar, atmospheric, reactor and accelerator
neutrinos [416,20,21,22] have provided compelling evidences for the
existence of neutrino oscillations [17,18], transitions in ight between
the dierent avour neutrinos e , , (antineutrinos e , , ),
caused by nonzero neutrino masses and neutrino mixing. The existence of
oscillations implies that if a given avour neutrino, say , with energy
E is produced in some weak interaction process, the probability that it
will change into a dierent avour neutrino, say , after traveling a
suciently large distance L, P ( ; E, L), is dierent from zero. If
the oscillation or transition probability P ( ; E, L) = 0, the
probability that will not change into a neutrino of a dierent avour,
i.e., the survival probability, P ( ; E, L), will be smaller than
one. One would observe a disappearance of muon neutrinos on the way
from the source to the detector if only are detected and they take
part in oscillations.
Oscillations of neutrinos are a consequence of the presence of neutrino
mixing, or lepton mixing, in vacuum. In the formalism used to construct
the Standard Model, this means that the LH avour neutrino elds lL (x),
which enter into the expression for the lepton current in the CC weak
interaction Lagrangian, are given by:
lL (x) =
Ulj jL (x), l = e, , ,
(13.1)
j
where jL (x) is the LH component of the eld of a neutrino j possessing a
mass mj and U is a unitary matrix - the neutrino mixing matrix [1,17,18].
Eq. (13.1) implies that the individual lepton charges Ll , l = e, , , are not
conserved.
All neutrino oscillation data, except for the LSND result [23], can be
described assuming 3-neutrino mixing in vacuum. The number of massive
neutrinos j , n, can, in general, be bigger than 3 if, e.g., there exist sterile
neutrinos [1] and they mix with the avour neutrinos. It follows from the
current data that at least 3 of the neutrinos j , say 1 , 2 , 3 , must be
light, m1,2,3 1 eV, and must have dierent masses, m1 = m2 = m3 . At
present there are no compelling experimental evidences for the existence
of more than 3 light neutrinos.
Being electrically neutral, the massive neutrinos j can be Dirac or
Majorana particles [27,28]. The rst possibility is realized when there
exists a lepton charge L carried by j (e.g., L = Le + L + L , L(j ) = 1),
which is conserved by the particle interactions. The neutrino j has a
distinctive antiparticle j : j diers from j by the value of L it carries
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13. Neutrino mixing
(L(
j ) = 1). The neutrinos j can be Majorana particles if no lepton
charge is conserved (see, e.g., Ref. 29). A massive Majorana particle j is
identical with its antiparticle
j : j
j . On the basis of the existing
neutrino data it is impossible to determine whether the massive neutrinos
are Dirac or Majorana fermions.
In the case of n neutrino avours and n massive neutrinos, the n n
unitary neutrino mixing matrix U can be parametrised by n(n 1)/2
Euler angles and n(n + 1)/2 phases. If the massive neutrinos j are Dirac
particles, only (n 1)(n 2)/2 phases are physical and can be responsible
for CP violation in the lepton sector. In this respect the neutrino mixing
with Dirac massive neutrinos is similar to the quark mixing. For n = 3
there is one CP violating phase in U , the Dirac CP violating phase. CP
invariance holds if U is real, U = U .
If, however, the massive neutrinos are Majorana fermions, j j , the
neutrino mixing matrix U contains n(n 1)/2 CP violation phases [30,31],
i.e., by (n 1) phases more than in the Dirac neutrino case: in contrast to
Dirac elds, the massive Majorana neutrino elds cannot absorb phases.
In this case U can be cast in the form [30]
U =V P
(13.2)
where the matrix V contains the (n 1)(n 2)/2 Dirac CP violation
phases, while P is a diagonal matrix with the additional (n 1) Majorana
CP violation phases 21 , 31 ,..., n1 ,
21
31
n1
P = diag 1, ei 2 , ei 2 , ..., ei 2
.
(13.3)
The Majorana phases will conserve CP if [32] j1 = qj , qj = 0, 1, 2,
j = 2, 3, ..., n. In this case exp[i(j1 k1 )] = 1 is the relative CP-parity
of Majorana neutrinos j and k . The condition of CP invariance of the
leptonic CC weak interaction reads [29]:
= Ulj j , j = i CP (j ) = 1 ,
(13.4)
Ulj
where CP (j ) is the CP parity of the Majorana neutrino j [32].
In the case of n = 3 there are 3 CP violation phases - one Dirac and
two Majorana. Even in the mixing involving only 2 massive Majorana
neutrinos there is one physical CP violation Majorana phase.
II. Neutrino oscillations in vacuum. Neutrino oscillations are a
quantum mechanical consequence of the existence of nonzero neutrino
masses and neutrino (lepton) mixing, Eq. (13.1), and of the relatively
small splitting between the neutrino masses.
Suppose the avour neutrino l is produced in a CC weak interaction
process and is observed by a neutrino detector capable of detecting also
neutrinos l , l = l. If lepton mixing, Eq. (13.1), takes place and the
masses mj of all neutrinos j are suciently small, the state of the
neutrino l , |l , will be a coherent superposition of the states |j of
neutrinos j :
Ulj
|j ; pj , l = e, , ,
(13.5)
|l =
j
pj being the 4-momentum of j . For the state vector of the avour
antineutrino l , produced in a weak interaction process, we get:
|
l =
Ulj |
j ; pj , l = e, , .
(13.7)
j
Note the presence of U in Eq. (13.5) and U in Eq. (13.7).
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13. Neutrino mixing 195
We will consider the case of relativistic neutrinos j , which corresponds
to the conditions in both past and currently planned future neutrino
oscillation experiments [36]. If the spectrum of neutrino masses is
not degenerate, the states |j ; pj in the r.h.s. of Eq. (13.5) will have
dierent energies and dierent momenta, independently of the process in
which they were produced: pj = pk , or Ej = Ek , pj = pk , j = k, where
Ej = p2j + m2j , pj |pj |. The deviations of Ej and pj from the values
for a massless neutrino E and p = E, are proportional to m2j /E0 , E0 being
a characteristic energy of the process, and are extremely small.
Suppose that the neutrinos are observed via a CC weak interaction
process and that in the detectors rest frame they are detected after time
T after emission, after traveling a distance L. Then the amplitude of the
probability that neutrino l will be observed if neutrino l was produced
by the neutrino source can be written as [33,35,37]:
Ul j Dj Ujl ,
l, l = e, , ,
(13.8)
A(l l ) =
j
Dj Dj (
pj ; L, T ) = eipj (xf x0 ) = ei(Ej T pj L) ,
(13.9)
where Dj describes the propagation of j between the source and the
and Ul j are the amplitudes to nd j in the initial and in
detector, Ujl
the nal avour neutrino state, respectively, x0 and xf are the space-time
coordinates of the points of neutrino production and detection, T = (tf t0 )
and L = k(xf x0 ), pj = kpj . What is relevant for the calculation of the
probability P (l l ) = |A(l l )|2 is the interference factor Dj Dk .
The latter depends on the phase jk = (Ej Ek )T (pj pk )L, which
can be cast in the form:
m2j m2k
Ej + Ek
L +
L.
(13.10)
jk = (Ej Ek ) T
pj + pk
pj + pk
The rst term in the r.h.s. of Eq. (13.10) vanishes i) if [39]
T = (Ej +Ek ) L/(pj +pk ) = L/
v , v = (Ej /(Ej +Ek ))vj +(Ek /(Ej +Ek ))vk
being the average velocity of j and k , where vj,k = pj,k /Ej,k , or ii)
if one assumes [40] that Ej = Ek = E0 . The relation T = L/
v has not
emerged so far from any dynamical (wave packet) calculations. If the
states of j and j in Eq. (13.5) - Eq. (13.7) have the same 3-momentum
[37,41], pj = pk = p, the rst term in the r.h.s. of Eq. (13.10) is
negligible, being suppressed by the additional factor (m2j + m2k )/p2 since
for relativistic neutrinos L = T up to terms m2j,k /p2 . One arrives at the
same conclusion if Ej = Ek , pj = pk , j = k [33].
Although the cases considered above are physically quite dierent, they
lead to the same result for the phase dierence jk :
m2j m2k
pj + pk
L
L = 2 v sgn(m2j m2k ) , p =
,
(13.11)
jk
=
2p
Ljk
2
where Lvjk is the neutrino oscillation length associated with m2jk ,
p
p[M eV ]
(13.12)
Lvjk = 4
= 2.48 m
|m2jk |
|m2jk |[eV 2 ]
We can consider p to be the zero neutrino mass momentum, p = E. The
phase dierence jk , Eq. (13.11), is Lorentz-invariant.
Eq. (13.9) corresponds to a plane-wave description of the propagation of
neutrinos j . In the wave packet treatment of the problem, the interference
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13. Neutrino mixing
between the states of j and k is subject to a number of conditions, the
localization condition and the condition of overlapping of the wave packets
of j and k at the detection point being the most important (see, e.g.,
[33,35,37]) .
For the l l and l l oscillation probabilities we get from
Eq. (13.8), Eq. (13.9), and Eq. (13.11):
m2jk
ll
l l
l l
L jk
P (l l ) =
Rjj
+2
|Rjk
| cos(
),
(13.13)
2p
j
P (
l l ) =
j
j>k
l l
Rjj
+2
j>k
ll
|Rjk
| cos(
m2jk
2p
ll
L + jk
),
(13.14)
l l = U U U U and l l = arg Rl l .
where l, l = e, , , Rjk
l j lj lk l k
jk
jk
It follows from Eq. (13.8) - Eq. (13.10) that in order for neutrino
oscillations to occur, at least two neutrinos j should not be degenerate
in mass and lepton mixing should take place, U = 1. The oscillations
eects can be large if at least for one m2jk we have |m2jk |L/(2p) =
2L/Lvjk 1, i.e. the oscillation length Lvjk is of the order of, or smaller,
than source-detector distance L (otherwise the oscillations will not have
time to develop before neutrinos reach the detector).
We see from Eq. (13.13) and Eq. (13.14) that P (l l ) = P (
l l ).
This is a consequence of CPT invariance. The conditions of CP invariance
read [30,42,43]: P (l l ) = P (
l l ), l, l = e, , . In the case of
CPT invariance, which we will assume to hold, we get for the survival
l l ), l, l = e, , . Thus, the study
probabilities: P (l l ) = P (
of the disappearance of l and l , caused by oscillations in vacuum,
cannot be used to test the CP invariance in the lepton sector. It follows
from Eq. (13.13) - Eq. (13.14) that we can have CP violation eects in
neutrino oscillations only if U is not real. Eq. (13.2) and Eq. (13.13) l l ) do not depend on
Eq. (13.14) imply that P (l l ) and P (
the Majorana phases in the neutrino mixing matrix U [30]. Thus, i) in
the case of oscillations in vacuum, only the Dirac phase(s) in U can cause
CP violating eects leading to P (l l ) = P (
l l ), l = l , and
ii) the experiments investigating the l l and l l oscillations
cannot provide information on the nature - Dirac or Majorana, of massive
neutrinos [30,44].
As a measure of CP violation in neutrino oscillations we can consider
(l l)
(ll )
the asymmetry: ACP = P (l l ) P (
l l ) = ACP . In the case
(e)
( e)
( )
of 3-neutrino mixing one has [45]: ACP = ACP = ACP ,
m221
m213
m232
(e)
L + sin
L + sin
L ,
(13.18)
ACP = 4 JCP sin
2p
2p
2p
U U
where JCP = Im U3 Ue3
e2 2 is analogous to the rephasing invariant
associated with the CP violation in the quark mixing [46]. Thus, JCP
controls the magnitude of CP violation eects in neutrino oscillations in
(l l)
the case of 3-neutrino mixing. Even if JCP = 0, we will have ACP = 0
unless all three sin(m2ij /(2p))L = 0 in Eq. (13.18).
Consider next neutrino oscillations in the case of one neutrino
mass squared dierence dominance: suppose that |m2j1 | |m2n1 |,
j = 2, ..., (n 1), |m2n1 | L/(2p) 1 and |m2j1 | L/(2p) 1, so that
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13. Neutrino mixing 197
1, j = 2, ..., (n 1). Under these conditions we
exp[i(m2j1 L/(2p)] =
obtain from Eq. (13.13) and Eq. (13.14), keeping only the oscillating terms
involving m2n1 : P (l(l ) l (l) )
l(l ) l (l) ),
= P (
m2n1
P (l(l ) l (l) )
L . (13.20)
= ll 4|Uln |2 ll |Ul n |2 sin2
4p
It follows from the neutrino oscillation data that in the case of 3-neutrino
mixing, one of the two independent neutrino mass squared dierences,
say m221 , is much smaller in absolute value than the second one, m231 :
|m221 |/|m231 |
= 0.032, |m231 |
= 2.4 103 eV2 . Eq. (13.20) with
n = 3, describes with a relatively good precision the oscillations of i)
reactor e ( l, l = e) on a distance L 1 km, corresponding to the
CHOOZ and the Double Chooz, Daya Bay and RENO experiments, and of
ii) the accelerator (l, l = ), seen in the K2K and MINOS experiments.
The oscillations, which the OPERA experiment is aiming to
detect, can be described in the case of 3-neutrino mixing by Eq. (13.20)
with n = 3 and l = , l = .
In certain cases the dimensions of the neutrino source, L, and/or
the energy resolution of the detector, E, have to be included in
the analysis of the neutrino oscillation data. If [29] 2L/Lvjk 1,
and/or 2(L/Lvjk )(E/E) 1, the interference terms in P (l l ) and
P (
l l ) will be strongly suppressed and the neutrino avour conversion
will be determined by the average probabilities: P (l l ) = P (
l
l )
= j |Ul j |2 |Ulj |2 . Suppose next that in the case of 3-neutrino mixing,
|m221 | L/(2p) 1, while |m231(32) | L/(2p) 1, and the oscillations due
to m231(32) are strongly suppressed (averaged out) due to integration
over the region of neutrino production, etc. In this case we get for the e
and e survival probabilities: P (e e ) = P (
e e ) Pee ,
2
m221
Pee
L
(13.26)
1 sin2 212 sin2
= |Ue3 |4 + 1 |Ue3 |2
4p
with 12 determined by cos2 12 = |Ue1 |2 /(1 |Ue3 |2 ), sin2 12 =
|Ue2 |2 /(1 |Ue3 |2 ). Eq. (13.26) describes the eects of reactor e
oscillations observed by the KamLAND experiment (L 180 km).
The data of -oscillations experiments is often analyzed assuming
2-neutrino mixing: |l = |1 cos + |2 sin , |x = |1 sin +
|2 cos , where is the neutrino mixing angle in vacuum and x is
another avour neutrino or sterile (anti-) neutrino, x = l = l or x s .
In this case we have [41]: m2 = m22 m21 > 0,
L
P 2 (l l ) = 1 sin2 2 sin2 v , Lv = 4 p/m2 ,
(13.30)
L
P 2 (l x ) = 1 P 2 (l l ). Eq. (13.30) with l = , x = was used,
e.g., in the atmospheric neutrino data analysis [13], in which the rst
compelling evidence for neutrino oscillations was obtained.
III. Matter eects in neutrino oscillations. When neutrinos
propagate in matter (e.g., in the Earth, Sun or a supernova), their
coherent forward-scattering from the particles present in matter can
change drastically the pattern of neutrino oscillations [25,26,52]. Thus,
the probabilities of neutrino transitions in matter can dier signicantly
from the corresponding vacuum oscillation probabilities.
In the case of, e.g., solar e transitions in the Sun and 3-neutrino
mixing, the oscillations due to m231 are strongly suppressed by the
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12:56
13. Neutrino mixing
Figure 13.10: The regions of squared-mass splitting and mixing
angle favored or excluded by various experiments. The gure was
contributed by H. Murayama (University of California, Berkeley, and
IPMU, University of Tokyo).
averaging over the region of neutrino
production in the Sun. The e
undergo transitions into ( + )/ 2. As a consequence of the eects
of the solar matter, the solar e transitions observed by the SuperKamiokande and SNO experiments exhibit a characteristic dependence
3 ( ) |U |4 + (1 |U |2 )2 sin2 . The data
on sin2 12 : P
e
e =
e3
e3
12
3
show that P
= 0.3, which is a strong evidence for solar matter
eects in the transitions [85] since in the case of transitions in vacuum
3 |U |4 + (1 |U |2 )2 (1 0.5 sin2 2 ) 0.48, where we used the
P
= e3
e3
12
experimental limits |Ue3 |2 < 0.056 and sin2 212 0.93.
IV. The evidence for avour neutrino oscillations. The evidence
for avour neutrino oscillations/transitions is compelling. We discuss the
relevant data in the full edition. The regions of the oscillation parameter
space favored or excluded by various neutrino oscillation experiments are
shown in Fig. 13.10.
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13. Neutrino mixing 199
V. Three neutrino mixing. All compelling data on neutrino oscillations
can be described assuming 3-avour neutrino mixing in vacuum. In this
case U can be parametrised as
s12 c13
s13 ei
c12 c13
U = s12 c23 c12 s23 s13 ei
c12 c23 s12 s23 s13 ei s23 c13
s12 s23 c12 c23 s13 ei c12 s23 s12 c23 s13 ei c23 c13
21
31
diag(1, ei 2 , ei 2 ) .
(13.77)
where cij = cos ij , sij = sin ij , the angles ij = [0, /2], = [0, 2] is the
Dirac CP violation phase and 21 , 31 are the two Majorana phases. The
existing neutrino oscillation data allow us to determine the parameters
which drive the solar e and the dominant atmospheric
oscillations, m221 > 0, sin2 12 , and |m231 |, sin2 223 , with a relatively
good precision, and to obtain rather stringent limit on the angle 13 :
m221
= 2.40 103 eV 2 ,
= 7.65 105 eV 2 , sin2 12
= 0.304, |m231 |
2
2
sin 223 = 1, sin 13 < 0.056 (at 3). These results imply that
m221 |m231 | and that 23
= /4, 12
= /5.4 and 13 < /13. Thus,
the pattern of neutrino mixing is drastically dierent from the pattern of
quark mixing.
The existing neutrino oscillation data do not allow to determine the
sign of m231(32) . Correspondingly, two types of neutrino mass spectrum
are possible: i) with normal ordering: m1 < m2 < m3 , m231 > 0,
1
m221 > 0, m2(3) =(m21 + m221(31) ) 2 ; ii) with inverted ordering (IO):
1
m3 < m1 < m2 , m232(31) < 0, m221 > 0, m2 =(m23 + m223 ) 2 , m1 =
1
(m23 + m223 m221 ) 2 . Depending on the values of the lightest neutrino
mass [113], min(mj ), the neutrino mass spectrum can also be: a) normal
hierarchical (NH): m1 m2 < m3 ; or b) inverted hierarchical (IH):
m3 m1 < m2 ; or c) quasi-degenerate (QD): m1
= m2
= m3 m0 ,
m2j |m221,31 |, m0 0.10 eV. All three types of spectrum are compatible
with the existing data.
At present no experimental information on the CP violation phases in
the mixing matrix U is available. The JCP factor (see Eq. (13.18)) in
the standard parametrisation (Eq. (13.77)) of U has the form: JCP =
(1/8) cos 13 sin 212 sin 223 sin 213 sin . Thus, the size of CP violation
eects in neutrino oscillations depends on the currently unknown values of
the small angle 13 and the Dirac phase .
The Majorana nature of massive neutrinos j manifests itself in the
existence of |L| = 2 processes: + (A, Z) + + (A, Z 2), etc.
The latter can be triggered by the exchange of the neutrino j if it
is identical with its antiparticle. The only feasible experiments having
the potential of establishing that the massive neutrinos are Majorana
particles are at present the experiments searching for ()0 -decay:
(A, Z) (A, Z + 2) + e + e (see e.g., Ref. 124). One may expect that
the dominant contribution in the ()0 -decay amplitude is due to the
exchange of the light Majorana neutrinos j . In this case the ()0 -decay
rate is proportional to | < m > |2 , where
<2m > is the ()0 -decay
eective Majorana mass, | < m > | = | j Uej
mj |.
Determining the type of neutrino mass spectrum, the status of the CP
symmetry in the lepton sector and the nature of massive neutrinos are
among the major goals of the future studies in neutrino physics.
For details and references, see the full Review.
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200
12:56
14. Quark model
14. QUARK MODEL
Revised September 2009 by C. Amsler (University of Z
urich), T. DeGrand
(University of Colorado, Boulder), and B. Krusche (University of Basel).
14.1. Quantum numbers of the quarks
Quarks are strongly interacting fermions with spin 1/2 and, by
convention, positive parity. Antiquarks have negative parity. Quarks have
the additive baryon number 1/3, antiquarks -1/3. Table 14.1 gives the
other additive quantum numbers (avors) for the three generations of
quarks. They are related to the charge Q (in units of the elementary
charge e) through the generalized Gell-Mann-Nishijima formula
Q = Iz +
B+S+C+B+T
,
2
(14.1)
where B is the baryon number. The convention is that the flavor of a
quark (Iz , S, C, B, or T) has the same sign as its charge Q. With this
convention, any avor carried by a charged meson has the same sign as its
charge, e.g., the strangeness of the K + is +1, the bottomness of the B +
is +1, and the charm and strangeness of the Ds are each 1. Antiquarks
have the opposite avor signs.
14.2. Mesons
Mesons have baryon number B = 0. In the quark model, they are qq
bound states of quarks q and antiquarks q (the avors of q and q may
be dierent). If the orbital angular momentum of the qq state is , then
the parity P is (1)+1 . The meson spin J is given by the usual relation
| s| J | + s|, where s is 0 (antiparallel quark spins) or 1 (parallel
quark spins). The charge conjugation, or C-parity C = (1)+s , is dened
only for the q q states made of quarks and their own antiquarks. The
C-parity can be generalized to the G-parity G = (1)I++s for mesons
made of quarks and their own antiquarks (isospin Iz = 0), and for the
charged ud and d
u states (isospin I = 1).
The mesons are classied in J P C multiplets. The = 0 states are the
pseudoscalars (0+ ) and the vectors (1 ). The orbital excitations = 1
are the scalars (0++ ), the axial vectors (1++ ) and (1+ ), and the tensors
(2++ ). Assignments for many of the known mesons are given in Tables
14.2 and 14.3. Radial excitations are denoted by the principal quantum
number n. The very short lifetime of the t quark makes it likely that
bound-state hadrons containing t quarks and/or antiquarks do not exist.
States in the natural spin-parity series P = (1)J must, according to
the above, have s = 1 and hence, CP = +1. Thus, mesons with natural
spin-parity and CP = 1 (0+ , 1+ , 2+ , 3+ , etc.) are forbidden in
the q q model. The J P C = 0 state is forbidden as well. Mesons with
such exotic quantum numbers may exist, but would lie outside the q q
model (see section below on exotic mesons).
Following SU(3), the nine possible q q combinations containing the
light u, d, and s quarks are grouped into an octet and a singlet of light
quark mesons:
33=81 .
(14.2)
A fourth quark such as charm c can be included by extending SU(3)
to SU(4). However, SU(4) is badly broken owing to the much heavier c
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201
14. Quark model
quark. Nevertheless, in an SU(4) classication, the sixteen mesons are
grouped into a 15-plet and a singlet:
4 4 = 15 1 .
(14.3)
The weight diagrams for the ground-state pseudoscalar (0+ ) and
vector (1 ) mesons are depicted in Fig. 14.1. The light quark mesons
are members of nonets building the middle plane in Fig. 14.1(a) and (b).
Ds+
cs cd
cu
D0
K0
(a)
+
D
+
K
;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;
0
ds
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;
us ;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;
du
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
ud
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;; su
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
sd
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
uc
dc
D sc
C
Y
I
Ds
Ds* +
cs
K0
D0
(b)
D*0 cu cd D* +
*+
K *0
K;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;
ds
us;;;;;;;;;
0
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
du
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
+
ud
;;;;;;;;;
/ sd;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;su J
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
K*
K *0
dc uc
D*0
*
D
sc
Ds*
Figure 14.1: SU(4) weight diagram showing the 16-plets for the
pseudoscalar (a) and vector mesons (b) made of the u, d, s, and c
quarks as a function of isospin I, charm C, and hypercharge Y =
S+B C . The nonets of light mesons occupy the central planes to
3
which the c
c states have been added.
Isoscalar states with the same J P C will mix, but mixing between the
two light quark isoscalar mesons, and the much heavier charmonium or
bottomonium states, are generally assumed to be negligible.
14.3. Baryons: qqq states
Baryons are fermions with baryon number B = 1, i.e., in the most
general case, they are composed of three quarks plus any number of
quark - antiquark pairs. Although recently some experimental evidence
for (qqqq q) pentaquark states has been claimed (see review on Possible
Exotic Baryon Resonance), so far all established baryons are 3-quark (qqq)
congurations. The color part of their state functions is an SU(3) singlet,
a completely antisymmetric state of the three colors. Since the quarks are
fermions, the state function must be antisymmetric under interchange of
any two equal-mass quarks (up and down quarks in the limit of isospin
symmetry). Thus it can be written as
| qqq A = | color A | space, spin, avor S ,
(14.21)
where the subscripts S and A indicate symmetry or antisymmetry under
interchange of any two equal-mass quarks. Note the contrast with the
state function for the three nucleons in 3 H or 3 He:
| N N N A = | space, spin, isospin A .
(14.22)
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12:56
14. Quark model
This dierence has major implications for internal structure, magnetic
moments, etc.
The ordinary baryons are made up of u, d, and s quarks. The three
avors imply an approximate avor SU(3), which requires that baryons
made of these quarks belong to the multiplets on the right side of
3 3 3 = 10S 8M 8M 1A .
cc+
c0
+
cc
ddc
dsc
udd
+c, c+
udc
0
ssc c
uuc
usc
c+
uud
uds
, 0
dds
dss
++
cc
dcc ucc
scc
(a)
c++
uus
uss
(14.23)
++
ccc
(b)
+
cc
c0
+
cc
ddc
ddd
uuc
usc
ssc
udd
uds
dds
c+
udc
dsc
++
cc
dcc ucc
scc
c0
0
uss
dss
sss
c++
+
+ c
uud
uus
uuu
++
Figure 14.2: SU(4) multiplets of baryons made of u, d, s, and c
quarks. (a) The 20-plet with an SU(3) octet. (b) The 20-plet with
an SU(3) decuplet.
Here the subscripts indicate symmetric, mixed-symmetry, or antisymmetric states under interchange of any two quarks. The 1 is a uds
state (1 ), and the octet contains a similar state (8 ). If these have the
same spin and parity, they can mix. The mechanism is the same as for
the mesons (see above). In the ground state multiplet, the SU(3) avor
singlet 1 is forbidden by Fermi statistics. Section 37, on SU(3) Isoscalar
Factors and Representation Matrices, shows how relative decay rates in,
say, 10 8 8 decays may be calculated. The addition of the c quark to
the light quarks extends the avor symmetry to SU(4). However, due to
the large mass of the c quark, this symmetry is much more strongly broken
than the SU(3) of the three light quarks. Figures 14.2(a) and 14.2(b) show
the SU(4) baryon multiplets that have as their bottom levels an SU(3)
octet, such as the octet that includes the nucleon, or an SU(3) decuplet,
such as the decuplet that includes the (1232). All particles in a given
SU(4) multiplet have the same spin and parity. The charmed baryons are
discussed in more detail in the Note on Charmed Baryons in the Particle
Listings. The addition of a b quark extends the avor symmetry to SU(5);
the existence of baryons with t-quarks is very unlikely due to the short
lifetime of the top.
For further details, see the full Review of Particle Physics.
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16. Structure functions 203
16. STRUCTURE FUNCTIONS
Updated September 2007 by B. Foster (University of Oxford), A.D. Martin
(University of Durham), and M.G. Vincter (Carleton University).
16.1. Deep inelastic scattering
High-energy lepton-nucleon scattering (deep inelastic scattering) plays
a key role in determining the partonic structure of the proton. The
process N X is illustrated in Fig. 16.1. The lled circle in this gure
represents the internal structure of the proton which can be expressed in
terms of structure functions.
k
k
P, M
q
W
Figure 16.1: Kinematic quantities for the description of deep
inelastic scattering. The quantities k and k are the four-momenta
of the incoming and outgoing leptons, P is the four-momentum of a
nucleon with mass M , and W is the mass of the recoiling system X.
The exchanged particle is a , W , or Z; it transfers four-momentum
q = k k to the nucleon.
Invariant quantities:
qP
= E E is the leptons energy loss in the nucleon rest frame
M
(in earlier literature sometimes = q P ). Here, E and E
are the initial and nal lepton energies in the nucleon rest
frame.
Q2 = q 2 = 2(EE k k ) m2 m2 where m (m ) is the initial
(nal) lepton mass. If EE sin2 (/2) m2 , m2 , then
4EE sin2 (/2), where is the leptons scattering angle with respect
to the lepton beam direction.
Q2
where, in the parton model, x is the fraction of the nucleons
x=
2M
momentum carried by the struck quark.
y=
qP
=
is the fraction of the leptons energy lost in the nucleon
kP
E
rest frame.
W 2 = (P + q)2 = M 2 + 2M Q2 is the mass squared of the system X
recoiling against the scattered lepton.
Q2
+ M 2 + m2 is the center-of-mass energy squared of the
xy
lepton-nucleon system.
s = (k + P )2 =
The process in Fig. 16.1 is called deep (Q2 M 2 ) inelastic (W 2 M 2 )
scattering (DIS). In what follows, the masses of the initial and scattered
leptons, m and m , are neglected.
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12:56
16. Structure functions
16.1.1. DIS cross sections :
d2
d2
d2
2 M
= x (s M 2 )
=
.
(16.1)
dx dy
dx dQ2
E dNrest dE
In lowest-order perturbation theory, the cross section for the scattering of
polarized leptons on polarized nucleons can be expressed in terms of the
products of leptonic and hadronic tensors associated with the coupling of
the exchanged bosons at the upper and lower vertices in Fig. 16.1 (see
Refs. 14)
d2
2y2
j
=
j L
(16.2)
j W .
dxdy
Q4
j
For neutral-current processes, the summation is over j = , Z and Z
representing photon and Z exchange and the interference between them,
whereas for charged-current interactions there is only W exchange,
j = W . (For transverse nucleon polarization, there is a dependence on
the azimuthal angle of the scattered lepton.) L is the lepton tensor
associated with the coupling of the exchange boson to the leptons. For
incoming leptons of charge e = 1 and helicity = 1,
L = 2 k k + k k k k g i k k ,
e
e
LZ
=(gV + egA ) L ,
e
e 2
LZ
= (gV + egA ) L ,
2
LW
=(1 + e) L ,
(16.3)
e = 1 . Although here the helicity
where gVe = 1 + 2 sin2 W ,
gA
2
2
formalism is adopted, an alternative approach is to express the tensors in
Eq. (16.3) in terms of the polarization of the lepton.
The factors j in Eq. (16.2) denote the ratios of the corresponding
propagators and couplings to the photon propagator and coupling squared
GF MZ2
Q2
= 1 ; Z =
;
Q2 + MZ2
2 2
2
2
GF MW
Q2
2
1
.
(16.4)
Z = Z ; W =
2
2
4 Q2 + MW
The hadronic tensor, which describes the interaction of the appropriate
electroweak currents with the target nucleon, is given by
1
(16.5)
W =
d4 z eiqz P, S J (z), J (0) P, S ,
4
where S denotes the nucleon-spin 4-vector, with S 2 = M 2 and S P = 0.
16.2. Structure functions of the proton
The structure functions are dened in terms of the hadronic tensor (see
Refs. 13)
q q
P P
F2 (x, Q2 )
F1 (x, Q2 ) +
W = g +
P q
q2
q P
F3 (x, Q2 )
2P q
q
Sq
+ i
P
g2 (x, Q2 )
S g1 (x, Q2 ) + S
P q
P q
i
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16. Structure functions 205
1
1 P
S + S P S q P P g3 (x, Q2 )
+
P q 2
P q
q q
S q P P
2
+
g4 (x, Q2 ) + g +
(x,
Q
)
(16.6)
g
5
P q P q
q2
where
P q
q ,
P = P
q2
Sq
S = S
q .
q2
(16.7)
The cross sections for neutral- and charged-current deep inelastic
scattering on unpolarized nucleons can be written in terms of the structure
functions in the generic form
d2 i
42 i
x2 y 2 M 2
=
1 y
F2i
2
2
dxdy
xyQ
Q
y2
+ y 2 xF1i y
(16.8)
xF3i ,
2
where i = NC, CC corresponds to neutral-current (eN eX) or chargedcurrent (eN X or N eX) processes, respectively. For incoming
neutrinos, LW
of Eq. (16.3) is still true, but with e, corresponding to
the outgoing charged lepton. In the last term of Eq. (16.8), the sign is
taken for an incoming e+ or and the + sign for an incoming e or .
The factor NC = 1 for unpolarized e beams, whereas
CC = (1 )2 W
(16.9)
with for ; and where is the helicity of the incoming lepton and
W is dened in Eq. (16.4); for incoming neutrinos CC = 4W . The CC
structure functions, which derive exclusively from W exchange, are
F1CC = F1W , F2CC = F2W , xF3CC = xF3W .
(16.10)
Z
The NC structure functions F2 , F2 , F2Z are, for e N e X, given by
Ref. [5],
e
)Z F2
F2NC = F2 (gVe gA
e2
e
+ (gVe 2 +gA
2gVe gA
) Z F2Z (16.11)
and similarly for F1NC , whereas
e
e
e2
xF3NC = (gA
gVe )Z xF3 +[2gVe gA
(gVe 2 +gA
)]Z xF3Z . (16.12)
The polarized cross-section dierence
= (n = 1, ) (n = 1, ) ,
(16.13)
where , n are the helicities (1) of the incoming lepton and nucleon,
respectively, may be expressed in terms of the ve structure functions
g1,...5 (x, Q2 ) of Eq. (16.6). Thus,
2
82 i
d2 i
M2
2 2M
=
y
2
2x
y
xg1i + 4x3 y 2 2 g2i
dxdy
xyQ2
Q2
Q
M2
M2
+ 2x2 y 2 1 y x2 y 2 2 g3i
Q
Q
M2
M2
1 + 2x2 y 2
1 y x2 y 2 2 g4i + xy 2 g5i
(16.14)
Q
Q
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16. Structure functions
with i = NC or CC as before. In the M 2 /Q2 0 limit, Eq. (16.8) and
Eq. (16.14) may be written in the form
d2 i
22 i
Y+ F2i Y xF3i y 2 FLi ,
=
dxdy
xyQ2
d2 i
42 i
i
,
=
Y+ g4i Y 2xg1i + y 2 gL
dxdy
xyQ2
(16.16)
with i = NC or CC, where Y = 1 (1 y)2 and
FLi = F2i 2xF1i ,
i
gL
= g4i 2xg5i .
(16.17)
In the naive quark-parton model, the analogy with the Callan-Gross
i = 0. Therefore,
relations [6] FLi = 0, are the Dicus relations [7] gL
there are only two independent polarized structure functions: g1 (parity
conserving) and g5 (parity violating), in analogy with the unpolarized
structure functions F1 and F3 .
16.2.1. Structure functions in the quark-parton model :
In the quark-parton model [8,9], contributions to the structure
functions F i and g i can be expressed in terms of the quark distribution
functions q(x, Q2 ) of the proton, where q = u, u, d, d etc.The quantity
q(x, Q2 )dx is the number of quarks (or antiquarks) of designated avor
that carry a momentum fraction between x and x + dx of the protons
momentum in a frame in which the proton momentum is large.
For the neutral-current processes ep eX,
q2
F2 , F2Z , F2Z = x
e2q , 2eq gVq , gVq 2 + gA
(q + q) ,
q
Z
q
q q
F3 , F3 , F3Z =
0, 2eq gA , 2gV gA (q q) ,
q
Z
q2
Z
1
e2q , 2eq gVq , gVq 2 + gA
(q + q) ,
g1 , g1 , g1 =
2
Z
q
q q
g5 , g5 , g5Z =
0, eq gA , gV gA (q q) ,
(16.18)
where gV = 1 2eq sin2 W and gA = 1 , with according to whether
2
2
q is a u or dtype quark respectively. The quantity q is the dierence
q q of the distributions with the quark spin parallel and antiparallel
to the proton spin.
For the charged-current processes e p X and p e+ X, the
structure functions are:
F2W = 2x(u + d + s + c . . .) , F3W = 2(u d s + c . . .) ,
(16.19)
g1W
= (u + d + s + c . . .) ,
g5W
= (u + d + s c . . .) ,
where only the active avors are to be kept and where CKM mixing has
been neglected. For e+ p X and p e X, the structure functions
+
+
F W , g W are obtained by the avor interchanges d u, s c in the
expressions for F W , g W . The structure functions for scattering on a
neutron are obtained from those of the proton by the interchange u d.
For both the neutral- and charged-current processes, the quark-parton
model predicts 2xF1i = F2i and g4i = 2xg5i .
Further discussion may be found in the full Review of Particle Physics.
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16. Structure functions 207
F2(x,Q ) * 2 x
10
10 8
H1
ZEUS
BCDMS
E665
NMC
SLAC
10 7
10 6
10 5
10 4
10 3
10 2
10
1
10
10
10
-1
-2
-3
10
-1
10
10
10
10
10
10
Q (GeV )
p
Figure 16.7: The proton structure function F2 measured
in electromagnetic scattering of positrons on protons (collider
experiments ZEUS and H1), in the kinematic domain of the HERA
data, for x > 0.00006 (cf. Fig. 16.10 for data at smaller x and Q2 ),
and for electrons (SLAC) and muons (BCDMS, E665, NMC) on a
xed target. Statistical and systematic errors added in quadrature
are shown. The data are plotted as a function of Q2 in bins of xed
x. Some points have been slightly oset in Q2 for clarity. The ZEUS
binning in x is used in this plot; all other data are rebinned to the x
p
values of the ZEUS data. For the purpose of plotting, F2 has been
i
x
multiplied by 2 , where ix is the number of the x bin, ranging from
ix = 1 (x = 0.85) to ix = 28 (x = 0.000063).
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208
12:56
19. Big-Bang cosmology
19. BIG-BANG COSMOLOGY
Revised September 2009 by K.A. Olive (University of Minnesota) and
J.A. Peacock (University of Edinburgh).
19.1. Introduction to Standard Big-Bang Model
The observed expansion of the Universe [1,2,3] is a natural (almost
inevitable) result of any homogeneous and isotropic cosmological model
based on general relativity. In order to account for the possibility that the
abundances of the elements had a cosmological origin, Alpher and Herman
proposed that the early Universe which was once very hot and dense
(enough so as to allow for the nucleosynthetic processing of hydrogen),
and has expanded and cooled to its present state [4,5]. In 1948, Alpher
and Herman predicted that a direct consequence of this model is the
presence of a relic background radiation with a temperature of order a
few K [6,7]. It was the observation of the 3 K background radiation that
singled out the Big-Bang model as the prime candidate to describe our
Universe. Subsequent work on Big-Bang nucleosynthesis further conrmed
the necessity of our hot and dense past. These relativistic cosmological
models face severe problems with their initial conditions, to which the best
modern solution is inationary cosmology.
19.1.1. The Robertson-Walker Universe :
The observed homogeneity and isotropy enable us to describe the overall
geometry and evolution of the Universe in terms of two cosmological
parameters accounting for the spatial curvature and the overall expansion
(or contraction) of the Universe. These two quantities appear in the most
general expression for a space-time metric which has a (3D) maximally
symmetric subspace of a 4D space-time, known as the Robertson-Walker
metric:
dr2
2
2
2
2
ds2 = dt2 R2 (t)
+
r
(d
+
sin
d
)
.
(19.1)
1 kr2
Note that we adopt c = 1 throughout. By rescaling the radial coordinate,
we can choose the curvature constant k to take only the discrete values
+1, 1, or 0 corresponding to closed, open, or spatially at geometries.
19.1.2. The redshift :
The cosmological redshift is a direct consequence of the Hubble
expansion, determined by R(t). A local observer detecting light from a
distant emitter sees a redshift in frequency. We can dene the redshift as
1 2
v12
z
,
(19.3)
2
c
where 1 is the frequency of the emitted light, 2 is the observed frequency
and v12 is the relative velocity between the emitter and the observer.
While the denition, z = (1 2 )/2 is valid on all distance scales,
relating the redshift to the relative velocity in this simple way is only true
on small scales (i.e., less than cosmological scales) such that the expansion
velocity is non-relativistic. For light signals, we can use the metric given
by Eq. (19.1) and ds2 = 0 to write
R2
1
=
.
(19.5)
1+z =
2
R1
This result does not depend on the non-relativistic approximation.
19.1.3. The Friedmann-Lematre equations of motion :
The cosmological equations of motion are derived from Einsteins
equations
R 12 g R = 8GN T + g .
(19.6)
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19. Big-Bang cosmology
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209
Gliner [17] and Zeldovich [18] have pioneered the modern view, in
which the term is taken to the rhs and interpreted as an eective
energymomentum tensor T for the vacuum of g /8GN . It is
common to assume that the matter content of the Universe is a perfect
uid, for which
(19.7)
T = pg + (p + ) u u ,
where g is the space-time metric described by Eq. (19.1), p is the
isotropic pressure, is the energy density and u = (1, 0, 0, 0) is the
velocity vector for the isotropic uid in co-moving coordinates. With the
perfect uid source, Einsteins equations lead to the Friedmann-Lematre
equations
2
R
k
8 GN
2
2+ ,
(19.8)
=
H
R
3
R
3
and
R
4GN
=
( + 3p) ,
(19.9)
R
3
3
where H(t) is the Hubble parameter and is the cosmological constant.
The rst of these is sometimes called the Friedmann equation. Energy
conservation via T ; = 0, leads to a third useful equation
= 3H ( + p) .
(19.10)
Eq. (19.10) can also be simply derived as a consequence of the rst law
of thermodynamics. For = 0, it is clear that the Universe must be
expanding or contracting.
19.1.4. Definition of cosmological parameters :
The Friedmann equation can be used to dene a critical density such
that k = 0 when = 0,
3H 2
c
= 1.88 1026 h2 kg m3
8 GN
(19.11)
= 1.05 105 h2 GeV cm3 ,
where the scaled Hubble parameter, h, is dened by
H 100 h km s1 Mpc1
H 1 = 9.78 h1 Gyr
(19.12)
= 2998 h Mpc .
The cosmological density parameter tot is dened as the energy density
relative to the critical density,
(19.13)
tot = /c .
Note that one can now rewrite the Friedmann equation as
k/R2 = H 2 (tot 1) .
(19.14)
From Eq. (19.14), one can see that when tot > 1, k = +1 and the
Universe is closed, when tot < 1, k = 1 and the Universe is open, and
when tot = 1, k = 0, and the Universe is spatially at.
It is often necessary to distinguish dierent contributions to the
density. It is therefore convenient to dene present-day density parameters
for pressureless matter (m ) and relativistic particles (r ), plus the
quantity = /3H 2 . In more general models, we may wish to drop the
assumption that the vacuum energy density is constant, and we therefore
denote the present-day density parameter of the vacuum by v . The
Friedmann equation then becomes
k/R02 = H02 (m + r + v 1) ,
(19.15)
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12:56
19. Big-Bang cosmology
where the subscript 0 indicates present-day values. Thus, it is the sum of
the densities in matter, relativistic particles, and vacuum that determines
the overall sign of the curvature. Note that the quantity k/R02 H02 is
sometimes (unfortunately) referred to as k .
19.1.5. Standard Model solutions :
During ination and again today the expansion rate for the Universe
is accelerating, and domination by a cosmological constant or some other
form of dark energy should be considered.
Let us rst assume a general equation of state parameter for a single
component, w = p/ which is constant. In this case, Eq. (19.10) can be
written as = 3(1 + w)R/R
and is easily integrated to yield
R3(1+w) .
(19.16)
Note that at early times when R is small, k/R2 in the Friedmann equation
can be neglected so long as w > 1/3. Curvature domination occurs at
rather late times (if a cosmological constant term does not dominate
sooner). For w = 1,
(19.17)
R(t) t2/[3(1+w)] .
19.1.5.2. A Radiation-dominated Universe:
In the early hot and dense Universe, it is appropriate to assume an
equation of state corresponding to a gas of radiation (or relativistic
particles) for which w = 1/3. In this case, Eq. (19.16) becomes R4 .
Similarly, one can substitute w = 1/3 into Eq. (19.17) to obtain
H = 1/2t .
(19.18)
R(t) t1/2 ;
19.1.5.3. A Matter-dominated Universe:
Non-relativistic matter eventually dominates the energy density over
radiation. A pressureless gas (w = 0) leads to the expected dependence
R3 , and, if k = 0, we get
H = 2/3t .
(19.19)
R(t) t2/3 ;
If there is a dominant source of vacuum energy, acting as a cosmological
constant with equation of state w = 1. This leads to an exponential
expansion of the Universe
R(t) e /3t .
(19.20)
The equation of state of the vacuum need not be the w = 1 of ,
and may not even be constant [19,20,21]. There is now much interest
in the more general possibility of a dynamically evolving vacuum energy,
for which the name dark energy has become commonly used. A variety
of techniques exist whereby the vacuum density as a function of time
may be measured, usually expressed as the value of w as a function of
epoch [22,23]. The best current measurement for the equation of state
(assumed constant) is w = 1.006+0.067
0.068 [24]. Unless stated otherwise,
we will assume that the vacuum energy is a cosmological constant with
w = 1 exactly.
The presence of vacuum energy can dramatically alter the fate of the
Universe. For example, if < 0, the Universe will eventually recollapse
independent of the sign of k. For large values of > 0 (larger than
the Einstein static value needed to halt any cosmological expansion or
contraction), even a closed Universe will expand forever. One way to
quantify this is the deceleration
parameter, q0 , dened as
RR
1
(1 + 3w)
v .
q0 =
(19.21)
= m + r +
2
2
R 2 0
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19. Big-Bang cosmology
12:56
211
This equation shows us that w < 1/3 for the vacuum may lead to
an accelerating expansion. Current data indicate that vacuum energy is
indeed the largest contributor to the cosmological density budget, with
v = 0.74 0.03 and m = 0.26 0.03 if k = 0 is assumed (5-year mean
WMAP) [24].
19.2. Introduction to Observational Cosmology
19.2.1. Fluxes, luminosities, and distances :
The key quantities for observational cosmology can be deduced quite
directly from the metric.
(1) The proper transverse size of an object seen by us to subtend an
angle d is its comoving size d r times the scale factor at the time of
emission:
d = d R0 r/(1 + z) .
(19.22)
(2) The apparent ux density of an object is deduced by allowing
its photons to ow through a sphere of current radius R0 r; but photon
energies and arrival rates are redshifted, and the bandwidth d is reduced.
These relations lead to the following common denitions:
angular-diameter distance: DA = (1 + z)1 R0 r
(19.24)
luminosity distance: DL = (1 + z) R0 r .
These distance-redshift relations are expressed in terms of observables
by using the equation of a null radial geodesic plus the Friedmann
equation:
1
1
R0
(1 m v r )(1 + z)2
dt =
dz =
R(t)
H(z)
H0
(19.25)
1/2
+ v (1 + z)3+3w + m (1 + z)3 + r (1 + z)4
dz .
The main scale for the distance here is the Hubble length, 1/H0 .
In combination with Cepheid data from the HST and a direct
geometrical distance to the maser galaxy NGC4258, SNe results
extend the distance ladder to the point where deviations from uniform
expansion are negligible, leading to the best existing direct value for H0 :
74.2 3.6 km s1 Mpc1 [25]. Better still, the analysis of high-z SNe has
allowed the rst meaningful test of cosmological geometry to be carried
out.
19.2.3. Age of the Universe :
The dynamical
result for the age of the Universe may be written as
dz
H0 t0 =
,
(19.28)
2
0
(1 + z) [(1 + z) (1 + m z) z(2 + z)v ]1/2
where we have neglected r and chosen w = 1. Over the range of interest
<
<
(0.1 <
m 1, |v | 1), this exact answer may be approximated to a
few % accuracy by
(19.29)
H0 t0 23 (0.7m + 0.3 0.3v )0.3 .
For the special case that m + v = 1, the integral in Eq. (19.28) can be
expressed analytically as
2
1 + v
H0 t 0 =
ln
(m < 1) .
(19.30)
3 v
1 v
The present consensus favors ages for the oldest clusters of about
12 Gyr [36,37].
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19. Big-Bang cosmology
These methods are all consistent with the age deduced from studies
of structure formation, using the microwave background and large-scale
structure: t0 = 13.69 0.13 Gyr [24], where the extra accuracy comes at
the price of assuming the Cold Dark Matter model to be true.
19.3. The Hot Thermal Universe
19.3.1. Thermodynamics of the early Universe :
Through much of the radiation-dominated period, thermal equilibrium
is established by the rapid rate of particle interactions relative to the
expansion rate of the Universe. In equilibrium, it is straightforward to
compute the thermodynamic quantities, , p, and the entropy density, s.
In the Standard Model, a chemical potential is often associated with
baryon number, and since the net baryon density relative to the photon
density is known to be very small (of order 1010 ), we can neglect any
such chemical potential when computing total thermodynamic quantities.
For photons, we have (in units where = kB = 1)
4
2 4
1
2(3) 3
T ;
;
n =
p = ; s =
T .
(19.39)
=
15
3
3T
2
Eq. (19.10) can be converted into an equation for entropy conservation,
(19.40)
d(sR3 )/dt = 0 .
For radiation, this corresponds to the relationship between expansion and
cooling, T R1 in an adiabatically expanding universe. Note also that
both s and n scale as T 3 .
19.3.2. Radiation content of the Early Universe :
At the very high temperatures associated with the early Universe,
massive particles are pair produced, and are part of the thermal bath.
If for a given particle species i we have T mi , then we can neglect
the mass and the thermodynamic quantities are easily computed. In
general, we can approximate the energy density (at high temperatures) by
including onlythose particles with
mi
T . In this case, we have
2 4 2
7
T
N (T ) T 4 ,
=
gB +
gF
(19.41)
8
30
30
B
where gB(F ) is the number of degrees of freedom of each boson (fermion)
and the sum runs over all boson and fermion states with m
T .
Eq. (19.41) denes the eective number of degrees of freedom, N (T ), by
taking into account new particle degrees of freedom as the temperature is
raised.
The value of N (T ) at any given temperature depends on the particle
physics model. In the standard SU(3)SU(2)U(1) model, we can specify
N (T ) up to temperatures of O(100) GeV. The change in N (ignoring mass
eects) can be seen in the table below. At higher temperatures, N (T ) will
be model-dependent.
In the radiation-dominated epoch, Eq. (19.10) can be integrated
(neglecting the T -dependence of N ) giving us a relationship between the
age of the Universe and its temperature
1/2
90
t=
T 2 .
(19.42)
32 3 GN N (T )
Put into a more convenient form
2
t TMeV
= 2.4[N (T )]1/2 ,
(19.43)
where t is measured in seconds and TMeV in units of MeV.
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19. Big-Bang cosmology
Temperature
T < me
me < T < m
m < T < m
m < T < T c
Tc < T < mstrange
ms < T < mcharm
mc < T < m
m < T < mbottom
mb < T < mW,Z
mW,Z < T < mHiggs
mH < T < mtop
mt < T
New Particles
s + s
e
s
s + u, u
, d, d + gluons
s, s
c, c
b, b
W , Z
H0
t, t
12:56
213
4N (T )
29
43
57
69
205
247
289
303
345
381
385
427
c corresponds to the connement-deconnement transition between
quarks and hadrons.
19.3.7. Nucleosynthesis :
An essential element of the standard cosmological model is Big-Bang
nucleosynthesis (BBN), the theory which predicts the abundances of the
light element isotopes D, 3 He, 4 He, and 7 Li. Nucleosynthesis takes place at
a temperature scale of order 1 MeV. The nuclear processes lead primarily
to 4 He, with a primordial mass fraction of about 25%. Lesser amounts of
the other light elements are produced: about 105 of D and 3 He and about
1010 of 7 Li by number relative to H. The abundances of the light elements
depend almost solely on one key parameter, the baryon-to-photon ratio,
. The nucleosynthesis predictions can be compared with observational
determinations of the abundances of the light elements. Consistency
between theory and observations leads to a conservative range of
(19.54)
5.1 1010 < < 6.5 1010 .
is related to the fraction of contained in baryons, b
b = 3.66 107 h2 ,
(19.55)
or 1010 = 274b h2 .
19.4. The Universe at late times
We are beginning to inventory the composition of the Universe:
total: = 1.005 0.0.006 (from CMB anisotropy)
matter: m = 0.26 0.03
baryons: b = 0.044 0.004
CDM: CDM = m b
neutrinos: 0.001 <
<
0.05
dark energy: v = 0.74 0.03
photons: = 4.6 105
Further discussion and all references may be found in the full Review of
Particle Physics. The numbering of references and equations used here
corresponds to that version.
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21. The Cosmological Parameters
21. THE COSMOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
Updated September 2009, by O. Lahav (University College London) and
A.R. Liddle (University of Sussex).
21.1. Parametrizing the Universe
The term cosmological parameters is forever increasing in its scope,
and nowadays includes the parametrization of some functions, as well
as simple numbers describing properties of the Universe. The original
usage referred to the parameters describing the global dynamics of the
Universe, such as its expansion rate and curvature. Also now of great
interest is how the matter budget of the Universe is built up from its
constituents: baryons, photons, neutrinos, dark matter, and dark energy.
We need to describe the nature of perturbations in the Universe, through
global statistical descriptors such as the matter and radiation power
spectra. There may also be parameters describing the physical state of the
Universe, such as the ionization fraction as a function of time during the
era since recombination. Typical comparisons of cosmological models with
observational data now feature between ve and ten parameters.
21.1.1. The global description of the Universe : The complete
present state of the homogeneous Universe can be described by giving the
current values of all the density parameters and of the Hubble parameter
h. These also allow us to track the history of the Universe back in time,
at least until an epoch where interactions allow interchanges between the
densities of the dierent species, which is believed to have last happened
at neutrino decoupling, shortly before Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN).
To probe further back into the Universes history requires assumptions
about particle interactions, and perhaps about the nature of physical laws
themselves.
21.1.2. The standard cosmological model : The basic set of cosmological parameters is therefore as shown in Table 21.1. The spatial
curvature does not appear in the list, because it can be determined from
the other parameters using Eq. 21.1. The total present matter density
m = cdm + b is usually used in place of the dark matter density.
As described in Sec. 21.3, models based on these eleven parameters are
able to give a good t to the complete set of high-quality data available
at present, and indeed some simplication is possible. Observations are
consistent with spatial atness, and indeed the ination models so far
described automatically generate negligible spatial curvature, so we can
set k = 0; the density parameters then must sum to unity, and so one
can be eliminated. The neutrino energy density is often not taken as an
independent parameter. Provided the neutrino sector has the standard
interactions, the neutrino energy density, while relativistic, can be related
to the photon density using thermal physics arguments, and it is currently
dicult to see the eect of the neutrino mass, although observations of
large-scale structure have already placed interesting upper limits. This
reduces the standard parameter set to nine. In addition, there is no
observational evidence for the existence of tensor perturbations (though
the upper limits are quite weak), and so r could be set to zero. Presently
n is in a somewhat controversial position regarding whether it needs to
be varied in a t, or can be set to the HarrisonZeldovich value n = 1.
Parameter estimation [2] suggests n = 1 is ruled out at some signicance,
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21. The Cosmological Parameters
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215
Table 21.1: The basic set of cosmological parameters. We give
values (with some additional rounding) as obtained using a t of
a CDM cosmology with a power-law initial spectrum to WMAP5
data alone [2]. Tensors are assumed zero except in quoting a
limit on them. The exact values and uncertainties depend on both
the precise data-sets used and the choice of parameters allowed
to vary (see Table 21.2 for the former). Limits on and h
weaken if the Universe is not assumed at. The density perturbation
amplitude is specied by the derived parameter 8 . Uncertainties
are one-sigma/68% condence unless otherwise stated.
Parameter
Hubble parameter
Total matter density
Baryon density
Cosmological constant
Radiation density
Neutrino density
Density perturb. amplitude at k=2Kpc
Density perturb. spectral index
Tensor to scalar ratio
Ionization optical depth
Bias parameter
Symbol
Value
h
m
b
2R
n
r
0.72 0.03
m h2 = 0.133 0.006
b h2 = 0.0227 0.0006
= 0.74 0.03
r h2 = 2.47 105
See Sec. 21.1.2
(2.41 0.11) 109
n = 0.963+0.014
0.015
r < 0.43 (95% conf.)
= 0.087 0.017
See Sec. 21.3.4
but Bayesian model selection techniques [9] suggest the data is not
conclusive. With n set to one, this leaves seven parameters, which is the
smallest set that can usefully be compared to the present cosmological
data set. This model (usually with n kept as a parameter) is referred to
by various names, including CDM, the concordance cosmology, and the
standard cosmological model.
21.2. Extensions to the standard model
21.2.1. More general perturbations : The standard cosmology assumes adiabatic, Gaussian perturbations. Adiabaticity means that all
types of material in the Universe share a common perturbation, so that
if the space-time is foliated by constant-density hypersurfaces, then all
uids and elds are homogeneous on those slices, with the perturbations
completely described by the variation of the spatial curvature of the slices.
Gaussianity means that the initial perturbations obey Gaussian statistics,
with the amplitudes of waves of dierent wavenumbers being randomly
drawn from a Gaussian distribution of width given by the power spectrum.
Note that gravitational instability generates non-Gaussianity; in this
context, Gaussianity refers to a property of the initial perturbations,
before they evolve signicantly.
The simplest ination models, based on one dynamical eld, predict
adiabatic uctuations and a level of non-Gaussianity which is too small
to be detected by any experiment so far conceived. For present data, the
primordial spectra are usually assumed to be power laws.
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21. The Cosmological Parameters
21.2.1.2. Isocurvature perturbations: An isocurvature perturbation is
one which leaves the total density unperturbed, while perturbing the
relative amounts of dierent materials. If the Universe contains N uids,
there is one growing adiabatic mode and N 1 growing isocurvature
modes (for reviews see Ref. 12 and Ref. 13). These can be excited, for
example, in inationary models where there are two or more elds which
acquire dynamically-important perturbations. If one eld decays to form
normal matter, while the second survives to become the dark matter, this
will generate a cold dark matter isocurvature perturbation.
In general, there are also correlations between the dierent modes,
and so the full set of perturbations is described by a matrix giving the
spectra and their correlations. Constraining such a general construct is
challenging, though constraints on individual modes are beginning to
become meaningful, with no evidence that any other than the adiabatic
mode must be non-zero.
21.2.2. Dark energy : While the standard cosmological model given
above features a cosmological constant, in order to explain observations
indicating that the Universe is presently accelerating, further possibilities
exist under the general heading dark energy. A particularly attractive
possibility (usually called quintessence, though that word is used
with various dierent meanings in the literature) is that a scalar eld
is responsible, with the mechanism mimicking that of early Universe
ination [15]. As described by Olive and Peacock, a fairly modelindependent description of dark energy can be given just using the
equation of state parameter w, with w = 1 corresponding to a
cosmological constant. In general, the function w could itself vary with
redshift, though practical experiments devised so far would be sensitive
primarily to some average value weighted over recent epochs. For highprecision predictions of CMB anisotropies, it is better to use a scalar-eld
description in order to have a self-consistent evolution of the sound speed
associated with the dark energy perturbations.
Present observations are consistent with a cosmological constant, but
often w is kept as a free parameter to be added to the set described
in the previous section. Most, but not all, researchers assume the weak
energy condition w 1. In the future, it may be necessary to use a more
sophisticated parametrization of the dark energy.
21.3. Probes
21.3.1. Direct measures of the Hubble constant : One of the most
reliable results on the Hubble constant comes from the Hubble Space
Telescope Key Project [18]. This study used the empirical period
luminosity relations for Cepheid variable stars to obtain distances to 31
galaxies, and calibrated a number of secondary distance indicators (Type
Ia Supernovae, TullyFisher relation, surface brightness uctuations, and
Type II Supernovae) measured over distances of 400 to 600 Mpc. They
estimated H0 = 72 3 (statistical) 7 (systematic) km s1 Mpc1 . A
Unfortunately this is rather a misnomer, as it is the negative pressure
of this material, rather than its energy, that is responsible for giving the
acceleration. Furthermore, while generally in physics matter and energy
are interchangeable terms, dark matter and dark energy are quite distinct
concepts.
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21. The Cosmological Parameters
12:08
217
recent study [19] of 240 Cepheids observed with an improved camera
onboard the Hubble Space Telescope has yielded an even more accurate
gure, H0 = 74 4 km s1 Mpc1 (including both statistical and
systematic errors). The major sources of uncertainty in these results are
due to the heavy element abundance of the Cepheids and the distance to
the ducial nearby galaxy (called the Large Magellanic Cloud) relative to
which all Cepheid distances are measured.
21.3.4.3. Limits on neutrino mass from galaxy surveys and other probes:
Large-scale structure data can put an upper limit on the ratio /m due
to the neutrino free streaming eect [37,38]. For example, by comparing
the 2dF galaxy power spectrum with a four-component model (baryons,
cold dark matter, a cosmological constant, and massive neutrinos), it is
estimated that /m < 0.13 (95% condence limit), giving < 0.04 if
a concordance prior of m = 0.3 is imposed. The latter corresponds to an
upper limit of about 2 eV on the total neutrino mass, assuming a prior
of h 0.7 [39]. Potential systematic eects include biasing of the galaxy
distribution and non-linearities of the power spectrum. A similar upper
limit of 2 eV has been derived from CMB anisotropies alone [4042]. The
above analyses assume that the primordial power spectrum is adiabatic,
scale-invariant and Gaussian. Additional cosmological data sets have
improved the results [43,44]. An upper limit on the total neutrino mass
of 0.17 eV was reported by combining a large number of cosmological
probes [45].
21.4. Bringing observations together
Although it contains two ingredientsdark matter and dark energy
which have not yet been veried by laboratory experiments, the CDM
model is almost universally accepted by cosmologists as the best
description of the present data. The basic ingredients are given by the
parameters listed in Sec. 21.1.1, with approximate values of some of the
key parameters being b 0.04, cdm 0.21, 0.74, and a Hubble
constant h 0.72. The spatial geometry is very close to at (and usually
assumed to be precisely at), and the initial perturbations Gaussian,
adiabatic, and nearly scale-invariant.
The baryon density b is now measured with quite high accuracy
from the CMB and large-scale structure, and is consistent with the
determination from BBN; Fields and Sarkar in this volume quote the
range 0.019 b h2 0.024 (95% condence).
While is measured to be non-zero with very high condence, there
is no evidence of evolution of the dark energy density. The WMAP team
nd the limit w < 0.86 at 95% condence from a compilation of data
including SNe Ia, with the cosmological constant case w = 1 giving an
excellent t to the data.
One parameter which is very robust is the age of the Universe, as there
is a useful coincidence that for a at Universe the position of the rst peak
is strongly correlated with the age. The WMAP5 result is 13.69 0.13
Gyr (assuming atness). This is in good agreement with the ages of the
oldest globular clusters [61] and radioactive dating [62].
For further details and all references, see the full Review of Particle
Physics. See also Astrophysical Constants, table 2.1 in this Booklet.
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22. Dark matter
22. DARK MATTER
Revised September 2009 by M. Drees (Bonn University) and G. Gerbier
(Saclay, CEA).
22.1. Theory
22.1.1. Evidence for Dark Matter : The existence of Dark (i.e.,
non-luminous and non-absorbing) Matter (DM) is by now well established.
An important example is the measurement of galactic rotation curves. The
rotational velocity v of an object on astable Keplerian orbit with radius
r around a galaxy scales like v(r) M (r)/r, where M (r) is the mass
inside the orbit. If r lies outside the visible
part of the galaxy and mass
tracks light, one would expect v(r) 1/ r. Instead, in most galaxies one
nds that v becomes approximately constant out to the largest values of r
where the rotation curve can be measured. This implies the existence of
a dark halo, with mass density (r) 1/r2 , i.e., M (r) r, and a lower
bound on the DM mass density, DM >
0.1.
The observation of clusters of galaxies tends to give somewhat larger
values, DM 0.2. These observations include measurements of the
peculiar velocities of galaxies in the cluster, which are a measure of their
potential energy if the cluster is virialized; measurements of the X-ray
temperature of hot gas in the cluster, which again correlates with the
gravitational potential felt by the gas; andmost directlystudies of
(weak) gravitational lensing of background galaxies on the cluster.
The currently most accurate, if somewhat indirect, determination of
DM comes from global ts of cosmological parameters to a variety of
observations; see the Section on Cosmological Parameters for details. For
example, using measurements of the anisotropy of the cosmic microwave
background (CMB) and of the spatial distribution of galaxies, Ref. 3 nds
a density of cold, nonbaryonic matter
nbm h2 = 0.110 0.006 ,
(22.1)
where h is the Hubble constant in units of 100 km/(sMpc). Some part of
the baryonic matter density [3],
b h2 = 0.0227 0.0006 ,
(22.2)
may well contribute to (baryonic) DM, e.g., MACHOs [4] or cold molecular
gas clouds [5].
The most recent estimate of the DM density in the neighborhood of
our solar system is 0.3 GeV cm 3.
22.1.2. Candidates for Dark Matter : Candidates for non-baryonic
DM in Eq. (22.1) must satisfy several conditions: they must be stable
on cosmological time scales (otherwise they would have decayed by now),
they must interact very weakly with electromagnetic radiation (otherwise
they wouldnt qualify as dark matter), and they must have the right relic
density. Candidates include primordial black holes, axions, and weakly
interacting massive particles (WIMPs).
The existence of axions [9] was rst postulated to solve the strong
CP problem of QCD; they also occur naturally in superstring theories.
They are pseudo Nambu-Goldstone bosons associated with the (mostly)
spontaneous breaking of a new global Peccei-Quinn (PQ) U(1) symmetry
at scale fa ; see the Section on Axions in this Review for further details.
Although very light, axions would constitute cold DM, since they were
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22. Dark matter 219
produced non-thermally. At temperatures well above the QCD phase
transition, the axion is massless, and the axion eld can take any value,
parameterized by the misalignment angle i . At T <
1 GeV, the axion
develops a mass ma due to instanton eects. Unless the axion eld
happens to nd itself at the minimum of its potential (i = 0), it will begin
to oscillate once ma becomes comparable to the Hubble parameter H.
These coherent oscillations transform the energy originally stored in the
axion eld into physical axion quanta. The contribution of this mechanism
to the present axion relic density is [9]
1.175
i2 ,
(22.5)
a h2 = a fa /1012 GeV
where the numerical factor a lies roughly between 0.5 and a few.
If i O(1), Eq. (22.5) will saturate Eq. (22.1) for fa 1011 GeV,
comfortably above laboratory and astrophysical constraints [9]; this
would correspond to an axion mass around 0.1 meV. However, if the postinationary reheat temperature TR > fa , cosmic strings will form during
the PQ phase transition at T fa . Their decay will give an additional
contribution to a , which is often bigger than that in Eq. (22.5) [10],
leading to a smaller preferred value of fa , i.e., larger ma . On the other
hand, values of fa near the Planck scale become possible if i is for some
reason very small.
Weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) are particles with
mass roughly between 10 GeV and a few TeV, and with cross sections of
approximately weak strength. Their present relic density can be calculated
reliably if the WIMPs were in thermal and chemical equilibrium with
the hot soup of Standard Model (SM) particles after ination. Their
present relic density is then approximately given by (ignoring logarithmic
corrections) [11]
h2 const.
T03
0.1 pb c
.
3 v
A v
MPl
A
(22.6)
Here T0 is the current CMB temperature, MPl is the Planck mass, c is
the speed of light, A is the total annihilation cross section of a pair
of WIMPs into SM particles, v is the relative velocity between the two
WIMPs in their cms system, and . . . denotes thermal averaging. Freeze
out happens at temperature TF m /20 almost independently of the
properties of the WIMP. Notice that the 0.1 pb in Eq. (22.6) contains
factors of T0 and MPl ; it is, therefore, quite intriguing that it happens
to come out near the typical size of weak interaction cross sections.
The currently best motivated WIMP candidate is, therefore, the lightest
superparticle (LSP) in supersymmetric models [12] with exact R-parity
(which guarantees the stability of the LSP). Detailed calculations [15]
show that the lightest neutralino will have the desired thermal relic density
Eq. (22.1) in at least four distinct regions of parameter space. could be
(mostly) a bino or photino (the superpartner of the U(1)Y gauge boson
and photon, respectively), if both and some sleptons have mass below
150 GeV, or if m is close to the mass of some sfermion (so that its relic
density is reduced through co-annihilation with this sfermion), or if 2m
is close to the mass of the CP-odd Higgs boson present in supersymmetric
models. Finally, Eq. (22.1) can also be satised if has a large higgsino
or wino component.
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22. Dark matter
22.2. Experimental detection of Dark Matter
22.2.2. Axion searches : Axions can be detected by looking for
a conversion in a strong magnetic eld [26]. Such a conversion
proceeds through the loop-induced a coupling, whose strength ga
is an important parameter of axion models. There currently are two
experiments searching for axionic DM. They both employ high quality
cavities. The cavity Q factor enhances the conversion rate on resonance,
i.e., for ma c2 = res . One then needs to scan the resonance frequency in
order to cover a signicant range in ma or, equivalently, fa .
22.2.3. Basics of direct WIMP search : The WIMP mean velocity
inside our galaxy relative to its center is expected to be similar to that
of stars, i.e., a few hundred kilometers per second at the location of our
solar system. For these velocities, WIMPs interact with ordinary matter
through elastic scattering on nuclei. With expected WIMP masses in the
range 10 GeV to 10 TeV, typical nuclear recoil energies are of order of 1
to 100 keV.
Expected interaction rates depend on the product of the local WIMP
ux and the interaction cross section. The rst term is xed by the local
density of dark matter, taken as 0.3 GeV/cm3 (see above), the mean
WIMP velocity, typically 220 km/s, and the mass of the WIMP. The
expected interaction rate then mainly depends on two unknowns, the mass
and cross section of the WIMP (with some uncertainty [6] due to the halo
model). This is why the experimental observable, which is basically the
scattering rate as a function of energy, is usually expressed as a contour in
the WIMP masscross section plane.
The cross section depends on the nature of the couplings. For nonrelativistic WIMPs, one in general has to distinguish spin-independent
and spin-dependent couplings. The former can involve scalar and vector
WIMP and nucleon currents (vector currents are absent for Majorana
WIMPs, e.g., the neutralino), while the latter involve axial vector currents
(and obviously only exist if carries spin). Due to coherence eects, the
spin-independent cross section scales approximately as the square of the
mass of the nucleus, so higher mass nuclei, from Ge to Xe, are preferred
for this search. For spin-dependent coupling, the cross section depends on
the nuclear spin factor; used target nuclei include 19 F, 23 Na, 73 Ge, 127 I,
129 Xe, 131 Xe, and 133 Cs.
Cross sections calculated in MSSM models induce rates of at most
1 evt day1 kg1 of detector, much lower than the usual radioactive
backgrounds. This indicates the need for underground laboratories to
protect against cosmic ray induced backgrounds, and for the selection of
extremely radio-pure materials.
The typical shape of exclusion contours can be anticipated from this
discussion: at low WIMP mass, the sensitivity drops because of the
detector energy threshold, whereas at high masses, the sensitivity also
decreases because, for a xed mass density, the WIMP ux decreases
1/m . The sensitivity is best for WIMP masses near the mass of the
recoiling nucleus.
Further discussion and all references may be found in the full Review.
The numbering of references and equations used here corresponds to that
version.
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23. Cosmic microwave background
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221
23. COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND
Revised August 2009 by D. Scott (University of British Columbia) and
G.F. Smoot (UCB/LBNL).
23.2. Description of CMB Anisotropies
Observations show that the CMB contains anisotropies at the 105
level, over a wide range of angular scales. These anisotropies are usually
expressed by using a spherical harmonic expansion of the CMB sky:
T (, ) =
am Ym (, ).
m
The vast majority of the cosmological information is contained in the
temperature 2-point function, i.e., the variance as a function only of
angular separation, since we
notice no preferred direction. Equivalently,
the power per unit ln is m |am |2 /4.
23.2.1. The Monopole :
The CMB has a mean temperature of T = 2.725 0.001 K (1) [7],
which can be considered as the monopole component of CMB maps,
a00 . Since all mapping experiments involve dierence measurements,
they are insensitive to this average level. Monopole measurements
can only be made with absolute temperature devices, such as the
FIRAS instrument on the COBE satellite [7]. Such measurements
of the spectrum are consistent with a blackbody distribution over
more than three decades in frequency (with some recent evidence
for deviation at low frequencies [8]) . A blackbody of the measured
temperature corresponds to n = (2(3)/ 2 ) T3 411 cm3 and
= ( 2 /15) T4 4.64 1034 g cm3 0.260 eV cm3 .
23.2.2. The Dipole :
The largest anisotropy is in the = 1 (dipole) rst spherical harmonic,
with amplitude 3.355 0.008 mK [6]. The dipole is interpreted to be the
result of the Doppler shift caused by the solar system motion relative to
the nearly isotropic blackbody eld, as conrmed by measurements of the
radial velocities of local galaxies [9].
The dipole is a frame-dependent quantity, and one can thus determine
the absolute rest frame as that in which the CMB dipole would be zero.
23.2.3. Higher-Order Multipoles :
The variations in the CMB temperature maps at higher multipoles
( 2) are interpreted as being mostly the result of perturbations in the
density of the early Universe, manifesting themselves at the epoch of the
last scattering of the CMB photons. In the hot Big Bang picture, the
expansion of the Universe cools the plasma so that by a redshift z 1100
(with little dependence on the details of the model), the hydrogen and
helium nuclei can bind electrons into neutral atoms, a process usually
referred to as recombination [12]. Before this epoch, the CMB photons
are tightly coupled to the baryons, while afterwards they can freely stream
towards us.
Theoretical models generally predict that the am modes are Gaussian
random elds to high precision, e.g., standard slow-roll inations nonGaussian contribution is expected to be one or two orders of magnitude
below current observational limits [13]. Although non-Gaussianity of
various forms is possible in early Universe models, tests show that
Gaussianity is an extremely good simplifying approximation [14], with
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23. Cosmic microwave background
only some relatively weak indications of non-Gaussianity or statistical
anisotropy at large scales. Such signatures found in existing WMAP
data are generally considered to be subtle foreground or instrumental
artefacts [15,16].
A statistically isotropic sky means that all ms are equivalent, i.e., there
is no preferred axis. Together with the assumption of Gaussian statistics,
the variance of the temperature eld (or equivalently the power spectrum
in ) then fully characterizes the anisotropies. The
summed over
power
all ms at each is (2 + 1)C /(4), where C |am |2 . Thus averages
of am s over m can be used as estimators of the C s to constrain their
expectation values, which are the quantities predicted by a theoretical
model. For an idealized full-sky observation, the variance of each measured
C (i.e., the variance of the variance) is [2/(2 + 1)]C2 . This sampling
uncertainty (known as cosmic variance) comes about because each C
is 2 distributed with (2 + 1) degrees of freedom for our observable
volume of the Universe. For fractional sky coverage, fsky , this variance is
increased by 1/fsky and the modes become partially correlated.
It is important to understand that theories predict the expectation
value of the power spectrum, whereas our sky is a single realization.
Hence the cosmic variance is an unavoidable source of uncertainty when
constraining models; it dominates the scatter at lower s, while the eects
of instrumental noise and resolution dominate at higher s [17].
23.2.4. Angular Resolution and Binning :
There is no one-to-one conversion between multipole and the angle
subtended by a particular spatial scale projected onto the sky. However,
a single spherical harmonic Ym corresponds to angular variations of
/. CMB maps contain anisotropy information from the size of the
map (or in practice some fraction of that size) down to the beam-size of
the instrument, . One can think of the eect of a Gaussian beam as
2
rolling o the power spectrum with the function e(+1) .
23.5. Current Anisotropy Data
There has been a steady improvement in the quality of CMB data
that has led to the development of the present-day cosmological model.
Probably the most robust constraints currently available come from
the combination of the WMAP ve year data [34] with smaller scale
results from the ACBAR [35] and QUAD [36] experiments (together with
constraints from other cosmological data-sets). We plot power spectrum
estimates from these experiments, as well as BOOMERANG [38] and
CBI [39] in Fig. 23.2. Other recent experiments also give powerful
constraints, which are quite consistent with what we describe below.
23.6. CMB Polarization
Since Thomson scattering of an anisotropic radiation eld also generates
linear polarization, the CMB is predicted to be polarized at the roughly
5% level of the temperature anisotropies [42]. Polarization is a spin-2 eld
on the sky, and the algebra of the modes in -space is strongly analogous
to spin-orbit coupling in quantum mechanics [43]. The linear polarization
pattern can be decomposed in a number of ways, with two quantities
required for each pixel in a map, often given as the Q and U Stokes
parameters. However, the most intuitive and physical decomposition is a
geometrical one, splitting the polarization pattern into a part that comes
from a divergence (often referred to as the E-mode) and a part with a
curl (called the B-mode) [44]. More explicitly, the modes are dened
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223
Figure 23.2: Band-power estimates from the WMAP, BOOMERANG,
QUAD, CBI, and ACBAR experiments.
in terms of second derivatives of the polarization amplitude, with the
Hessian for the E-modes having principle axes in the same sense as the
polarization, while the B-mode pattern can be thought of simply as a
45 rotation of the E-mode pattern. Globally one sees that the E-modes
have (1) parity (like the spherical harmonics), while the B-modes have
(1)+1 parity.
Since inationary scalar perturbations give only E-modes, while tensors
generate roughly equal amounts of E- and B-modes, then the determination
of a non-zero B-mode signal is a way to measure the gravitational wave
contribution (and thus potentially derive the energy scale of ination),
even if it is rather weak. However, one must rst eliminate the foreground
contributions and other systematic eects down to very low levels.
23.8. Constraints on Cosmologies
The 5-year WMAP data alone, together with constraints from Hubble
constant determination [18], supernovae [64] and baryon acoustic
oscillations [29], within the context of a 6 parameter family of models
(which xes tot = 1 and r = 0), yield the following results [14]:
A = (2.44 0.10) 109 , n = 0.960 0.013, h = 0.705 0.013,
b h2 = 0.0227 0.0006, m h2 = 0.136 0.004 and = 0.084 0.016.
Note that for h, the CMB data alone provide only a very weak constraint,
unless spatial atness or some other cosmological data are used. For b h2 ,
the precise value depends sensitively on how much freedom is allowed in
the shape of the primordial power spectrum.
For tot , perhaps the best WMAP constraint is 1.006 0.006, from the
combination with supernova and baryon acoustic oscillation constraints
(and setting w = 1). The 95% condence upper limit on r is 0.43
using WMAP alone, tightening to r < 0.22 with the addition of other
data [14]. This limit depends on how the slope n is restricted and
whether dn/d ln k = 0 is allowed.
Further discussion and all references may be found in the full Review.
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24. Cosmic rays
24. COSMIC RAYS
Written August 2008 by D.E. Groom (LBNL).
At 10 GeV/nucleon the primary cosmic rays are mostly protons (79%)
and alpha particles (15% of the cosmic ray nucleons). The abundance
ratios of heavier nuclei follow the solar abundance ratios. The exception
is the Li-Be-B group, which is overabundant by a large factor relative to
solar abundance, probably due to the spallation of heavier nuclei in the
interstellar medium. The intensity from a few GeV to beyond 100 TeV is
proportional to E 2.7 . The spectrum is evidently truncated at a few times
1019 eV by inelastic collisions with the CMB (GZK mechanism).
The primary cosmic rays initiate hadronic cascades in the atmosphere,
whose thickness is 11.5 I or 28 X0 . Most of the energy is converted to
gamma rays via 0 and deposited by ionization in EM showers; few
hadrons reach the ground. For charged pions, + competes with
further nuclear interaction. The muon energy spectrum at the surface
is almost at below 1 GeV, gradually steepens to reect the primary
spectrum in the 10100 GeV range, and steepens further at higher energies
because pions with E >
100 GeV tend to interact before they decay.
Above 10 TeV, and below 100 TeV, when prompt muon production
becomes important, the energy spectrum of atmospheric muons is one
power steeper than the primary spectrum.
The average muon ux at the surface goes as cos2 , characteristic
of 3 GeV muons. The rate in a thin horizontal detector is roughly
1 cm2 min1 ; it is half this in a vertical detector.
The vertical muon ux for E > 1 GeV goes through a broad maximum
2 it
at an atmospheric depth h 170 g cm2 , but for h >
300 g cm
can be fairly well represented by I/Isurface = exp[(h 1033 g cm2 )/
(630 g cm2 )]. Calculators to convert h to altitude in a standard
atmosphere can be found on the web. At the summit of Mauna Kea
(4205 m = 600 g cm2 ) the vertical ux is about twice that at sea level.
The vertical p + n ux at sea level is about 2% of the muon ux, but
scales with depth as exp(h/I ). The pion ux is 50 times smaller. The
e+ /e ux for E > 1 GeV averages about 0.004 of the muon ux, but these
EM shower remnants are much more abundant at lower energies.
The energy loss rate for muons is usually written as a(E) + b(E)E,
where a(E) (ionization) and b(E) (radiative loss rate/E) are slowlyvarying functions of E. Ionization and radiative loss rates are equal at
the muon critical energy Ec , which is typically several hundred GeV.
If a(Ec ) and b(Ec ) are assumed constant, then the range is given by
ln(1 + E/Ec ). (Straggling is extremely important, but it is also neglected
here.) Furthermore, since the dierential muon ux at very high energies
is proportional to E (one power steeper than the primary spectrum),
the total vertical ux at depth X is proportional to (ebX 1)+1 .
This function, with b = 4.0 106 cm2 g1 and = 3.6, normalized
to 0.013 m2 s1 sr1 at X = 1 km.w.e. (km water equivalent), gives a
reasonable t to the depth-intensity data shown in Fig. 24.5 of the full
Review. The ux at depths >
1020 km.w.e., entirely due to neutrino
interactions, is about 2 109 m2 s1 sr1 .
For details and references, see the full Review.
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25. Accelerator physics of colliders
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225
25. ACCELERATOR PHYSICS OF COLLIDERS
Revised August 2005 by K. Desler and D. A. Edwards (DESY).
25.2. Luminosity
The event rate R in a collider is proportional to the interaction cross
section int and the factor of proportionality is called the luminosity:
(25.1)
R = L int .
If two bunches containing n1 and n2 particles collide with frequency f ,
the luminosity is
n1 n2
L =f
(25.2)
4x y
where x and y characterize the Gaussian transverse beam proles in the
horizontal (bend) and vertical directions and to simplify the expression
it is assumed that the bunches are identical in transverse prole, that
the proles are independent of position along the bunch, and the particle
distributions are not altered during collision. Whatever the distribution
at the source, by the time the beam reaches high energy, the normal form
is a good approximation thanks to the central limit theorem of probability
and the diminished importance of space charge eects.
The beam size can be expressed in terms of two quantities, one termed
the transverse emittance, , and the other, the amplitude function, . The
transverse emittance is a beam quality concept reecting the process of
bunch preparation, extending all the way back to the source for hadrons
and, in the case of electrons, mostly dependent on synchrotron radiation.
The amplitude function is a beam optics quantity and is determined by
the accelerator magnet conguration. When expressed in terms of and
the transverse emittance becomes
(25.3)
= 2 / .
Of particular signicance is the value of the amplitude function at the
interaction point, . Clearly one wants to be as small as possible; how
small depends on the capability of the hardware to make a near-focus at
the interaction point.
Eq. (25.2) can now be recast in terms of emittances and amplitude
n1 n2
functions as
L =f
.
(25.4)
4 x x y y
Thus, to achieve high luminosity, all one has to do is make high population
bunches of low emittance to collide at high frequency at locations where
the beam optics provides as low values of the amplitude functions as
possible.
Further discussion and references may be found in the full Review of
Particle Physics.
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0.04
0.64
Luminosity (1030 cm2 s1 )
Time between collisions (s)
Energy spread (units 103 )
Interaction regions
, amplitude function at
interaction point (m)
Free space at interaction
point (m)
Beam radius (106 m)
H : 0.06 0.11
V : 0.06 0.10
125 (round)
100
Maximum beam energy (GeV)
Bunch length (cm)
1.0
Physics end date
2008
Physics start date
H : 0.75
V : 0.05
H : 1000
V : 30
0.6
20
1994
VEPP-4M
(Novosibirsk)
H : 1.0
V : 0.015
0.63
2.2 (0.3
to PM quads)
H : 0.94
V : 0.012
H : 380
V : 5.7
1.3
0.52
0.008
330
1.89 (2.3 max)
2008
BEPC-II
(China)
H : 340
V : 6.5
1.2
0.82 at
2.08 GeV/beam
0.014 to 0.22
76 at
2.08 GeV/beam
2008
2002
CESR-C
(Cornell)
H : 0.25
V : 0.009
0.40
H : 800
V : 4.8
low current: 1
high current: 2
0.40
0.0027
450
(1000 achievable)
0.700
2013
1999
DANE
(Frascati)
226
VEPP-2000
(Novosibirsk)
Updated in early 2010 with numbers received from representatives of the colliders (contact J. Beringer, LBNL). For existing
(future) colliders the latest achieved (design) values are given. quantities are, where appropriate, r.m.s.; H and V indicate
horizontal and vertical directions; s.c. stands for superconducting. Parameters for the defunct SPEAR, DORIS, PETRA,
PEP, SLC, TRISTAN, and VEPP-2M colliders may be found in our 1996 edition (Phys. Rev. D54, 1 July 1996, Part I).
26. HIGH-ENERGY COLLIDER PARAMETERS: e+ e Colliders (I)
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26. High-energy collider parameters
11:56
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Time between bunch trains: 200ms.
With dynamic beam-beam eect.
e : 0.032(H), 0.00021(V )
e+ : 0.026(H), 0.00025(V )
H : 0.02
V : 0.0004
3.5
e : +1.20/ 1.28, e+ : +0.78/ 0.73
(+300/-500) mrad cone)
e : 0.025(H), 3 104 (V )
e+ : 0.032(H), 2.7 104 (V )
H : 0.639
V : 0.0057
e : 11(H), 0.062(V )
e+ : 10(H), 0.048(V )
26. High-energy collider parameters
e : 0.50 (H), 0.012 (V )
e+ : 0.50 (H), 0.012 (V )
1
0.03
0.3
2 104
(upgradeable to 500)
250
TBD
ILC
(TBD)
e /e+ : 0.58/0.84
e /e+ : 0.5/0.6
0.004
8 105
e : 7
e+ : 4
2014?
SuperKEKB
(KEK)
August 12, 2010
Interaction regions
e : 1.2 (0.27*)(H), 0.0059 (V )
e+ : 1.2 (0.23*)(H), 0.0059 (V )
, amplitude function at
interaction point (m)
0.35
0.2,
300 mrad cone
+0.75/0.58
(+300/500) mrad cone
H: 8
V : 0.04
H : 157
V : 4.7
H : 124 (e ), 117 (e+ )
V : 0.94
e /e+ : 0.73/0.64
0.5
0.0042
e /e+ : 0.61/0.77
e /e+ : 1.1/1.0
0.0042
1.0 106
0.7
0.65
Free space at interaction
point (m)
Beam radius (m)
Bunch length (cm)
Energy spread (units
0.00590 or 0.00786
Time between collisions (s)
103 )
21083
Luminosity (1030 cm2 s1 )
12069
(design: 3000)
e : 4.2
e+ : 6.7
e : 8.33 (8.0 nominal)
e+ : 3.64 (3.5 nominal)
Maximum beam energy (GeV)
2008
e : 712 (9.0 nominal)
e+ : 2.54 (3.1 nominal)
(nominal Ecm = 10.5 GeV)
TBD
Physics end date
1999
SuperB
(Italy)
1999
PEP-II
(SLAC)
Physics start date
KEKB
(KEK)
Updated in early 2010 (contact J. Beringer, LBNL). For existing (future) colliders the latest achieved (design) values are given. Quantities are, where appropriate, r.m.s.;
H and V indicate horizontal and vertical directions; s.c. stands for superconducting.
HIGH-ENERGY COLLIDER PARAMETERS: e+ e Colliders (II)
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227
HIGH-ENERGY COLLIDER PARAMETERS: ep, pp, pp, and Heavy Ion Colliders
2 colliding beams
1 xed target (e beam)
6.336
e: 0.6(H), 0.26(V )
p: 2.45(H), 0.18(V )
2 high L
6.28
0.28
Numbers in parentheses refer to goals for operation in 2010.
Interaction regions
Circumference (km)
ampl. function at
interaction point (m)
Free space at
interaction point (m)
6.5
p: 28
p: 16
e: 280(H), 50(V )
p: 265(H), 50(V )
Beam radius
(106 m)
2
p: 50
p: 45
e: 0.83
p: 8.5
Bunch length (cm)
396
96
Time between
collisions (ns)
402
0.980
Maximum beam
energy (TeV)
75
pp
ep
e: 0.030
p: 0.92
Particles collided
Luminosity
(1030 cm2 s1 )
2007
Physics end date
1987
1992
Physics start date
TEVATRON
(Fermilab)
0.7
90
55
107
85 (pk)
55 (ave)
0.25
34% pol
pp (pol.)
2001
0.1 TeV/n
Cu Cu
2004
3.834
16
0.9
145
30
321
0.020 (pk)
0.0008 (ave)
6 total, 2 high L
0.75
135
30
107
0.0040 (pk)
0.0020 (ave)
0.1 TeV/n
Au Au
2000
RHIC
(Brookhaven)
0.85
145
30
107
0.27 (pk)
0.14 (ave)
0.1 TeV/n
d Au
2002
2 high L
+2
0.55
(2.0)
38
16.6
(45)
7.55
(5.87)
24.95
(49.90)
1 dedicated
+2
26.659
0.5
(2.0)
38
15.9
(45)
7.94
(5.83)
99.8
(1347)
1.0 103
(1.3 105 )
1.0 104
(170)
Pb Pb
2010
2.76 TeV/n
(1.38 TeV/n)
7.0
(3.5)
pp
2009
LHC
(CERN)
228
HERA
(DESY)
Updated in early 2010 (contact J. Beringer, LBNL). For existing (future) colliders the latest achieved (design) values are given. Quantities are, where
appropriate, r.m.s.; H and V indicate horizontal and vertical directions; s.c. stands for superconducting; pk and ave denote peak and average values.
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11:56
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27. Passage of particles through matter 229
27. PASSAGE OF PARTICLES THROUGH MATTER
Revised January 2010 by H. Bichsel (University of Washington), D.E.
Groom (LBNL), and S.R. Klein (LBNL).
27.1. Notation
Table 27.1: Summary of variables used in this section. The
kinematic variables and have their usual meanings.
Symbol
Denition
Fine structure constant
(e2 /40 c)
M
Incident particle mass
E
Incident part. energy M c2
T
Kinetic energy
me c2 Electron mass c2
Classical electron radius
re
e2 /40 me c2
NA Avogadros number
ze Charge of incident particle
Z
Atomic number of absorber
A
Atomic mass of absorber
K/A 4NA re2 me c2 /A
Units or Value
1/137.035 999 11(46)
MeV/c2
MeV
MeV
0.510 998 918(44) MeV
2.817 940 325(28) fm
6.022 1415(10) 1023 mol1
g mol1
0.307 075 MeV g1 cm2
for A = 1 g mol1
I
Mean excitation energy
eV (Nota bene! )
() Density eect correction to ionization
energy loss
Z/A 28.816 eV
p Plasma
energy
( 4Ne re3 me c2 /)
( in g cm3 )
Ne Electron density
(units of re )3
wj Weight fraction of the jth element in a compound or mixture
number of jth kind of atoms in a compound or mixture
nj
(716.408 g cm2 )1 for A = 1 g mol1
4re2 NA /A
X0 Radiation length
g cm2
Ec Critical energy for electrons
MeV
Ec Critical energy for muons
GeV
21.2052 MeV
Es Scale energy 4/ me c2
RM Moli`ere radius
g cm2
27.2. Electronic energy loss by heavy particles [132]
27.2.1. Moments and cross sections :
The electronic interactions of fast charged particles with speed v = c
occur in single collisions with energy losses E [1], leading to ionization,
atomic, or collective excitation. Most frequently the energy losses are
small (for 90% of all collisions the energy losses are less than 100 eV). In
thin absorbers few collisions will take place and the total energy loss will
show a large variance [1]; also see Sec. 27.2.7 below. For particles with
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12:56
27. Passage of particles through matter
Stopping power [MeV cm2/g]
charge ze more massive than electrons (heavy particles), scattering from
free electrons is adequately described by the Rutherford dierential cross
section [2],
dR (E; )
2re2 me c2 z 2 (1 2 E/Tmax )
=
,
(27.1)
dE
2
E2
where Tmax is the maximum energy transfer possible in a single collision.
But in matter electrons are not free. For electrons bound in atoms
Bethe [3] used Born Theorie to obtain the dierential cross section
dB (E; )
d (E, )
= R
B(E) .
(27.2)
dE
dE
At high energies B is further modied by polarization of the medium,
and this density eect, discussed in Sec. 27.2.4, must also be included.
Less important corrections are discussed below.
The mean number of collisions with energy loss between E and E + dE
occuring in a distance x is Ne x (d/dE)dE, where d(E; )/dE contains
all contributions. It is convenient to dene the moments
d(E; )
Mj () = Ne x E j
dE ,
dE
so that M0 is the mean number of collisions in x, M1 is the mean energy
loss in x, M2 M12 is the variance, etc. The number of collisions is
Poisson-distributed with mean M0 . Ne is either measured in electrons/g
(Ne = NA Z/A) or electrons/cm3 (Ne = NA Z/A).
+ on Cu
10
LindhardScharff
100
Bethe
Radiative
AndersonZiegler
Ec
Radiative
losses
Radiative
effects
Minimum
ionization reach 1%
Nuclear
losses
Without
1
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
0.1
10
100
[MeV/c]
100
1000
10 4
10
100
[GeV/c]
Muon momentum
10 5
10 6
10
100
[TeV/c]
Fig. 27.1: Stopping power (= dE/dx) for positive muons in copper as a
function of = p/M c over nine orders of magnitude in momentum (12 orders
of magnitude in kinetic energy). Solid curves indicate the total stopping
power. Data below the break at 0.1 are taken from ICRU 49 [4], and
data at higher energies are from Ref. 5. Vertical bands indicate boundaries
between dierent approximations discussed in the text. The short dotted
lines labeled illustrate the Barkas eect, the dependence of stopping
power on projectile charge at very low energies [6].
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27. Passage of particles through matter 231
27.2.2. Stopping power at intermediate energies : The mean rate
of energy loss by moderately relativistic charged heavy particles, M1 /x,
is well-described by the Bethe equation,
dE
Z 1 1 2me c2 2 2 Tmax
()
2
ln
= Kz 2
.
(27.3)
dx
A 2 2
I2
2
It describes the mean loss rate in the region 0.1 <
<
1000 for
intermediate-Z materials with an accuracy of a few %. At the lower limit
the projectile velocity becomes comparable to atomic electron velocities
(Sec. 27.2.3), and at the upper limit radiative eects begin to be important
(Sec. 27.6). Both limits are Z dependent. Here Tmax is the maximum
kinetic energy which can be imparted to a free electron in a single collision,
and the other variables are dened in Table 27.1. A minor dependence
on M at the highest energies is introduced through Tmax , but for all
practical purposes dE/dx in a given material is a function of alone.
With the symbol denitions and values given in Table 27.1, the units are
MeV g1 cm2 .
Few concepts in high-energy physics are as misused as dE/dx. The
main problem is that the mean is weighted by very rare events with large
single-collision energy deposits. Even with samples of hundreds of events a
dependable value for the mean energy loss cannot be obtained. Far better
and more easily measured is the most probable energy loss, discussed in
Sec. 27.2.7. It is considerably below the mean given by the Bethe equation.
In a TPC (Sec. 28.6.5), the mean of 50%70% of the samples with the
smallest signals is often used as an estimator.
Although it must be used with cautions and caveats, dE/dx as
described in Eq. (27.3) still forms the basis of much of our understanding
of energy loss by charged particles. Extensive tables are available[5,4,
pdg.lbl.gov/AtomicNuclearProperties/].
The function as computed for muons on copper is shown as the
Bethe region of Fig. 27.1. Mean energy loss behavior below this region
is discussed in Sec. 27.2.3, and the radiative eects at high energy
are discussed in Sec. 27.6. Only in the Bethe region is it a function
of alone; the mass dependence is more complicated elsewhere. The
stopping power in several other materials is shown in Fig. 27.2. Except
in hydrogen, particles with the same velocity have similar rates of energy
loss in dierent materials, although there is a slow decrease in the rate
of energy loss with increasing Z. The qualitative behavior dierence at
high energies between a gas (He in the gure) and the other materials
shown in the gure is due to the density-eect correction, (), discussed
in Sec. 27.2.4. The stopping power functions are characterized by broad
minima whose position drops from = 3.5 to 3.0 as Z goes from 7 to
100. The values of minimum ionization go roughly as 0.235 0.28 ln(Z),
in MeV g1cm2, for Z > 6.
Eq. (27.3) may be integrated to nd the total (or partial) continuous
slowing-down approximation (CSDA) range R for a particle which loses
energy only through ionization and atomic excitation. Since dE/dx in
the Bethe region depends only on , R/M is a function of E/M or
pc/M . In practice, range is a useful concept only for low-energy hadrons
(R <
I , where I is the nuclear interaction length), and for muons below
a few hundred GeV (above which radiative eects dominate). R/M as a
function of = p/M c is shown for a variety of materials in Fig. 27.4.
The mass scaling of dE/dx and range is valid for the electronic losses
described by the Bethe equation, but not for radiative losses, relevant only
for muons and pions.
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12:56
27. Passage of particles through matter
10
dE/dx (MeV g1cm2)
8
6
5
H2 liquid
4
He gas
3
2
1
0.1
Sn
Pb
1.0
10
100
= p/Mc
0.1
0.1
0.1
1.0
Fe
Al
1000
10 000
1.0
10
100
Muon momentum (GeV/c)
1000
1.0
10
100
Pion momentum (GeV/c)
10
100
1000
Proton momentum (GeV/c)
1000
10 000
Figure 27.2: Mean energy loss rate in liquid (bubble chamber)
hydrogen, gaseous helium, carbon, aluminum, iron, tin, and lead.
Radiative eects, relevant for muons and pions, are not included.
These become signicant for muons in iron for >
1000, and at
lower momenta in higher-Z absorbers. See Fig. 27.21.
For a particle with mass M and momentum M c, Tmax is given by
Tmax =
2me c2 2 2
.
1 + 2me /M + (me /M )2
(27.4)
In older references [2,7] the low-energy approximation Tmax =
2me c2 2 2 , valid for 2me /M 1, is often implicit. For hadrons with
E 100 GeV, it is limited by structure eects.
Estimates of the mean excitation energy I based on experimental
stopping-power measurements for protons, deuterons, and alpha particles
are given in ICRU 37 [10]; see also pdg.lbl.gov.AtomicNuclearProperties.
27.2.4. Density eect : As the particle energy increases, its electric
eld attens and extends, so that the distant-collision contribution to
Eq. (27.3) increases as ln . However, real media become polarized,
limiting the eld extension and eectively truncating this part of the
logarithmic rise [27,1820]. At very high energies,
/2 ln(p /I) + ln 1/2 ,
(27.5)
where ()/2 is the density eect correction introduced in Eq. (27.3)
and p is the plasma energy dened in Table 27.1. A comparison with
Eq. (27.3) shows that |dE/dx| then grows as ln rather than ln 2 2 ,
and that the mean excitation energy I is replaced by the plasma energy
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27. Passage of particles through matter 233
50000
20000
C
Fe
10000
Pb
R/M (g cm2 GeV1)
5000
2000
H2 liquid
He gas
1000
500
200
100
50
20
10
5
2
1
0.1
0.02
1.0
0.05
0.2
0.1
= p/Mc
0.5
10.0
1.0
2.0
5.0
100.0
10.0
Muon momentum (GeV/c)
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
10.0
Pion momentum (GeV/c)
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
10.0 20.0
50.0
Proton momentum (GeV/c)
Figure 27.4: Range of heavy charged particles in liquid (bubble
chamber) hydrogen, helium gas, carbon, iron, and lead. For example:
For a K + whose momentum is 700 MeV/c, = 1.42. For lead we
read R/M 396, and so the range is 195 g cm2 .
p . Since the plasma frequency scales as the square root of the electron
density, the correction is much larger for a liquid or solid than for a gas,
as is illustrated by the examples in Fig. 27.2.
The remaining relativistic rise comes from the 2 2 growth of Tmax ,
which in turn is due to (rare) large energy transfers to a few electrons.
When these events are excluded, the energy deposit in an absorbing
layer approaches a constant value, the Fermi plateau (see Sec. 27.2.6
below). At extreme energies (e.g., > 332 GeV for muons in iron, and
at a considerably higher energy for protons in iron), radiative eects are
more important than ionization losses. These are especially relevant for
high-energy muons, as discussed in Sec. 27.6.
27.2.5. Energetic knock-on electrons ( rays) : The distribution of
secondary electrons with kinetic energies T
I is [2]
d2 N
1
Z 1 F (T )
= Kz 2
(27.7)
dT dx
2
A 2 T 2
for I T Tmax , where Tmax is given by Eq. (27.4). Here is the
velocity of the primary particle. The factor F is spin-dependent, but is
about unity for T Tmax . For spin-0 particles F (T ) = (1 2 T /Tmax );
forms for spins 1/2 and 1 are also given by Rossi [2]. For incident
electrons, the indistinguishability of projectile and target means that the
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12:56
27. Passage of particles through matter
range of T extends only to half the kinetic energy of the incident particle.
Additional formulae are given in Ref. 22. Equation (27.7) is inaccurate for
T close to I. The cosine of the production angle is essentially unity in
practical cases.
rays of even modest energy are rare. For 1 particle, for example,
on average only one collision with Te > 1 keV will occur along a path
length of 90 cm of Ar gas [1].
27.2.6. Restricted energy loss rates for relativistic ionizing particles : Further insight can be obtained by examining the mean energy
deposit by an ionizing particle when energy transfers are restricted to
T Tcut Tmax . The restricted energy loss rate is
dE
2
2me c2 2 2 Tcut
Tcut
2Z 1 1
=
Kz
ln
1
+
.
dx T <Tcut
A 2 2
2
Tmax
2
I2
(27.9)
This form approaches the normal Bethe function (Eq. (27.3)) as
Tcut Tmax . It can be veried that the dierence between Eq. (27.3) and
Eq. (27.9) is equal to TTmax T (d2 N/dT dx)dT , where d2 N/dT dx is given
cut
by Eq. (27.7).
Since Tcut replaces Tmax in the argument of the logarithmic term of
Eq. (27.3), the term producing the relativistic rise in the close-collision
part of dE/dx is replaced by a constant, and |dE/dx|T <Tcut approaches
the constant Fermi plateau. (The density eect correction eliminates
the explicit dependence produced by the distant-collision contribution.)
This behavior is illustrated in Fig. 27.6, where restricted loss rates for
two examples of Tcut are shown in comparison with the full Bethe dE/dx
and the Landau-Vavilov most probable energy loss (to be discussed in
Sec. 27.2.7 below).
27.2.7. Fluctuations in energy loss : For detectors of moderate
thickness x (e.g. scintillators or LAr cells),* the energy loss probability
distribution f (; , x) is adequately described by the highly-skewed
Landau (or Landau-Vavilov) distribution [24,25]. The most probable
energy loss is [26]
2mc2 2 2
p = ln
+ ln + j 2 () ,
(27.10)
I
I
2
where = (K/2) Z/A (x/ ) MeV for a detector with a thickness x in
g cm2 , and j = 0.200 [26]. While dE/dx is independent of thickness,
p /x scales as a ln x + b. The density correction () was not included
in Landaus or Vavilovs work, but it was later included by Bichsel [26].
The high-energy behavior of () (Eq. (27.5)), is such that
2mc2
p ln
+
j
.
(27.11)
(p )2
>
100
Thus the Landau-Vavilov most probable energy loss, like the restricted
energy loss, reaches a Fermi plateau. The Bethe dE/dx and LandauVavilov-Bichsel p /x in silicon are shown as a function of muon energy
in Fig. 27.6. The case x/ = 1600 m was chosen since it has about
* G <
0.050.1, where G is given by Rossi [Ref. 2, Eq. 2.7.10]. It is
Vavilovs [25].
Rossi [2], Talman [27], and others give somewhat dierent values for
j. The most probable loss is not sensitive to its value.
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27. Passage of particles through matter 235
the same stopping power as does 3 mm of plastic scintillator. Folding
in experimental resolution displaces the peak of the distribution, usually
toward a higher value.
MeV g1 cm2 (Electonic loses only)
3.0
Silicon
2.5
Bethe
2.0
Restricted energy loss for :
Tcut = 10 dE/dx|min
Tcut = 2 dE/dx|min
1.5
Landau/Vavilov/Bichsel p /x for :
x/ = 1600 m
320 m
80 m
1.0
0.5
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
Muon kinetic energy (GeV)
1000.0
Figure 27.6: Bethe dE/dx, two examples of restricted energy
loss, and the Landau most probable energy per unit thickness in
silicon. The change of p /x with thickness x illustrates its a ln x + b
dependence. Minimum ionization (dE/dx|min ) is 1.664 MeV g1 cm2 .
Radiative losses are excluded. The incident particles are muons.
The mean of the energy-loss given by the Bethe equation, Eq. (27.3),
is ill-dened experimentally and is not useful for describing energy loss
by single particles. (It nds its application in dosimetry, where only bulk
deposit is of relevance.) It rises as ln because Tmax increases as 2 2 .
The large single-collision energy transfers that increasingly extend the long
tail are rare, making the mean of an experimental distribution consisting
of a few hundred events subject to large uctuations and sensitive to cuts
as well as to background. The most probable energy loss should be used.
For very thick absorbers the distribution is less skewed but never
approaches a Gaussian. In the case of Si illustrated in Fig. 27.6, the most
probable energy loss per unit thickness for x 35 g cm2 is very close to
the restricted energy loss with Tcut = 2 dE/dx|min .
The Landau distribution fails to describe energy loss in thin absorbers
such as gas TPC cells [1] and Si detectors [26], as shown clearly in
Fig. 1 of Ref. 1 for an argon-lled TPC cell. Also see Talman [27]. While
p /x may be calculated adequately with Eq. (27.10), the distributions
are signicantly wider than the Landau width w = 4 [Ref. 26, Fig. 15].
Examples for thin silicon detectors are shown in Fig. 27.7.
27.2.8. Energy loss in mixtures and compounds : A mixture or
compound can be thought of as made up of thin layers of pure elements
in the right proportion (Bragg additivity). In this case,
dE
dE
=
wj
,
(27.12)
dx
dx j
where dE/dx|j is the mean rate of energy loss (in MeV g cm2 )
in the jth element. Eq. (27.3) can be inserted into Eq. (27.12) to
nd expressions
for Z/A,
I , and ; for example, Z/A =
wj Zj /Aj =
nj Zj / nj Aj . However, I as dened this way is
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27. Passage of particles through matter
an underestimate, because in a compound electrons are more tightly
bound than in the free elements, and as calculated this way has little
relevance, because it is the electron density that matters. If possible,
one uses the tables given in Refs. 20 and 28, or the recipes given in
Ref. 21 (repeated in Ref. 5), which include eective excitation energies
and interpolation coecients for calculating the density eect correction.
27.3. Multiple scattering through small angles
A charged particle traversing a medium is deected by many small-angle
scatters. Most of this deection is due to Coulomb scattering from nuclei,
and hence the eect is called multiple Coulomb scattering. (However, for
hadronic projectiles, the strong interactions also contribute to multiple
scattering.) The Coulomb scattering distribution is well represented by the
theory of Moli`ere [33]. It is roughly Gaussian for small deection angles,
but at larger angles (greater than a few 0 , dened below) it behaves like
Rutherford scattering, with larger tails than does a Gaussian distribution.
If we dene
1 rms
0 = rms
(27.13)
plane = space .
2
then it is usually sucient to use a Gaussian approximation for the central
98% of the projected angular distribution, with a width given by [34,35]
13.6 MeV
0 =
(27.14)
z x/X0 1 + 0.038 ln(x/X0 ) .
cp
Here p, c, and z are the momentum, velocity, and charge number of the
incident particle, and x/X0 is the thickness of the scattering medium in
radiation lengths (dened below). This value of 0 is from a t to Moli`ere
distribution [33] for singly charged particles with = 1 for all Z, and is
accurate to 11% or better for 103 < x/X0 < 100.
27.4. Photon and electron interactions in matter
27.4.1. Radiation length : High-energy electrons predominantly lose
energy in matter by bremsstrahlung, and high-energy photons by e+ e
pair production. The characteristic amount of matter traversed for these
related interactions is called the radiation length X0 , usually measured in
g cm2 . It is both (a) the mean distance over which a high-energy electron
loses all but 1/e of its energy by bremsstrahlung, and (b) 79 of the mean
free path for pair production by a high-energy photon [37]. It is also
the appropriate scale length for describing high-energy electromagnetic
cascades. X0 has been calculated and tabulated by Y.S. Tsai [38]:
N
1
(27.22)
= 4re2 A Z 2 Lrad f (Z) + Z Lrad .
X0
A
1
2
2
1
For A = 1 g mol , 4re NA /A = (716.408 g cm ) . Lrad and Lrad
are given in Table 27.2. The function f (Z) is an innite sum, but for
elements up to uranium can be represented to 4-place accuracy by
f (Z) = a2 (1 + a2 )1 + 0.20206 0.0369 a2 + 0.0083 a4 0.002 a6 , (27.23)
where a = Z [39].
27.4.2. Energy loss by electrons : At low energies electrons and
positrons primarily lose energy by ionization, although other processes
(Mller scattering, Bhabha scattering, e+ annihilation) contribute, as
shown in Fig. 27.10. While ionization loss rates rise logarithmically with
energy, bremsstrahlung losses rise nearly linearly (fractional loss is nearly
independent of energy), and dominates above a few tens of MeV in most
materials.
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27. Passage of particles through matter 237
Table 27.2: Tsais Lrad and Lrad , for use in calculating the
radiation length in an element using Eq. (27.22).
Element
Lrad
Lrad
H
He
Li
Be
Others
1
2
3
4
>4
5.31
4.79
4.74
4.71
ln(184.15 Z 1/3)
6.144
5.621
5.805
5.924
ln(1194 Z 2/3 )
Ionization loss by electrons and positrons diers from loss by heavy
particles because of the kinematics, spin, and the identity of the incident
electron with the electrons which it ionizes. Complete discussions and
tables can be found in Refs. 9, 10, and 28.
At very high energies and except at the high-energy tip of the
bremsstrahlung spectrum, the cross section can be approximated in the
complete screening case as [38]
d/dk = (1/k)4re2 ( 43 43 y + y 2 )[Z 2 (Lrad f (Z)) + Z Lrad ]
(27.26)
+ 19 (1 y)(Z 2 + Z) ,
where y = k/E is the fraction of the electrons energy transfered to the
radiated photon. At small y (the infrared limit) the term on the second
line ranges from 1.7% (low Z) to 2.5% (high Z) of the total. If it is ignored
and the rst line simplied with the denition of X0 given in Eq. (27.22),
we have
4 4
d
A
=
(27.27)
y + y2 .
dk
X0 NA k 3 3
This formula is accurate except in near y = 1, where screening may
become incomplete, and near y = 0, where the infrared divergence
is removed by the interference of bremsstrahlung amplitudes from
nearby scattering centers (the LPM eect) [41,42] and dielectric
suppression [43,44]. These and other suppression eects in bulk media
are discussed in Sec. 27.4.5.
Except at these extremes, and still in the complete-screening
approximation, the number of photons with energies between kmin and
kmax emitted by an electron travelling a distance d X0 is
2
2
kmin
kmax
d 4
4(kmax kmin ) kmax
ln
+
. (27.28)
N =
X0 3
kmin
3E
2E 2
27.4.3. Critical energy : An electron loses energy by bremsstrahlung
at a rate nearly proportional to its energy, while the ionization loss rate
varies only logarithmically with the electron energy. The critical energy
Ec is sometimes dened as the energy at which the two loss rates are
equal [46]. Among alternate denitions is that of Rossi [2], who denes
the critical energy as the energy at which the ionization loss per radiation
length is equal to the electron energy. Equivalently, it is the same as the
rst denition with the approximation |dE/dx|brems E/X0 . This form
has been found to describe transverse electromagnetic shower development
more accurately (see below).
The accuracy of approximate forms for Ec has been limited by the
failure to distinguish between gases and solid or liquids, where there is
a substantial dierence in ionization at the relevant energy because of
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27. Passage of particles through matter
the density eect. Separate ts to Ec (Z), using the Rossi denition, have
been made with functions of the form a/(Z + b) , but was found to be
essentially unity. For Z > 6 we obtain
710 MeV
610 MeV
Ec
(solids and liquids) ,
(gases) .
Z + 1.24
Z + 0.92
Since Ec also depends on A, I, and other factors, such forms are at best
approximate.
100
Absorption length (g/cm 2 )
10
Sn
Si
Fe
Pb
0.1
0.01
0.001
10
10
10
5
6
10 eV
100 eV
1 keV
10 keV
100 keV
1 MeV
10 MeV
Photon energy
100 MeV
1 GeV
10 GeV
100 GeV
Fig. 27.16: The photon mass attenuation length (or mean
free path) = 1/(/) for various elemental absorbers as a
function of photon energy. The mass attenuation coecient is
/, where is the density. The intensity I remaining after
traversal of thickness t (in mass/unit area) is given by I = I0
exp(t/). The accuraccy is a
few percent. For a chemical
compound or mixture, 1/e elements wZ /Z , where wZ is
the proportion by weight of the element with atomic number
Z. The processes responsible for attenuation are given in
Fig. 27.10. Since coherent processes are included, not all these
processes result in energy deposition.
27.4.4. Energy loss by photons : Contributions to the photon cross
section in a light element (carbon) and a heavy element (lead) are
shown in Fig. 27.14. At low energies it is seen that the photoelectric
eect dominates, although Compton scattering, Rayleigh scattering, and
photonuclear absorption also contribute. The photoelectric cross section
is characterized by discontinuities (absorption edges) as thresholds for
photoionization of various atomic levels are reached. Photon attenuation
lengths for a variety of elements are shown in Fig. 27.15, and data for
30 eV< k <100 GeV for all elements is available from the web pages given
in the caption. Here k is the photon energy.
The increasing domination of pair production as the energy increases is
shown in Fig. 27.17 of the full Review. Using approximations similar to
those used to obtain Eq. (27.27), Tsais formula for the dierential cross
section [38] reduces to
d
A
=
1 43 x(1 x)
(27.29)
dx
X0 NA
in the complete-screening limit valid at high energies. Here x = E/k is the
fractional energy transfer to the pair-produced electron (or positron), and
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27. Passage of particles through matter 239
k is the incident photon energy. The cross section is very closely related
to that for bremsstrahlung, since the Feynman diagrams are variants of
one another. The cross section is of necessity symmetric between x and
1 x, as can be seen by the solid curve in See the review by Motz, Olsen,
& Koch for a more detailed treatment [51].
Eq. (27.29) may be integrated to nd the high-energy limit for the total
e+ e pair-production cross section:
(27.30)
= 79 (A/X0 NA ) .
Equation Eq. (27.30) is accurate to within a few percent down to energies
as low as 1 GeV, particularly for high-Z materials.
27.4.5. Bremsstrahlung and pair production at very high energies :
At ultrahigh energies, Eqns. 27.2627.30 will fail because of
quantum mechanical interference between amplitudes from dierent scattering centers. Since the longitudinal momentum transfer to a given center
is small ( k/E(E k), in the case of bremsstrahlung), the interaction
is spread over a comparatively long distance called the formation length
( E(E k)/k) via the uncertainty principle. In alternate language, the
formation length is the distance over which the highly relativistic electron
and the photon split apart. The interference is usually destructive.
Calculations of the Landau-Pomeranchuk-Migdal (LPM) eect may be
made semi-classically based on the average multiple scattering, or more
rigorously using a quantum transport approach [41,42].
In amorphous media, bremsstrahlung is suppressed if the photon energy
k is less than E 2 /(E + ELP M ) [42], where*
X0
(me c2 )2 X0
= (7.7 TeV/cm)
.
(27.31)
ELP M =
4c
Since physical distances are involved, X0 /, in cm, appears. The energyweighted bremsstrahlung spectrum for lead, k dLP M /dk, is shown in
Fig. 27.11 of the full Review. With appropriate scaling by X0 /, other
materials behave similarly.
For photons, pair production is reduced for E(k E) > k ELP M . The
pair-production cross sections for dierent photon energies are shown in
Fig. 27.15 of the full Review.
If k E, several additional mechanisms can also produce suppression.
When the formation length is long, even weak factors can perturb
the interaction. For example, the emitted photon can coherently
forward scatter o of the electrons in the media. Because of this,
for k < p E/me 104 , bremsstrahlung is suppressed by a factor
(kme /p E)2 [44]. Magnetic elds can also suppress bremsstrahlung.
In crystalline media, the situation is more complicated, with coherent
enhancement or suppression possible [42].
27.5. Electromagnetic cascades
When a high-energy electron or photon is incident on a thick absorber, it
initiates an electromagnetic cascade as pair production and bremsstrahlung
generate more electrons and photons with lower energy. The longitudinal
development is governed by the high-energy part of the cascade, and
therefore scales as the radiation length in the material. Electron energies
eventually fall below the critical energy, and then dissipate their energy
by ionization and excitation rather than by the generation of more shower
* This denition diers from that of Ref. 52 by a factor of two. ELP M
scales as the 4th power of the mass of the incident particle, so that ELP M =
(1.4 1010 TeV/cm) X0 / for a muon.
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27. Passage of particles through matter
particles. In describing shower behavior, it is therefore convenient to
introduce the scale variables t = x/X0 and y = E/Ec , so that distance
is measured in units of radiation length and energy in units of critical
energy.
The mean longitudinal prole of the energy deposition in an
electromagnetic cascade is reasonably well described by a gamma
distribution [58]:
dE
(bt)a1 ebt
= E0 b
(27.33)
dt
(a)
The maximum tmax occurs at (a 1)/b. We have made ts to shower
proles in elements ranging from carbon to uranium, at energies from 1
GeV to 100 GeV. The energy deposition proles are well described by
Eq. (27.33) with
tmax = (a 1)/b = 1.0 (ln y + Cj ) ,
j = e, ,
(27.34)
where Ce = 0.5 for electron-induced cascades and C = +0.5 for
photon-induced cascades. To use Eq. (27.33), one nds (a 1)/b from
Eq. (27.34), then nds a either by assuming b 0.5 or by nding a
more accurate value from Fig. 27.19. The results are very similar for the
electron number proles, but there is some dependence on the atomic
number of the medium. A similar form for the electron number maximum
was obtained by Rossi in the context of his Approximation B, [2] but
with Ce = 1.0 and C = 0.5; we regard this as superseded by the EGS4
result.
The shower length Xs = X0 /b is less conveniently parameterized,
since b depends upon both Z and incident energy, as shown in Fig. 27.19.
As a corollary of this Z dependence, the number of electrons crossing a
plane near shower maximum is underestimated using Rossis approximation for carbon and seriously overestimated for uranium. Essentially the
same b values are obtained for incident electrons and photons. For many
purposes it is sucient to take b 0.5.
The gamma function distribution is very at near the origin, while
the EGS4 cascade (or a real cascade) increases more rapidly. As a result
Eq. (27.33) fails badly for about the rst two radiation lengths, which are
excluded from ts. Because uctuations are important, Eq. (27.33) should
be used only in applications where average behavior is adequate.
The transverse development of electromagnetic showers in dierent
materials scales fairly accurately with the Moli`ere radius RM , given
by [60,61]
RM = X0 Es /Ec ,
(27.35)
where Es 21 MeV (Table 27.1), and the Rossi denition of Ec is used.
Measurements of the lateral distribution in electromagnetic cascades
are shown in Refs. 60 and 61. On the average, only 10% of the energy
lies outside the cylinder with radius RM . About 99% is contained
inside of 3.5RM , but at this radius and beyond composition eects
become important and the scaling with RM fails. The distributions are
characterized by a narrow core, and broaden as the shower develops. They
are often represented as the sum of two Gaussians, and Grindhammer [59]
describes them with the function
2r R2
f (r) = 2
,
(27.37)
(r + R2 )2
where R is a phenomenological function of x/X0 and ln E.
At high enough energies, the LPM eect (Sec. 27.4.5) reduces the cross
sections for bremsstrahlung and pair production, and hence can cause
signicant elongation of electromagnetic cascades [42].
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27. Passage of particles through matter 241
27.6. Muon energy loss at high energy
At suciently high energies, radiative processes become more important
than ionization for all charged particles. For muons and pions in materials
such as iron, this critical energy occurs at several hundred GeV. (There
is no simple scaling with particle mass, but for protons the critical
energy is much, much higher.) Radiative eects dominate the energy
loss of energetic muons found in cosmic rays or produced at the newest
accelerators. These processes are characterized by small cross sections,
hard spectra, large energy uctuations, and the associated generation of
electromagnetic and (in the case of photonuclear interactions) hadronic
showers [6270]. At these energies the treatment of energy loss as a
uniform and continuous process is for many purposes inadequate.
It is convenient to write the average rate of muon energy loss as [71]
dE/dx = a(E) + b(E) E .
(27.38)
Here a(E) is the ionization energy loss given by Eq. (27.3), and b(E)
is the sum of e+ e pair production, bremsstrahlung, and photonuclear
contributions. To the approximation that these slowly-varying functions
are constant, the mean range x0 of a muon with initial energy E0 is given
by
x0 (1/b) ln(1 + E0 /Ec ) ,
(27.39)
where Ec = a/b.
The muon critical energy Ec can be dened more exactly as the
energy at which radiative and ionization losses are equal, and can be
found by solving Ec = a(Ec )/b(Ec ). This denition corresponds to the
solid-line intersection in Fig. 27.12 of the full Review, and is dierent from
the Rossi denition we used for electrons. It serves the same function:
below Ec ionization losses dominate, and above Ec radiative eects
dominate. The dependence of Ec on atomic number Z is shown in Fig.
27.22 in the full Review.
The radiative cross sections are expressed as functions of the fractional
energy loss . The bremsstrahlung cross section goes roughly as 1/ over
most of the range, while for the pair production case the distribution
goes as 3 to 2 [72]. Hard losses are therefore more probable
in bremsstrahlung, and in fact energy losses due to pair production may
very nearly be treated as continuous. The simulated [70] momentum
distribution of an incident 1 TeV/c muon beam after it crosses 3 m of
iron is shown in Fig. 27.23 of the full Review. The hard bremsstrahlung
photons and hadronic debris from photonuclear interactions induce
cascades which can obscure muon tracks in detector planes and reduce
tracking eciency [74].
27.7. Cherenkov and transition radiation [75,76,32]
A charged particle radiates if its velocity is greater than the local phase
velocity of light (Cherenkov radiation) or if it crosses suddenly from one
medium to another with dierent optical properties (transition radiation).
Neither process is important for energy loss, but both are used in
high-energy physics detectors.
Cherenkov radiation. The cosine of the angle c of Cherenkov radiation,
relative to the particles direction, for a particle with velocity c in a
medium with index of refraction n, is 1/n, or
2(1 1/n)
(27.40)
tan c = 2 n2 1
for small c , e.g., in gases. The threshold velocity t is 1/n, and
t = 1/(1 t2 )1/2 . Therefore, t t = 1/(2 + 2 )1/2 , where = n 1.
Values of for various commonly used gases are given as a function of
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27. Passage of particles through matter
pressure and wavelength in Ref. 77. For values at atmospheric pressure,
see Table 6.1. Data for other commonly used materials are given in
Ref. 78.
Practical Cherenkov radiator materials are dispersive. Let be the
photons frequency, and let k = 2/ be its wavenumber. The photons
propage at the group velocity vg = d/dk = c/[n() + (dn/d)]. In a
non-dispersive medium, this simplies to vg = c/n.
In his classical paper, Tamm [79] showed that for dispersive media the
radiation is concentrated in a thin conical shell whose vertex is at the
moving charge, and whose opening half-angle is given by
d
dn
cot =
( tan c )
cot c
= tan c + 2 n()
, (27.41)
d
d
0
0
where 0 is the central value of the small frequency range under
consideration. (See Fig. 27.24.) This cone has a opening half-angle ,
and, unless the medium is non-dispersive (dn/d = 0), c + = 900 . The
Cherenkov wavefront sideslips along with the particle [80]. This eect
may have timing implications for ring imaging Cherenkov counters [81],
but it is probably unimportant for most applications.
The number of photons produced per unit path length of a particle
with charge ze and per unit energy interval of the photons is
d2 N
z 2
2 z 2
1
=
sin2 c =
1
dEdx
c
re me c2
2 n2 (E)
370 sin2 c (E) eV1 cm1
(z = 1) ,
(27.42)
or, equivalently,
2z 2
d2 N
1
=
.
(27.43)
1
dxd
2
2 n2 ()
The index of refraction n is a function of photon energy E = . For
practical use, Eq. (27.42) must be multiplied by the photodetector response
function and integrated over the region for which n() > 1.
When two particles are within <
1 wavelength, the electromagnetic
elds from the particles may add coherently, aecting the Cherenkov
radiation. The radiation from an e+ e pair at close separation is
suppressed compared to two independent leptons [82].
Coherent radio Cherenkov radiation from electromagnetic showers
(containing a net excess of e over e+ ) has been used to study cosmic ray
air showers [84] and to search for e induced showers.
Transition radiation. The energy I radiated when a particle with charge
ze crosses the boundary between vacuum and a medium with plasma
frequency p is z 2 p /3, where
p = 4Ne re3 me c2 / = (in g/cm3 ) Z/A 28.81 eV . (27.45)
For styrene and similar materials, p 20 eV; for air it is 0.7 eV.
The number spectrum dN /d( diverges logarithmically at low
energies and decreases rapidly for /p > 1. About half the energy
is emitted in the range 0.1 /p 1. Inevitable absorption in a
practical detector removes the divergence. For a particle with = 103 ,
the radiated photons are in the soft x-ray range 2 to 40 keV. The
dependence of the emitted energy thus comes from the hardening of the
spectrum rather than from an increased quantum yield.
The number of photons with energy > 0 is given by the answer
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dS/d( )
Differential yield per interface (keV/keV)
27. Passage of particles through matter 243
Without absorption
102
25 m Mylar/1.5 mm air
= 2 104
Single interface
200 foils
103
With absorption
104
105
10
100
X-ray energy (keV)
1000
Figure 27.25: X-ray photon energy spectra for a radiator consisting
of 200 25 m thick foils of Mylar with 1.5 mm spacing in air (solid
lines) and for a single surface (dashed line). Curves are shown with
and without absorption. Adapted from Ref. 85.
to problem 13.15 in Ref. 32,
2
p
z 2
2
1 +
N ( > 0 ) =
ln
,
(27.46)
0
12
within corrections of order (0 /p)2 . The number of photons above a
xed energy 0 p thus grows as (ln )2 , but the number above a
xed fraction of p (as in the example above) is constant. For example,
for > p /10, N = 2.519 z 2/ = 0.59% z 2 .
The particle stays in phase with the x ray over a distance called the
formation length, d(). Most of the radiation is produced in a distance
d() = (2c/)(1/ 2 + 2 + p2 / 2 )1 . Here is the x-ray emission angle,
characteristically
1/.
For = 1/ the formation length has a maximum
at d(p / 2) = c/ 2 p . In practical situations it is tens of m.
Since the useful x-ray yield from a single interface is low, in practical
detectors it is enhanced by using a stack of N foil radiatorsfoils
L thick, where L is typically several formation lengthsseparated by
gas-lled gaps. The amplitudes at successive interfaces interfere to cause
oscillations about the single-interface spectrum. At increasing frequencies
above the position of the last interference maximum (L/d(w) = /2), the
formation zones, which have opposite phase, overlap more and more and
the spectrum saturates, dI/d approaching zero as L/d() 0. This is
illustrated in Fig. 27.25 for a realistic detector conguration.
For regular spacing of the layers fairly complicated analytic solutions
for the intensity have been obtained [85]. (See also Ref. 86 and references
therein.) Although one might expect the intensity of coherent radiation
from the stack of foils to be proportional to N 2 , the angular dependence
of the formation length conspires to make the intensity N .
Further discussion and all references may be found in the full Review of
Particle Physics. The equation and reference numbering corresponds to
that version.
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28. Detectors at accelerators
28. PARTICLE DETECTORS AT ACCELERATORS
This is an abridgment of the discussion given in the full Review of
Particle Physics (the full Review); the equation and reference numbering
corresponds to that version. The quoted numbers are usually based on
typical devices, and should be regarded only as rough approximations
for new designs. A more detailed discussion of detectors can be found in
Refs. 1 and 56.
28.1. Summary of detector spatial resolution, temporal
resolution, and deadtime
In this section we give various parameters for common detector
components. The quoted numbers are usually based on typical devices,
and should be regarded only as rough approximations for new designs.
More detailed discussions of detectors and their underlying physics can
be found in books by Ferbel [1], Kleinknecht [2], Knoll [3], Green [4],
Leroy & Rancoita [5], and Grupen [6]. In Table 28.1 are given typical
resolutions and deadtimes of common detectors.
Table 28.1: Typical resolutions and deadtimes of common
detectors. Revised September 2009.
Detector Type
Accuracy (rms)
Bubble chamber
10150 m
Streamer chamber
300 m
Proportional chamber
50100 ma
Drift chamber
50100 m
Scintillator
Emulsion
1 m
Liquid argon drift [7]
175450 m
Micro-pattern gas detectors [8]
3040 m
Resistive plate chamber [9]
10 m
Silicon strip
pitch/(3 to 7)a
Silicon pixel
2 ma
a
Resolution Dead
Time
Time
1 ms
2 s
2 ns
2 nsd
100 ps/na
200 ns
< 10 ns
12 ns
50 msa
100 ms
200 ns
100 ns
10 ns
2 s
20 ns
See full Review for qualications and assumptions.
28.2. Photon detectors
Updated September 2009 by D. Chakraborty (Northern Illinois U) and
T. Sumiyoshi (Tokyo Metro U).
Most detectors in high-energy, nuclear, and astrophysics rely on the
detection of photons in or near the visible range, 100 nm 1000 nm,
or E a few eV. This range covers scintillation and Cherenkov radiation
as well as the light detected in many astronomical observations.
Generally, photodetection involves generating a detectable electrical
signal proportional to the (usually very small) number of incident photons.
28.2.1. Vacuum photodetectors : Vacuum photodetectors can be
broadly subdivided into three types: photomultiplier tubes, microchannel
plates, and hybrid photodetectors.
28.2.1.1. Photomultiplier tubes: A versatile class of photon detectors,
vacuum photomultiplier tubes (PMT) has been employed by a vast majority of all particle physics experiments to date [11]. Both transmission-
and reection-type PMTs are widely used. In the former, the photocathode material is deposited on the inside of a transparent window
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through which the photons enter, while in the latter, the photocathode
material rests on a separate surface that the incident photons strike. The
cathode material has a low work function, chosen for the wavelength band
of interest. When a photon hits the cathode and liberates an electron (the
photoelectric eect), the latter is accelerated and guided by electric elds
to impinge on a secondary-emission electrode, or dynode, which then emits
a few ( 5) secondary electrons. The multiplication process is repeated
typically 10 times in series to generate a sucient number of electrons,
which are collected at the anode for delivery to the external circuit. The
total gain of a PMT depends on the applied high voltage V as G = AV kn ,
where k 0.70.8 (depending on the dynode material), n is the number
of dynodes in the chain, and A a constant (which also depends on n).
Typically, G is in the range of 105 106 .
28.2.2. Gaseous photon detectors : In gaseous photomultipliers
(GPM) a photoelectron in a suitable gas mixture initiates an avalanche
in a high-eld region, producing a large number of secondary impactionization electrons. In principle the charge multiplication and collection
processes are identical to those employed in gaseous tracking detectors
such as multiwire proportional chambers, micromesh gaseous detectors
(Micromegas), or gas electron multipliers (GEM). These are discussed in
Sec. 28.6.4.
28.2.3. Solid-state photon detectors : In a phase of rapid development, solid-state photodetectors are competing with vacuum- or gas-based
devices for many existing applications and making way for a multitude of
new ones. Compared to traditional vacuum- and gaseous photodetectors,
solid-state devices are more compact, lightweight, rugged, tolerant to
magnetic elds, and often cheaper. They also allow ne pixelization, are
easy to integrate into large systems, and can operate at low electric
potentials, while matching or exceeding most performance criteria. They
are particularly well suited for detection of - and X-rays. Except for
applications where coverage of very large areas or dynamic range is
required, solid-state detectors are proving to be the better choice.
Silicon photodiodes (PD) are widely used in high-energy physics as
particle detectors and in a great number of applications (including solar
cells!) as light detectors. The structure is discussed in some detail in
Sec. 28.7.
Very large arrays containing O(107 ) of O(10 m2 )-sized photodioides
pixelizing a plane are widely used to photograph all sorts of things
from everyday subjects at visible wavelengths to crystal structures
with X-rays and astronomical objects from infrared to UV. To limit
the number of readout channels, these are made into charge-coupled
devices (CCD), where pixel-to-pixel signal transfer takes place over
thousands of synchronous cycles with sequential output through shift
registers [16]. Thus, high spatial resolution is achieved at the expense of
speed and timing precision. Custom-made CCDs have virtually replaced
photographic plates and other imagers for astronomy and in spacecraft.
In avalanche photodiodes (APD), an exponential cascade of impact
ionizations initiated by the initial photogenerated e-h pair under a large
reverse-bias voltage leads to an avalanche breakdown [17]. As a result,
detectable electrical response can be obtained from low-intensity optical
signals down to single photons.
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28. Detectors at accelerators
28.3. Organic scintillators
Revised September 2007 by K.F. Johnson (FSU).
Organic scintillators are broadly classed into three types, crystalline,
liquid, and plastic, all of which utilize the ionization produced by
charged particles to generate optical photons, usually in the blue to green
wavelength regions [21]. Plastic scintillators are by far the most widely
used. Crystal organic scintillators are practically unused in high-energy
physics.
Densities range from 1.03 to 1.20 g cm3 . Typical photon yields are
about 1 photon per 100 eV of energy deposit [22]. A one-cm-thick
scintillator traversed by a minimum-ionizing particle will therefore yield
2 104 photons. The resulting photoelectron signal will depend on the
collection and transport eciency of the optical package and the quantum
eciency of the photodetector.
Decay times are in the ns range; rise times are much faster. Ease of
fabrication into desired shapes and low cost has made plastic scintillators
a common detector component. Recently, plastic scintillators in the
form of scintillating bers have found widespread use in tracking and
calorimetry [25].
28.3.3. Scintillating and wavelength-shifting fibers :
The clad optical ber is an incarnation of scintillator and wavelength
shifter (WLS) which is particularly useful [33]. Since the initial
demonstration of the scintillating ber (SCIFI) calorimeter [34], SCIFI
techniques have become mainstream [35].
SCIFI calorimeters are fast, dense, radiation hard, and can have
leadglass-like resolution. SCIFI trackers can handle high rates and are
radiation tolerant, but the low photon yield at the end of a long ber (see
below) forces the use of sensitive photodetectors. WLS scintillator readout
of a calorimeter allows a very high level of hermeticity since the solid angle
blocked by the ber on its way to the photodetector is very small.
28.4. Inorganic scintillators:
Revised September 2009 by R.-Y. Zhu (California Institute of Technology)
and C.L. Woody (BNL).
Inorganic crystals form a class of scintillating materials with much
higher densities than organic plastic scintillators (typically 48 g/cm3 )
with a variety of dierent properties for use as scintillation detectors. Due
to their high density and high eective atomic number, they can be used
in applications where high stopping power or a high conversion eciency
for electrons or photons is required. These include total absorption
electromagnetic calorimeters (see Sec. 28.9.1), which consist of a totally
active absorber (as opposed to a sampling calorimeter), as well as serving
as gamma ray detectors over a wide range of energies. Many of these
crystals also have very high light output, and can therefore provide
excellent energy resolution down to very low energies ( few hundred
keV).
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28.5. Cherenkov detectors
Revised September 2009 by B.N. Ratcli (SLAC).
Although devices using Cherenkov radiation are often thought of as
only particle identication (PID) detectors, in practice they are used
over a broader range of applications including; (1) fast particle counters;
(2) hadronic PID; and (3) tracking detectors performing complete
event reconstruction. Cherenkov counters contain two main elements;
(1) a radiator through which the charged particle passes, and (2) a
photodetector. As Cherenkov radiation is a weak source of photons, light
collection and detection must be as ecient as possible. The refractive
index n and the particles path length through the radiator L appear
in the Cherenkov relations allowing the tuning of these quantities for
particular applications.
Cherenkov detectors utilize one or more of the properties of Cherenkov
radiation discussed in the Passages of Particles through Matter section
(Sec. 27 of this Review): the prompt emission of a light pulse; the existence
of a velocity threshold for radiation; and the dependence of the Cherenkov
cone half-angle c and the number of emitted photons on the velocity of
the particle and the refractive index of the medium.
28.6. Gaseous detectors
28.6.1. Energy loss and charge transport in gases : Revised March
2010 by F. Sauli (CERN) and M. Titov (CEA Saclay).
Gas-lled detectors localize the ionization produced by charged
particles, generally after charge multiplication. The statistics of ionization
processes having asymmetries in the ionization trails, aect the coordinate
determination deduced from the measurement of drift time, or of the center
of gravity of the collected charge. For thin gas layers, the width of the
energy loss distribution can be larger than its average, requiring multiple
sample or truncated mean analysis to achieve good particle identication.
The energy loss of charged particles and photons in matter is discussed
in Sec. 27. Table 28.5 provides values of relevant parameters in some
commonly used gases at NTP (normal temperature, 20 C, and pressure,
1 atm) for unit-charge minimum-ionizing particles (MIPs) [5763].
Table 28.5: Properties of noble and molecular gases at normal
temperature and pressure (NTP: 20 C, one atm). EX , EI : rst
excitation, ionization energy; WI : average energy per ion pair;
dE/dx|min , NP , NT : dierential energy loss, primary and total
number of electron-ion pairs per cm, for unit charge minimum
ionizing particles.
Gas
He
Ne
Ar
Xe
CH4
C2 H6
iC4 H10
CO2
CF4
Density,
mg cm3
Ex
eV
EI
eV
WI
eV
dE/dx|min
keV cm1
NP
cm1
0.179
0.839
1.66
5.495
0.667
1.26
2.49
1.84
3.78
19.8
16.7
11.6
8.4
8.8
8.2
6.5
7.0
10.0
24.6
21.6
15.7
12.1
12.6
11.5
10.6
13.8
16.0
41.3
37
26
22
30
26
26
34
54
0.32
1.45
2.53
6.87
1.61
2.91
5.67
3.35
6.38
3.5
13
25
41
28
48
90
35
63
NT
cm1
8
40
97
312
54
112
220
100
120
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28. Detectors at accelerators
When an ionizing particle passes through the gas, it creates electron-ion
pairs, but often the ejected electrons have sucient energy to further ionize
the medium. As shown in Table 28.5, the total number of electron-ion
pairs (NT ) is usually a few times larger than the number of primaries
(NP ).
The probability for a released electron to have an energy E or larger
follows an approximate 1/E 2 dependence (Rutherford law), taking into
account the electronic structure of the medium. The number of electronion pairs per primary ionization, or cluster size, has an exponentially
decreasing probability; for argon, there is about 1% probability for primary
clusters to contain ten or more electron-ion pairs [59].
Once released in the gas, and under the inuence of an applied electric
eld, electrons and ions drift in opposite directions and diuse towards
the electrodes. The drift velocity and diusion of electrons depend very
strongly on the nature of the gas. Large drift velocities are achieved by
adding polyatomic gases (usually CH4 , CO2 , or CF4 ) having large inelastic
cross sections at moderate energies, which results in cooling electrons
into the energy range of the Ramsauer-Townsend minimum (at 0.5 eV)
of the elastic cross-section of argon. In a simple approximation, gas kinetic
theory provides the drift velocity v as a function of the mean collision
time and the electric eld E: v = eE /me (Townsends expression). In
the presence of an external magnetic eld, the Lorentz force acting on
electrons between collisions deects the drifting electrons and modies the
drift properties.
If the electric eld is increased suciently, electrons gain enough energy
between collisions to ionize molecules. Above a gas-dependent threshold,
the mean free path for ionization, i , decreases exponentially with the eld;
its inverse, = 1/i , is the rst Townsend coecient. In wire chambers,
most of the increase of avalanche particle density occurs very close to
the anode wires, and a simple electrostatic consideration shows that the
largest fraction of the detected signal is due to the motion of positive
ions receding from the wires. The electron component, although very fast,
contributes very little to the signal. This determines the characteristic
shape of the detected signals in the proportional mode: a fast rise followed
by a gradual increase.
28.6.2. Multi-Wire Proportional and Drift Chambers : Revised
March 2010 by Fabio Sauli (CERN) and Maxim Titov (CEA Saclay).
Multiwire proportional chambers (MWPCs) [65,66], introduced in the
late 60s, detect, localize and measure energy deposit by charged particles
over large areas. A mesh of parallel anode wires at a suitable potential,
inserted between two cathodes, acts almost as a set of independent
proportional counters. Electrons released in the gas volume drift towards
the anodes and produce avalanches in the increasing eld.
Detection of charge on the wires over a predened threshold provides
the transverse coordinate to the wire with an accuracy comparable to that
of the wire spacing. The coordinate along each wire can be obtained by
measuring the ratio of collected charge at the two ends of resistive wires.
Making use of the charge prole induced on segmented cathodes, the
so-called center-of gravity (COG) method, permits localization of tracks
to sub-mm accuracy.
Drift chambers, developed in the early 70s, can be used to estimate the
longitudinal position of a track by exploiting the arrival time of electrons
at the anodes if the time of interaction is known [69]. The distance
between anode wires is usually several cm, allowing coverage of large areas
at reduced cost.
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28.6.4. Micro-Pattern Gas Detectors : Revised March 2010 by
Fabio Sauli (CERN) and Maxim Titov (CEA Saclay)
By using pitch size of a few hundred m, an order of magnitude
improvement in granularity over wire chambers, these detectors oer
intrinsic high rate capability (> 106 Hz/mm2 ), excellent spatial resolution ( 30 m), multi-particle resolution ( 500 m), and single
photo-electron time resolution in the ns range.
The Gas Electron Multiplier (GEM) detector consists of a thin-foil
copper-insulator-copper sandwich chemically perforated to obtain a high
density of holes in which avalanches occur [86]. The hole diameter is
typically between 25 m and 150 m, while the corresponding distance
between holes varies between 50 m and 200 m. The central insulator
is usually (in the original design) the polymer Kapton, with a thickness
of 50 m. Application of a potential dierence between the two sides of
the GEM generates the electric elds. Each hole acts as an independent
proportional counter. Electrons released by the primary ionization particle
in the upper conversion region (above the GEM foil) drift into the holes,
where charge multiplication occurs in the high electric eld (5070 kV/cm).
Most of avalanche electrons are transferred into the gap below the GEM.
Several GEM foils can be cascaded, allowing the multi-layer GEM
detectors to operate at overall gas gain above 104 in the presence of highly
ionizing particles, while strongly reducing the risk of discharges.
The micro-mesh gaseous structure (Micromegas) is a thin parallel-plate
avalanche counter. It consists of a drift region and a narrow multiplication
gap (25150 m) between a thin metal grid (micromesh) and the readout
electrode (strips or pads of conductor printed on an insulator board).
Electrons from the primary ionization drift through the holes of the mesh
into the narrow multiplication gap, where they are amplied. The small
amplication gap produces a narrow avalanche, giving rise to excellent
spatial resolution: 12 m accuracy, limited by the micro-mesh pitch, has
been achieved for MIPs, as well as very good time resolution and energy
resolution ( 12% FWHM with 6 keV x rays) [89].
The performance and robustness of GEM and Micromegas have
encouraged their use in high-energy and nuclear physics, UV and visible
photon detection, astroparticle and neutrino physics, neutron detection
and medical physics.
28.6.5. Time-projection chambers : Written September 2007 by D.
Karlen (U. of Victoria and TRIUMF, Canada)
The Time Projection Chamber (TPC) concept, invented by David
Nygren in the late 1970s [74], is the basis for charged particle tracking
in a large number of particle and nuclear physics experiments. A uniform
electric eld drifts tracks of electrons produced by charged particles
traversing a medium, either gas or liquid, towards a surface segmented into
2D readout pads. The signal amplitudes and arrival times are recorded to
provide full 3D measurements of the particle trajectories. The intrinsic 3D
segmentation gives the TPC a distinct advantage over other large volume
tracking detector designs which record information only in a 2D projection
with less overall segmentation, particularly for pattern recognition in
events with large numbers of particles.
Gaseous TPCs are often designed to operate within a strong magnetic
eld (typically parallel to the drift eld) so that particle momenta can
be estimated from the track curvature. For this application, precise
spatial measurements in the plane transverse to the magnetic eld are
most important. Since the amount of ionization along the length of the
track depends on the velocity of the particle, ionization and momentum
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28. Detectors at accelerators
measurements can be combined to identify the types of particles observed
in the TPC.
Gas amplication of 103 104 at the readout endplate is usually required
in order to provide signals with sucient amplitude for conventional
electronics to sense the drifted ionization. Until recently, the gas
amplication system used in TPCs have exclusively been planes of anode
wires operated in proportional mode placed close to the readout pads.
Performance has been recently improved by replacing these wire planes
with micro-pattern gas detectors, namely GEM [86] and Micromegas [88]
devices.
Diusion degrades the position information of ionization that drifts a
long distance. For a gaseous TPC, the eect can be alleviated by the
choice of a gas with low intrinsic diusion or by operating in a strong
magnetic eld parallel to the drift eld with a gas which exhibits a
signicant reduction in transverse diusion with magnetic eld.
28.6.6. Transition radiation detectors (TRDs) : Written August
2007 by P. Nevski (BNL) and A. Romaniouk (Moscow Eng. & Phys. Inst.)
Transition radiation (TR) x rays are produced when a highly relativistic
3
particle ( >
10 ) crosses a refractive index interface, as discussed in
Sec. 27.7. The x rays, ranging from a few keV to a few dozen keV, are
emitted at a characteristic angle 1/ from the particle trajectory. Since
the TR yield is about 1% per boundary crossing, radiation from multiple
surface crossings is used in practical detectors. In the simplest concept, a
detector module might consist of low-Z foils followed by a high-Z active
layer made of proportional counters lled with a Xe-rich gas mixture.
The atomic number considerations follow from the dominant photoelectric
absorption cross section per atom going roughly as Z n /Ex3 , where n varies
between 4 and 5 over the region of interest, and the x-ray energy is Ex . To
minimize self-absorption, materials such as polypropylene, Mylar, carbon,
and (rarely) lithium are used as radiators. The TR signal in the active
regions is in most cases superimposed upon the particles ionization losses.
These drop a little faster than Z/A with increasing Z, providing another
reason for active layers with high Z.
The TR intensity for a single boundary crossing always increases with
, but for multiple boundary crossings
interference leads to saturation
near a Lorentz factor sat = 0.6 1 1 2 /c [101], where 1 is the radiator
plasma frequency, 1 is its thickness, and 2 the spacing. In most of
the detectors used in particle physics the radiator parameters are chosen
to provide sat 2000. Those detectors normally work as threshold
devices, ensuring the best electron/pion separation in the momentum
range 1 GeV/c <
p<
150 GeV/c.
The discrimination between electrons and pions can be based on the
charge deposition measured in each detection module, on the number of
clustersenergy depositions observed above an optimal threshold (usually
in the 5 to 7 keV region), or on more sophisticated methods analyzing
the pulse shape as a function of time. The total energy measurement
technique is more suitable for thick gas volumes, which absorb most of
the TR radiation and where the ionization loss uctuations are small. The
cluster-counting method works better for detectors with thin gas layers,
where the uctuations of the ionization losses are big.
Recent TRDs for particle astrophysics are designed to directly measure
the Lorentz factor of high-energy nuclei by using the quadratic dependence
of the TR yield on nuclear charge; see Cherry and M
uller papers in
Ref. 103.
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28.7. Semiconductor detectors
Updated September 2009 by H. Spieler (LBNL).
28.7.1. Materials Requirements : Semiconductor detectors are essentially solid state ionization chambers. Absorbed energy forms electron-hole
pairs, i.e., negative and positive charge carriers, which under an applied
electric eld move towards their respective collection electrodes, where
they induce a signal current. The energy required to form an electron-hole
pair is proportional to the bandgap. In tracking detectors the energy loss
in the detector should be minimal, whereas for energy spectroscopy the
stopping power should be maximized, so for gamma rays high-Z materials
are desirable.
Measurements on silicon photodiodes [112] show that for photon
energies below 4 eV one electron-hole (e-h) pair is formed per incident
photon. The mean energy Ei required to produce an e-h pair peaks at
4.4 eV for a photon energy around 6 eV. Above 1.5 keV it assumes
a constant value, 3.67 eV at room temperature. It is larger than the
bandgap energy because momentum conservation requires excitation of
lattice vibrations (phonons). For minimum-ionizing particles, the most
probable charge deposition in a 300 m thick silicon detector is about
3.5 fC (22000 electrons). Other typical ionization energies are 2.96 eV in
Ge, 4.2 eV in GaAs, and 4.43 eV in CdTe.
Since both electronic and lattice excitations are involved, the variance
in the number of charge carriers N = E/Ei produced by an absorbed
energyE is reduced by the Fano factor F (about
0.1 in Si and Ge). Thus,
N = F N and the energy resolution E /E = F Ei /E. However, the
measured signal uctuations are usually dominated by electronic noise or
energy loss uctuations in the detector.
A major eort is to nd high-Z materials with a bandgap that is
suciently high to allow room-temperature operation while still providing
good energy resolution. Compund semiconductors, e.g., CdZnTe, can allow
this, but typically suer from charge collection problems, characterized
by the product of mobility and carrier lifetime. In Si and Ge
> 1 cm2 V1 for both electrons and holes, whereas in compound
semiconductors it is in the range 103 108 . Since for holes is typically
an order of magnitude smaller than for electrons, detector congurations
where the electron contribution to the charge signal dominatese.g., strip
or pixel structurescan provide better performance.
28.7.2. Detector Configurations : A p-n junction operated at reverse
bias forms a sensitive region depleted of mobile charge and sets up an
electric eld that sweeps charge liberated by radiation to the electrodes.
Detectors typically use an asymmetric structure, e.g., a highly doped
p electrode and a lightly doped n region, so that the depletion region
extends predominantly into the lightly doped volume.
In a planar device the thickness of the depleted region is
W = 2
(V + Vbi )/N e = 2
(V + Vbi ) ,
(28.1)
where V = external bias voltage
Vbi = built-in voltage ( 0.5 V for resistivities typically used in Si
detectors)
N = doping concentration
e = electronic charge
= dielectric constant = 11.9
0 1 pF/cm in Si
= resistivity (typically 110 k cm in Si)
= charge carrier mobility
= 1350 cm2 V1 s1 for electrons in Si
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28. Detectors at accelerators
=450 cm2 V1s1 for holes in Si
In Si
W = 0.5 [m/ -cm V] (V + Vbi ) for n-type Si, and
W = 0.3 [m/ -cm V] (V + Vbi ) for p-type Si.
Large volume ( 102 103 cm3 ) Ge detectors are commonly congured as
coaxial detectors, e.g., a cylindrical n-type crystal with 510 cm diameter
and 10 cm length with an inner 510 mm diameter n+ electrode and an
outer p+ layer forming the diode junction. Ge can be grown with very
low impurity levels, 109 1010 cm3 (HPGe), so these large volumes can be
depleted with several kV.
28.7.3. Signal Formation : The signal pulse shape depends on the
instantaneous carrier velocity v(x) = E(x) and the electrode geometry,
which determines the distribution of induced charge (e.g., see Ref. 111,
pp. 7183). Charge collection time decreases with increasing bias voltage,
and can be reduced further by operating the detector with overbias,
i.e., a bias voltage exceeding the value required to fully deplete the device.
The collection time is limited by velocity saturation at high elds (in Si
approaching 107 cm/s at E > 104 V/cm); at an average eld of 104 V/cm
the collection time is about 15 ps/m for electrons and 30 ps/m for holes.
In typical fully-depleted detectors 300 m thick, electrons are collected
within about 10 ns, and holes within about 25 ns.
Position resolution is limited by transverse diusion during charge
collection (typically 5 m for 300 m thickness) and by knock-on electrons.
Resolutions of 24 m (rms) have been obtained in beam tests. In
magnetic elds, the Lorentz drift deects the electron and hole trajectories
and the detector must be tilted to reduce spatial spreading (see Hall
eect in semiconductor textbooks).
Electrodes can be in the form of cm-scale pads, strips, or m-scale
pixels. Various readout structures have been developed for pixels, e.g.,
CCDs, DEPFETs, monolithic pixel devices that integrate sensor and
electronics (MAPS), and hybrid pixel devices that utilize separate sensors
and readout ICs connected by two-dimensional arrays of solder bumps.
For an overview and further discussion see Ref. 111.
28.7.4. Radiation Damage : Radiation damage occurs through two
basic mechanisms:
1. Bulk damage due to displacement of atoms from their lattice
sites. This leads to increased leakage current, carrier trapping, and
build-up of space charge that changes the required operating voltage.
Displacement damage depends on the nonionizing energy loss and
the energy imparted to the recoil atoms, which can initiate a chain of
subsequent displacements, i.e., damage clusters. Hence, it is critical
to consider both particle type and energy.
2. Surface damage due to charge build-up in surface layers, which leads
to increased surface leakage currents. In strip detectors the inter-strip
isolation is aected. The eects of charge build-up are strongly
dependent on the device structure and on fabrication details. Since
the damage is proportional to the absorbed energy (when ionization
dominates), the dose can be specied in rad (or Gray) independent
of particle type.
Strip and pixel detectors have remained functional at uences beyond
1015 cm2 for minimum ionizing protons. At this damage level, charge
loss due to recombination and trapping becomes signicant and the
high signal-to-noise ratio obtainable with low-capacitance pixel structures
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28. Detectors at accelerators
50
253
40
Ru Pd
W Au Pb
I/ (cm)
30
20
X0
10
30
40
50
60
X0/ (cm)
Fe Cu
0
20
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70
80
90
100
Figure 28.21: Nuclear interaction length I / (circles) and
radiation length X0 / (+s) in cm for the chemical elements with
Z > 20 and I < 50 cm.
extends detector lifetime. The higher mobility of electrons makes them
less sensitive to carrier lifetime than holes, so detector congurations that
emphasize the electron contribution to the charge signal are advantageous,
e.g., n+ strips or pixels on a p-substrate. The occupancy of the defect
charge states is strongly temperature dependent; competing processes
can increase or decrease the required operating voltage. It is critical
to choose the operating temperature judiciously (10 to 0 C in typical
collider detectors) and limit warm-up periods during maintenance. For
a more detailed summary see Ref. 117 and and the web-sites of the
ROSE and RD50 collaborations at http://RD48.web.cern.ch/rd48 and
http://RD50.web.cern.ch/rd50. Materials engineering, e.g., introducing
oxygen interstitials, can improve certain aspects and is under investigation.
At high uences diamond is an alternative, but operates as an insulator
rather than a reverse-biased diode.
28.9. Calorimeters
A calorimeter is designed to measure the energy deposition and its
direction for a contained electromagnetic (EM) or hadronic shower. The
characteristic interaction distance for an electromagnetic interaction is
the radiation length X0 , which ranges from 13.8 g cm2 in iron to 6.0 g
cm2 in uranium.* Similarly, the characteristic nuclear interaction length
I varies from 132.1 g cm2 (Fe) to 209 g cm2 (U). In either case,
a calorimeter must be many interaction lengths deep, where many is
determined by physical size, cost, and other factors. EM calorimeters tend
to be 1530 X0 deep, while hadronic calorimeters are usually compromised
at 58 I . In real experiments there is likely to be an EM calorimeter
in front of the hadronic section, which in turn has less sampling density
in the back, so the hadronic cascade occurs in a succession of dierent
structures.
* X0 = 120 g cm2 Z 2/3 to better than 5% for Z > 23.
= 37.8 g cm2 A0.312 to within 0.8% for Z > 15.
I
See pdg.lbl.gov/AtomicNuclearProperties for actual values.
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28. Detectors at accelerators
In all cases there is a premium on small I / and X0 / (both with
units of length). These quantities are shown for Z > 20 for the chemical
elements in Fig. 28.21.
These considerations are for sampling calorimeters consisting of metallic
absorber sandwiched or (threaded) with an active material which generates
signal. The active medium may be a scintillator, an ionizing noble liquid,
a gas chamber, a semiconductor, or a Cherenkov radiator.
There are also homogeneous calorimeters, in which the entire volume
is sensitive, i.e., contributes signal. Homogeneous calorimeters (so far
usually electromagnetic) may be built with inorganic heavy (high density,
high Z) scintillating crystals, or non-scintillating Cherenkov radiators
such as lead glass and lead uoride. Scintillation light and/or ionization
in noble liquids can be detected. Nuclear interaction lengths in inorganic
crystals range from 17.8 cm (LuAlO3 ) to 42.2 cm (NaI).
28.9.1. Electromagnetic calorimeters :
Revised October 2009 by R.-Y. Zhu (California Inst. of Technology).
The development of electromagnetic showers is discussed in the section
on Passage of Particles Through Matter (Sec. 27 of this Review).
The energy resolution E /E of a calorimeter can be parametrized as
a/ E b c/E, where represents addition in quadrature and E is in
GeV. The stochastic term a represents statistics-related uctuations such
as intrinsic shower uctuations, photoelectron statistics, dead material at
the front of the calorimeter, and sampling uctuations. For a xed number
of radiation lengths, the stochastic
term a for a sampling calorimeter is
expected to be proportional to t/f , where t is plate thickness and f
is sampling fraction [123,124]. While a is at a few percent level for a
homogeneous calorimeter, it is typically 10% for sampling calorimeters.
The main contributions to the systematic, or constant, term b are
detector non-uniformity and calibration uncertainty. In the case of the
hadronic cascades discussed below, non-compensation also contributes to
the constant term. One additional contribution to the constant term for
calorimeters built for modern high-energy physics experiments, operated
in a high-beam intensity environment, is radiation damage of the active
medium. This can be minimized by developing radiation-hard active
media [47] and by frequent in situ calibration and monitoring [46,124].
28.9.2. Hadronic calorimeters : [15,124]
Written April 2008 by D. E. Groom (LBNL).
Most large hadron calorimeters are sampling calorimeters which are
parts of complicated 4 detectors at colliding beam facilities. Typically,
the basic structure is plates of absorber (Fe, Pb, Cu, or occasionally U or
W) alternating with plastic scintillators (plates, tiles, bars), liquid argon
(LAr), or gaseous detectors. The ionization is measured directly, as in LAr
calorimeters, or via scintillation light observed by photodetectors (usually
PMTs). Waveshifting bers are often used to solve dicult problems of
geometry and light collection uniformity. Silicon sensors are being studied
for ILC detectors; in this case e-h pairs are collected.
In an inelastic hadronic collision a signicant fraction fem of the
energy is removed from further hadronic interaction by the production
of secondary 0 s and s, whose decay photons generate high-energy
electromagnetic (EM) cascades. Charged secondaries ( , p, . . . ) deposit
energy via ionization and excitation, but also interact with nuclei,
producing spallation protons and neutrons, evaporation neutrons, and
recoiling nuclei in highly excited states. The charged collision products
produce detectable ionization, as do the showering -rays from the prompt
de-excitation of highly excited nuclei. The recoiling nuclei generate little
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or no detectable signal. The neutrons lose kinetic energy in elastic
collisions over hundreds of ns, gradually thermalize and are captured,
with the production of more -raysusually outside the acceptance gate
of the electronics. Between endothermic spallation losses, nuclear recoils,
and late neutron capture, a signicant fraction of the hadronic energy
(20%35%, depending on the absorber and energy of the incident particle)
is invisible.
For h/e = 1, when h and e are the hadronic and electromagnetic
calorimeter responses, respectively, uctuations in fem signicantly
contribute to the resolution, in particular contributing a larger fraction of
the variance at high energies. Since the fem distribution has a tail on the
high side, the calorimeter response is non-Gaussian with a high-energy tail
if h/e < 1. Noncompensation (h/e = 1) thus seriously degrades resolution
as well as producing a nonlinear response.
It is clearly desirable to compensate the response, i.e., to design
the calorimeter such that h/e = 1. This is possible only in a sampling
calorimeter, where several variables can be chosen or tuned:
1. Decrease the EM sensitivity. The absorber usually has higher Z than
does the sensor, the EM energy deposit rate, relative to minimum
ionization, is greater than this ratio in the sensor.
2. Increase the hadronic sensitivity. The abundant neutrons have a
large n-p scattering cross section, with the production of low-energy
scattered protons in hydrogenous sampling materials such as butanelled proportional counters or plastic scintillator. (When scattering o
a nucleus with mass number A, a neutron can at most lose 4/(1 + A)2
of its kinetic energy.)
Motivated very much by the work of Brau, Gabriel, Br
uckmann, and
Wigmans [134], several groups built calorimeters which were very nearly
compensating. The degree of compensation was sensitive to the acceptance
gate width, and so could be somewhat tuned.
The average longitudinal distribution rises to a smooth peak, increasing
slowly with energy but about one nuclear interaction length (I ) into
the calorimeter. After several interaction lengths its fall is reasonably
exponential. It has been found that a gamma distribution fairly well
describes the longitudinal development of an EM shower, as discussed in
Sec. 27.5.
The transverse energy deposit is characterized by a central core
dominated by EM cascades, together with a wide skirt produced by
wide-angle hadronic interactions [139].
Further discussion and all references may be found in the full Review
of Particle Physics.The numbering of references and equations used here
corresponds to that version.
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29. Detectors for non-accelerator physics
29. PARTICLE DETECTORS FOR
NON-ACCELERATOR PHYSICS
Written 2009 (see the various sections for authors).
29.1. Introduction
Non-accelerator experiments have become increasingly important in
particle physics. These include classical cosmic ray experiments, neutrino
oscillation measurements, and searches for double-beta decay, dark
matter candidates, and magnetic monopoles. The experimental methods
are sometimes those familiar at accelerators (plastic scintillators, drift
chambers, TRDs, etc.) but there is also instrumentation either not
found at accelerators or applied in a radically dierent way. Examples
are atmospheric scintillation detectors (Flys Eye), massive Cherenkov
detectors (Super-Kamiokande, IceCube), ultracold solid state detectors
(CDMS). And, except for the cosmic ray detectors, there is a demand for
radiologically ultra-pure materials.
In this section, some more important detectors special to terrestrial
non-accelerator experiments are discussed. Techniques used in both
accelerator and non-accelerator experiments are described in Sec. 28,
Particle Detectors at Accelerators, some of which have been modied to
accommodate the non-accelerator nuances. Space-based detectors also use
some unique methods, but these are beyond the present scope of RPP.
29.2. High-energy cosmic-ray hadron and gamma-ray
detectors
29.2.1. Atmospheric fluorescence detectors :
Written September 2009 by L.R. Wiencke (Colorado School of Mines).
Cosmic-ray uorescence detectors (FD) use the atmosphere as a
giant calorimeter to measure isotropic scintillation light that traces the
development proles of extensive air showers (EAS). The EASs observed
are produced by the interactions of high-energy (E > 1017 eV) subatomic
particles in the stratosphere and upper troposphere. The amount of
scintillation light generated is proportional to energy deposited in the
atmosphere and nearly independent of the primary species.
The scintillation light is emitted between 290 and 430 nm, when
relativistic charged particles, primarily electrons and positrons, excite
nitrogen molecules in air, resulting in transitions of the 1P and 2P systems.
An FD element (telescope) consists of a non-tracking spherical mirror
(3.513 m2 and less than astronomical quality), a close-packed camera
of PMTs near the focal plane, and ash ADC readout system with a pulse
and track-nding trigger scheme [7]. Simple reector optics (12 16
degree eld of view (FOV) on 256 PMTs) and Schmidt optics (30 30
on 440 PMTs), including a correcting element, have been used.
The EAS generates a track consistent with a light source moving at
v = c across the FOV. The number of photons (N ) as a function of
atmospheric depth (X) can be expressed as [6]
tot
dEdep
dN
=
(29.1)
Y (, P, T, u) atm (, X) FD ()d ,
dX
dX
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where atm (, X) is atmospheric transmission, including wavelength ()
dependence, and FD () is FD eciency. FD () includes geometric
factors and collection eciency of the optics, quantum eciency of
the PMTs, and other throughput factors. The typical systematic
uncertainties, Y (1015%), atm (10%) and FD (photometric calibration
10%), currently dominate the total reconstructed EAS energy uncertainty.
E/E of 2025% is possible, provided the geometric t of the EAS axis is
constrained by multi-eye stereo projection, or by timing from a colocated
sparse array of surface detectors.
29.2.2. Atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes for high-energy ray astronomy :
Written August 2009 by J. Holder (Bartol Research Inst., Univ. of
Delaware).
Atmospheric Cherenkov detectors achieve eective collection areas of
105 m2 by employing the Earths atmosphere as an intrinsic part of the
detection technique. A hadronic cosmic ray or high energy -ray incident
on the Earths atmosphere triggers a particle cascade, or air shower.
Relativistic charged particles in the cascade produce Cherenkov radiation,
which is emitted along the shower direction, resulting in a light pool on
the ground with a radius of 130 m. Maximum emission occurs when
the number of particles in the cascade is largest. The Cherenkov light at
ground level peaks at a wavelength, 300350 nm. The photon density
is typically 100 photons/m2 at 1 TeV, arriving in a brief ash of a few
nanoseconds duration.
Modern atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes consist of large (> 100 m2 )
segmented mirrors on steerable altitude-azimuth mounts. A camera, made
from an array of up to 1000 photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) covering a
eld-of-view of up to 5.0 in diameter, is placed at the mirror focus and
used to record a Cherenkov image of each air shower. Images are recorded
at a rate of a few hundred Hz, the vast majority of which are due to
showers with hadronic cosmic-ray primaries. The shape and orientation of
the Cherenkov images are used to discriminate -ray photon events from
this cosmic-ray background, and to reconstruct the photon energy and
arrival direction.
The total Cherenkov yield from the air shower is proportional to the
energy of the primary particle. The energy resolution of this technique,
also energy-dependent, is typically 1520 at energies above a few hundred
GeV. Energy spectra of -ray sources can be measured over a wide range;
potentially from 50 GeV to 100 TeV, depending upon the instrument
characteristics, source strength, and exposure time.
29.3. Large neutrino detectors
29.3.1. Deep liquid detectors for rare processes :
Written September 2009 by K. Scholberg & C.W. Walter (Duke University)
Deep, large detectors for rare processes tend to be multi-purpose
with physics reach that includes not only solar, reactor, supernova and
atmospheric neutrinos, but also searches for baryon number violation,
searches for exotic particles such as magnetic monopoles, and neutrino
and cosmic ray astrophysics in dierent energy regimes. The detectors
may also serve as targets for long-baseline neutrino beams for neutrino
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29. Detectors for non-accelerator physics
oscillation physics studies. In general, detector design considerations can
be divided into high-and low-energy regimes, for which background and
event reconstruction issues dier. The high-energy regime, from about
100 MeV to a few hundred GeV, is relevant for proton decay searches,
atmospheric neutrinos and high-energy astrophysical neutrinos. The
low-energy regime (a few tens of MeV or less) is relevant for supernova,
solar, reactor and geological neutrinos.
Large water Cherenkov and scintillator detectors (see Table 29.1)
usually consist of a volume of transparent liquid viewed by photomultiplier
tubes (PMTs). Because photosensors lining an inner surface represent a
driving cost that scales as surface area, very large volumes can be used
for comparatively reasonable cost. A common conguration is to have at
least one concentric outer layer of liquid material separated from the inner
part of the detector to serve as shielding against ambient background. If
optically separated and instrumented with PMTs, an outer layer may also
serve as an active veto against entering cosmic rays and other background
Because in most cases one is searching for rare events, large detectors
are usually sited underground to reduce cosmic-ray related background
(see Chapter 24). The minimum depth required varies according to the
physics goals [22].
29.3.1.1. Liquid scintillator detectors:
Past and current large underground detectors based on hydrocarbon
scintillators include LVD, MACRO, Baksan, Borexino, KamLAND and
SNO+. Experiments at nuclear reactors include Chooz, Double Chooz,
Daya Bay, and RENO. Organic liquid scintillators for large detectors
are chosen for high light yield and attenuation length, good stability,
compatibility with other detector materials, high ash point, low toxicity,
appropriate density for mechanical stability, and low cost.
Scintillation detectors have an advantage over water Cherenkov
detectors in the lack of Cherenkov threshold and the high light yield.
However, scintillation light emission is nearly isotropic, and therefore
directional capabilities are relatively weak.
29.3.1.2. Water Cherenkov detectors:
Very large-imaging water detectors reconstruct ten-meter-scale
Cherenkov rings produced by charged particles (see Sec. 28.5.0).
The rst such large detectors were IMB and Kamiokande. The only
currently existing instance of this class is Super-Kamiokande (Super-K).
Cherenkov detectors are excellent electromagnetic calorimeters, and the
number of Cherenkov photons produced by an e/ is nearly proportional
to its kinetic energy. The number of collected photoelectrons depends
on the scattering and attenuation in the water along with the photocathode coverage, quantum eciency and the optical parameters of any
external light collection systems or protective material surrounding them.
Event-by-event corrections are made for geometry and attenuation.
High-energy (100 MeV or more) neutrinos from the atmosphere or
beams interact with nucleons; for the nucleons bound inside the 16 O
nucleus, the nuclear eects both at the interaction, and as the particles
leave the nucleus must be considered when reconstructing the interaction.
Various event topologies can be distinguished by their timing and t
patterns, and by presence or absence of light in a veto.
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Low-energy neutrino interactions of solar neutrinos in water are
predominantly elastic scattering o atomic electrons; single electron events
are then reconstructed.
At solar neutrino energies, the visible energy
resolution ( 30%/ Evis (MeV)) is about 20% worse than photoelectron
counting statistics would imply. At these energies, radioactive backgrounds
become a dominant issue.
The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) detector [27] is the only
instance of a large heavy water detector and deserves mention here. In
addition to an outer 1.7 kton of light water, SNO contained 1 kton of D2 O,
giving it unique sensitivity to neutrino neutral current (x +d x +p+n),
and charged current (e + d p + p + e ) deuteron breakup reactions.
29.3.2. Neutrino telescopes :
Written November 2009 by A. Karle (University of Wisconsin).
Neutrino telescopes are large water or ice Cherenkov detectors designed
to do neutrino astronomy in the energy range 1011 1018 eV. The primary
physics goal is the detection of high-energy extra-terrestrial neutrinos.
Neutrinos oer a unique view of the high-energy Universe because they are
not deected by magnetic elds like charged cosmic rays, and can travel
vast distances without being absorbed like high-energy photons.
Neutrino telescopes detect neutrinos via the process l (l )+N l +X
of primarily upward-going or horizontal neutrinos interacting with a
nucleon N of the matter comprising or surrounding the detector volume.
A signicant fraction of the neutrino energy E will be carried away
by the produced lepton. For the important case of a lepton being a
muon, the angle between the parent neutrino and the muon is
0.7 (E /TeV)0.7 [28].
The small cross sections combined with small expected uxes of
high-energy cosmic neutrinos necessitate very large, km-scale detection
volumes. Neutrino telescopes make use of large natural transparent target
media such as deep sea water or the deep glacial ice in Antarctica. The
target volume is instrumented with large photomultipliers (PMTs). The
goal is to maximize the number of detected Cherenkov photons produced
by energetic charged particles, and thus to maximize the number of well
reconstructed events while keeping the density of PMTs (and thus the
cost of the experiment) low. The sensors are deployed at depths of one
to several km to reduce backgrounds from the cosmic-ray-generated muon
ux.
The IceCube Neutrino Observatory [37] is a km-scale detector which will
be completed in 2011. IceCube will consist of 5160 optical sensors deployed
on 86 strings covering a volume of 1 km3 . A surface detector component,
IceTop, forms an air shower array with 320 standard photomultipliers
deployed in 160 IceTop tanks on the ice surface directly above the strings.
The optical sensors are located at depths between 1450 m and 2450 m.
The detector is constructed by drilling holes in the ice with a hot-water
drill.
Figure 29.3 contains three dierent predictions for the ux of neutrinos
associated with the still-enigmatic sources of the highest energy cosmic
rays. Kilometer-scale neutrino detectors have the sensitivity to reveal
generic cosmic-ray sources with an energy density in neutrinos comparable
to their energy density in cosmic rays and in TeV rays.
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29. Detectors for non-accelerator physics
No detection of astrophysical neutrinos has been made yet. Two limits
from AMANDA to such E neutrino uxes are shown: one is a diuse
muon neutrino ux limit [48], the other is a limit based on all avor
analysis of non-contained events in the PeV to EeV energy region [49]
103
Atmospheric neutrino model
Gamma-ray bursts
Waxman-Bahcall bound
Cosmogenic neutrino flux
AMANDA-II unfolded
AMANDA II 3
AMANDA II cascades prelim.
IceCube projected 1 year 3
E2 dN/dE [GeV cm2 s1 sr1]
104
105
106
107
108
109
1010
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
1010
1011
1012
E [GeV]
Figure 29.3: Measured atmospheric neutrino uxes above 100 GeV
are shown together with a few generic models for astrophysical
neutrinos and some limits. See full-color version on color pages at
end of book.
29.4. Large time-projection chambers for rare event
detection
Written August 2009 by M. Hener (LLNL).
TPCs in non-accelerator particle physics experiments are principally
focused on rare event detection (e.g., neutrino and dark matter
experiments) and the physics of these experiments can place dramatically
dierent constraints on the TPC design (only extensions of the traditional
TPCs are discussed here). The drift gas or liquid is usually the target or
matter under observation and due to very low signal rates a TPC with
the largest possible active mass is desired. The large mass complicates
particle tracking of short and sometimes very low-energy particles. Other
special design issues include ecient light collection, background rejection,
internal triggering, and optimal energy resolution.
The liquid-phase TPC can have a high density at low pressure that
results in very good self-shielding and compact installation with lightweight
containment. The down sides are the need for cryogenics, slower charge
drift, tracks shorter than typical electron diusion distances, lower-energy
resolution (e.g., xenon) and limited charge readout options. Slower charge
drift requires long electron lifetimes, placing strict limits on the oxygen
and other impurities with high electron anity.
A high-pressure gas phase TPC has no cryogenics and density is easily
optimized for the signal, but a large heavy-pressure vessel is required.
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29. Detectors for non-accelerator physics
Although self shielding is reduced, it can in some cases approach that of
the liquid phase; in xenon at 50 atm the density is about half that of water
or about 1/6 of liquid xenon. A signicant feature of high pressure xenon
gas is the energy resolution.
Rare-event TPCs can be designed to detect scintillation light as well as
charge to exploit the anti-correlation to improve energy resolution and/or
signal to noise [63]. Electroluminescence can be used to proportionally
amplify the drifted ionization, and it does not suer the uctuations of
an avalanche or the small signals of direct collection. It works by setting
up at the positive end of the drift volume parallel meshes or wire arrays
with an electric eld larger than the drift eld, but less than the eld
needed for avalanche. In xenon, this is 36 kV cm1 bar1 for good energy
resolution.
Dierentiation of nuclear and electron recoils at low-energy deposition is
important as a means of background rejection. The nuclear recoil deposits
a higher density of ionization than an electron recoil and this results in
a higher geminate recombination resulting in a higher output of primary
scintillation and lower charge. The ratio of scintillation to charge can be
used to distinguish the two. In the case of an electroluminescence readout,
this is done simply with the ratio of primary light to secondary light.
29.5. Sub-Kelvin detectors
Written September 2009 by S. Golwala (Caltech).
Detectors operating below 1 K, also known as low-temperature
or cryogenic detectors, use <
meV quanta (phonons, superconducting
quasiparticles) to provide better energy resolution than is typically
available from conventional technologies. Such resolution can provide
unique advantages to applications reliant on energy resolution, such
as beta-decay experiments seeking to measure the e mass or searches
for neutrinoless double-beta decay. In addition, the sub-Kelvin mode
is combined with conventional (eV quanta) ionization or scintillation
measurements to provide discrimination of nuclear recoils from electron
recoils, critical for searches for WIMP dark matter and for coherent
neutrino-nucleus scattering.
29.5.1. Thermal Phonons :
The most basic kind of low-temperature detector employs a dielectric
absorber coupled to a thermal bath via a weak link. A thermistor monitors
the temperature of the absorber. The energy E deposited by a particle
interaction causes a calorimetric temperature change by increasing the
population of thermal phonons. The fundamental sensitivity is
2
= 2 kT [T C(T ) + E] ,
E
(29.5)
where C is the heat capacity of the detector, T is the temperature of
operation, k is Boltzmanns constant, and is a dimensionless factor of
order unity that is precisely calculable from the nature of the thermal link
and the non-thermodynamic noises (e.g., Johnson and/or readout noise).
The energy resolution typically acquires an additional energy dependence
due to deviations from an ideal calorimetric model that cause position
and/or energy dependence in the signal shape. The rise time of response
is limited by the internal thermal conductivity of the absorber.
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29. Detectors for non-accelerator physics
29.5.2. Athermal Phonons and Superconducting Quasiparticles :
The advantage of thermal
phonons is also a disadvantage: energy
resolution degrades as M where M is the detector mass. This motivates
the use of athermal phonons. There are three steps in the development of
the phonon signal. The recoiling particle deposits energy along its track,
with the majority going directly into phonons. The recoil and bandgap
energy scales (keV and higher, and eV, respectively) are much larger
than phonon energies (meV), so the full energy spectrum of phonons is
populated, with phase space favoring the most energetic phonons.
Another mode is detection of superconducting quasiparticles in
superconducting crystals. Energy absorption breaks superconducting
Cooper pairs and yields quasiparticles, electron-like excitations that can
diuse through the material and that recombine after the quasiparticle
lifetime.
29.5.3. Ionization and Scintillation :
While ionization and scintillation detectors usually operate at much
higher temperatures, ionization and scintillation can be measured at
low temperature and can be combined with a sub-Kelvin technique
to discriminate nuclear recoils from background interactions producing
electron recoils, which is critical for WIMP searches and coherent
neutrino-nucleus scattering. With ionization, such techniques are based on
Lindhard theory [55], which predicts substantially reduced ionization yield
for nuclear recoils relative to electron recoils. For scintillation, application
of Birks law Sec. 28.3.0) yields a similar prediction.
29.6. Low-radioactivity background techniques
Written August 2009 by A. Piepke (University of Alabama).
The physics reach of low-energy rare event searches e.g. for dark matter,
neutrino oscillations, or double beta decay is often limited by background
caused by radioactivity. Depending on the chosen detector design, the
separation of the physics signal from this unwanted interference can be
achieved on an event-by-event basis by active event tagging, utilizing
some unique event feature, or by reducing the radiation background
by appropriate shielding and material selection. In both cases, the
background rate is proportional to the ux of background-creating
radiation. Its reduction is thus essential for realizing the full physics
potential of the experiment. In this context, low energy may be dened
as the regime of natural, anthropogenic, or cosmogenic radioactivity, all at
energies up to about 10 MeV. Following the classication of [64], sources
of background may be categorized into the following classes:
1. environmental radioactivity,
2. radioimpurities in detector or shielding components,
3. radon and its progeny,
4. cosmic rays,
5. neutrons from natural ssion, (, n) reactions and from cosmic-ray
muon spallation and capture.
Further discussion and all references may be found in the full Review
of Particle Physics.The numbering of references and equations used here
corresponds to that version.
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12:56
263
30. RADIOACTIVITY AND RADIATION PROTECTION
Revised Sept. 2007 by S. Roesler (CERN) and J.C. Liu (SLAC).
30.1. Definitions
The International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements
(ICRU) recommends the use of SI units. Therefore we list SI units rst,
followed by cgs (or other common) units in parentheses, where they dier.
Activity (unit: Becquerel):
1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second (= 27 pCi).
Absorbed dose (unit: Gray): The absorbed dose is the energy
imparted by ionizing radiation in a volume element of a specied material
divided by the mass of this volume element.
1 Gy = 1 J/kg (= 104 erg/g = 100 rad)
= 6.24 1012 MeV/kg deposited energy.
Kerma (unit: Gray): Kerma is the sum of the initial kinetic energies of
all charged particles liberated by indirectly ionizing particles in a volume
element of the specied material divided by the mass of this volume
element.
Exposure (unit: C/kg of air [= 3880 Roentgen ]): The exposure is
a measure of photon uence at a certain point in space integrated over
time, in terms of ion charge of either sign produced by secondary electrons
in a small volume of air about the point. Implicit in the denition is
the assumption that the small test volume is embedded in a suciently
large uniformly irradiated volume that the number of secondary electrons
entering the volume equals the number leaving (so-called charged particle
equilibrium).
Table 30.1: Radiation weighting factors, wR .
wR
Radiation type
Photons
Electrons and muons
Neutrons, En < 1 MeV
1 MeV En 50 MeV
En > 50 MeV
Protons and charged pions
Alpha particles, ssion
fragments, heavy ions
1
1
2.5 + 18.2 exp[(ln En )2 /6]
5.0 + 17.0 exp[(ln(2En ))2 /6]
2.5 + 3.25 exp[(ln(0.04En ))2 /6]
2
20
Equivalent dose (unit: Sievert [= 100 rem (roentgen equivalent in
man)]):
The equivalent dose HT in an organ or tissue T is equal to the
sum of the absorbed doses DT,R in the organ or tissue caused by dierent
radiation types R weighted with so-called radiation weighting factors wR :
HT =
wR DT,R .
(30.1)
R
This unit is somewhat historical, but appears on some measuring instruments. One R is the amount of radiation required to liberate positive
and negative charges of one electrostatic unit of charge in 1 cm3 of air at
standard temperature and pressure (STP)
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30. Radioactivity and radiation protection
It expresses long-term risks (primarily cancer and leukemia) from low-level
chronic exposure. The values for wR recommended recently by ICRP [1]
are given in Table 29.1. Eective dose (unit: Sievert): The
sum of the
equivalent doses, weighted by the tissue weighting factors wT ( T wT = 1)
of several organs and tissues T of the body that are considered to be most
sensitive [2], is called eective dose E:
wT HT .
(30.2)
E=
T
30.2. Radiation levels [3]
Natural annual background, all sources: Most world areas, wholebody equivalent dose rate (0.44) mSv (40400 mrem). Can range up
to 50 mSv (5 rem) in certain areas. U.S. average 3.6 mSv, including
2 mSv ( 200 mrem) from inhaled natural radioactivity, mostly radon
and radon daughters. (Average is for a typical house and varies by more
than an order of magnitude. It can be more than two orders of magnitude
higher in poorly ventilated mines. 0.10.2 mSv in open areas.)
Cosmic ray background (sea level, mostly muons):
1 min1 cm2 sr1 . For more accurate estimates and details, see the
Cosmic Rays section (Sec. 24 of this Review).
Fluence (per cm2 ) to deposit one Gy, assuming uniform irradiation:
(charged particles) 6.24109/(dE/dx), where dE/dx (MeV
g1 cm2 ), the energy loss per unit length, may be obtained from Figs.
27.2 and 27.4 in Sec. 27 of the Review, and pdg.lbl.gov/AtomicNuclear
Properties.
3.5 109 cm2 minimum-ionizing singly-charged particles in carbon.
(photons) 6.24109/[Ef /], for photons of energy E (MeV),
attenuation length (g cm2 ), and fraction f 1 expressing the fraction
of the photons energy deposited in a small volume of thickness but
large enough to contain the secondary electrons.
2 1011 photons cm2 for 1 MeV photons on carbon (f 1/2).
Recommended limits of eective dose to radiation workers
(whole-body dose):
EU/Switzerland: 20 mSv yr1
U.S.: 50 mSv yr1 (5 rem yr1 )
Lethal dose: The whole-body dose from penetrating ionizing radiation
resulting in 50% mortality in 30 days (assuming no medical treatment)
is 2.54.5 Gy (250450 rad), as measured internally on body longitudinal
center line. Surface dose varies due to variable body attenuation and may
be a strong function of energy.
Cancer induction by low LET radiation: The cancer induction
probability is about 5% per Sv on average for the entire population [2].
Footnotes:
The ICRP recommendation [2] is 20 mSv yr1 averaged over 5 years,
with the dose in any one year 50 mSv.
Many laboratories in the U.S. and elsewhere set lower limits.
See full Review for references and further details.
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31. Commonly used radioactive sources 265
31. COMMONLY USED RADIOACTIVE SOURCES
Table 31.1. Revised November 1993 by E. Browne (LBNL).
Particle
Nuclide
22 Na
11
54 Mn
25
Photon
Type of Energy Emission
Half-life decay
(MeV) prob.
2.603 y + , EC 0.545
90%
Energy Emission
(MeV) prob.
0.511
Annih.
1.275
100%
0.855 y
EC
0.835
100%
Cr K x rays 26%
55 Fe
26
2.73 y
EC
Mn K x rays:
0.00590 24.4%
0.00649 2.86%
57 Co
27
0.744 y
EC
0.014
9%
0.122
86%
0.136
11%
Fe K x rays 58%
60 Co
27
5.271 y
0.316
100%
1.173
1.333
100%
100%
68 Ge
32
0.742 y
EC
Ga K x rays 44%
------------------------------------------------------- 68
+ , EC 1.899
90%
0.511
Annih.
31 Ga
1.077
3%
90 Sr
38
28.5 y
0.546
100%
------------------------------------------------------- 90
2.283
100%
39 Y
106 Ru
44
1.020 y
0.039
100%
-------------------------------------------------------
3.541
79%
0.512
21%
106
45 Rh
0.622
10%
109 Cd
48
1.267 y
EC
0.063
0.084
0.087
e
e
e
41%
45%
9%
0.088
3.6%
Ag K x rays 100%
113 Sn
50
0.315 y
EC
0.364 e
0.388 e
29%
6%
0.392
65%
In K x rays 97%
137 Cs
55
30.2 y
0.514
1.176
94%
6%
0.662
85%
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266
31. Commonly used radioactive sources
133 Ba
56
10.54 y
EC
0.045 e
0.075 e
50%
6%
0.081
34%
0.356
62%
Cs K x rays 121%
207 Bi
83
31.8 y
EC
0.481
0.975
1.047
e
e
e
2%
7%
2%
0.569
98%
1.063
75%
1.770
7%
Pb K x rays 78%
1.912 y
6:
3 :
228 Th
90
5.341 to 8.785
0.334 to 2.246
(224
88 Ra
241 Am
95
220
86 Rn
216
84 Po
432.7 y
241 Am/Be
95
432.2 y
244 Cm
96
18.11 y
252 Cf
98
12:56
5.443
5.486
212
82 Pb
0.239
44%
0.583
31%
2.614
36%
212
212
83 Bi
84 Po)
13%
85%
0.060
36%
Np L x rays 38%
6 105 neutrons (48 MeV) and
4 105 s (4.43 MeV) per Am decay
5.763
5.805
24%
76%
Pu L x rays 9%
2.645 y (97%) 6.076
15%
6.118
82%
Fission (3.1%)
20 s/fission; 80% < 1 MeV
4 neutrons/fission; En = 2.14 MeV
Emission probability is the probability per decay of a given emission;
because of cascades these may total more than 100%. Only principal
emissions are listed. EC means electron capture, and e means
monoenergetic internal conversion (Auger) electron. The intensity of 0.511
MeV e+ e annihilation photons depends upon the number of stopped
positrons. Endpoint energies are listed. In some cases when energies
are closely spaced, the -ray values are approximate weighted averages.
Radiation from short-lived daughter isotopes is included where relevant.
Half-lives, energies, and intensities are from E. Browne and R.B. Firestone,
Table of Radioactive Isotopes (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1986), recent
Nuclear Data Sheets, and X-ray and Gamma-ray Standards for Detector
Calibration, IAEA-TECDOC-619 (1991).
Neutron data are from Neutron Sources for Basic Physics and Applications
(Pergamon Press, 1983).
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267
32. Probability
32. PROBABILITY
Revised September 2009 by G. Cowan (RHUL).
The following is a much-shortened version of Sec. 31 of the full Review.
Equation, section, and gure numbers follow the Review.
32.2. Random variables
Probability density function (p.d.f.): x is a random variable.
Continuous: f (x; )dx = probability x is between x to x + dx, given
parameter(s) ;
Discrete:
f (x; ) = probability of x given .
Cumulative distribution function:
a
F (a) =
f (x) dx .
(32.6)
Here and below, if x is discrete-valued, the integral is replaced by a sum.
The endpoint a is induced in the integral or sum.
Expectation values: Given a function u:
E [u(x)] =
u(x) f (x) dx .
(32.7)
Moments:
nth moment of a random variable: n = E[xn ] ,
(32.8a)
nth central moment: mn = E[(x 1 )n ] .
(32.8b)
1 .
Mean:
Variance:
(32.9a)
2
V [x] m2 = 2 .
Coecient of skewness: 1 m3
Kurtosis: 2 = m4 / 4 3 .
Median: F (xmed ) = 1/2.
(32.9b)
/ 3 .
Marginal p.d.f.: Let x,y be two random variables with joint p.d.f.
f (x, y).
f1 (x) =
f (x, y) dy ;
f2 (y) =
f (x, y) dx .
(32.10)
Conditional p.d.f.:
f4 (x|y) = f (x, y)/f2 (y) ; f3 (y|x) = f (x, y)/f1 (x) .
Bayes theorem:
f4 (x|y) =
f3 (y|x)f1 (x)
f3 (y|x)f1 (x)
=
.
f2 (y)
f3 (y|x )f1 (x ) dx
Correlation coecient and covariance:
x =
xf (x, y) dx dy ,
(32.11)
(32.12)
xy = E (x x )(y y ) /x y cov[x, y]/x y ,
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32. Probability
(x x )2 f (x, y) dx dy . Note 2xy 1.
x =
Independence: x,y are independent if and only if f (x, y) = f1 (x) f2 (y);
then xy = 0, E[u(x) v(y)] = E[u(x)] E[v(y)] and V [x+ y] = V [x]+ V [y].
Change of variables: From x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) to y = (y1 , . . . , yn ):
g(y) = f (x(y)) |J| where |J| is the absolute value of the determinant of
the Jacobian Jij = xi /yj . For discrete variables, use |J| = 1.
32.3. Characteristic functions
Given a pdf f (x) for a continuous random variable x, the characteristic
function (u) is given by (31.6). Its derivatives are related to the algebraic
moments of x by (31.7).
eiux f (x) dx .
(32.17)
(u) = E eiux =
dn
=
xn f (x) dx = n .
in
dun u=0
(32.18)
If the p.d.f.s f1 (x) and f2 (y) for independent random variables x and
y have characteristic functions 1 (u) and 2 (u), then the characteristic
function of the weighted sum ax + by is 1 (au)2 (bu). The additional rules
for several important distributions (e.g., that the sum of two Gaussian
distributed variables also follows a Gaussian distribution) easily follow
from this observation.
32.4. Some probability distributions
See Table 32.1.
32.4.2. Poisson distribution :
The Poisson distribution f (n; ) gives the probability of nding exactly
n events in a given interval of x (e.g., space or time) when the events
occur independently of one another and of x at an average rate of per
the given interval. The variance 2 equals . It is the limiting case p 0,
N , N p = of the binomial distribution. The Poisson distribution
approaches the Gaussian distribution for large .
For example, a large number of radioactive nuclei of a given type will
result in a certain number of decays in a xed time interval. If this interval
is small compared to the mean lifetime, then the probability for a given
nucleus to decay is small, and thus the number of decays in the time
interval is well modeled as a Poisson variable.
32.4.3. Normal or Gaussian distribution :
Its cumulative distribution, for mean 0 and variance 1, is usually tabulated
as the error function
(32.24)
F (x; 0, 1) = 1 1 + erf(x/ 2) .
2
For mean and variance 2 , replace x by (x )/. The error function is
acessible in libraries of computer routines such as CERNLIB.
P (x in range ) = 0.6827,
P (x in range
0.6745) = 0.5,
E[|x |] = 2/ = 0.7979,
half-width at half maximum = 2 ln 2 = 1.177.
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Gamma
Students t
Multivariate
Gaussian
Normal
(Gaussian)
Poisson
Binomial
Uniform
Distribution
exp
1
(2)n/2
|V |
< j < ;
z n/21 ez/2
;
z0
f (z; n) = n/2
2 (n/2)
(n+1)/2
t2
1
[(n + 1)/2]
1+
f (t; n) =
n
(n/2)
n
< t < ;
n not required to be integer
xk1 k ex
;
0<x<;
f (x; , k) =
(k)
k not required to be integer
|V | > 0
12 (x )T V 1 (x )
< xj < ;
f (x; , V ) =
Probability density function
f (variable; parameters)
1/(b a)
axb
f (x; a, b) =
0
otherwise
N!
f (r; N, p) =
pr q N r
r!(N r)!
r = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N ; 0 p 1 ;
q =1p
n e
; n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ; > 0
f (n; ) =
n!
1
f (x; , 2 ) =
exp((x )2 /2 2 )
2
< x < ; < < ; > 0
Np
(q + peiu )N
exp[(eiu 1)]
exp(iu 12 2 u2 )
0
for n 2
k/
(1 iu/)k
(1 2iu)n/2
a+b
2
eibu eiau
(b a)iu
exp i u 12 uT V u
Mean
Characteristic
function (u)
k/2
n/(n 2)
for n 3
2n
Vjk
N pq
(b a)2
12
Variance 2
Table 32.1. Some common probability density functions, with corresponding characteristic functions and
means and variances. In the Table, (k) is the gamma function, equal to (k 1)! when k is an integer.
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32. Probability
For n Gaussian random variables xi , the joint p.d.f. is the multivariate
Gaussian:
1
f (x; , V ) =
exp 12 (x )T V 1 (x ) , |V | > 0 .
n/2
(2)
|V |
(32.27)
V is the n n covariance matrix; Vij E[(xi i )(xj j )] ij i j ,
and Vii = V [xi ]; |V | is the determinant of V . For n = 2, f (x; , V ) is
1
1
f (x1 , x2 ; 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 , ) =
exp
2
2(1
2 )
21 2 1
2(x1 1 )(x2 2 )
(x2 2 )2
(x1 1 )2
.
(32.28)
+
2
2
1 2
1
2
The marginal distribution of any xi is a Gaussian with mean i and
variance Vii . V is n n, symmetric, and positive denite. Therefore for
any vector X, the quadratic form X T V 1 X = C, where C is any positive
number, traces an n-dimensional ellipsoid as X varies. If Xi = xi i ,
then C is a random variable obeying the 2 distribution with n degrees
of freedom, discussed in the following section. The probability that X
corresponding to a set of Gaussian random variables xi lies outside
the ellipsoid characterized by a given value of C (= 2 ) is given by
1 F2 (C; n), where F2 is the cumulative 2 distribution. This may
be read from Fig. 33.1. For example, the s-standard-deviation ellipsoid
occurs at C = s2 . For the two-variable case (n = 2), the point X lies
outside the one-standard-deviation ellipsoid with 61% probability. The
use of these ellipsoids as indicators of probable error is described in
Sec. 33.3.2.4; the validity of those indicators assumes that and V are
correct.
32.4.4. 2 distribution :
, . . . , xn are independent Gaussian random variables, the sum
If x1
2 2
2
z = n
i=1 (xi i ) /i follows the p.d.f. with n degrees of freedom,
which we denote by 2 (n). More generally, for n correlated Gaussian
variables as components of a vector X with covariance matrix V ,
as in the previous
z = X T V 1 X follows 2 (n)
section. For a set of zi ,
each of which follows 2 (ni ),
zi follows 2 ( ni ). For large n, the 2
p.d.f. approaches a Gaussian with mean = n and variance 2 = 2n.
The 2 p.d.f. is often used in evaluating the level of compatibility between
observed data and a hypothesis for the p.d.f. that the data might follow.
This is discussed further in Sec. 33.2.2 on tests of goodness-of-t.
32.4.6. Gamma distribution :
For a process that generates events as a function of x (e.g., space or time)
according to a Poisson distribution, the distance in x from an arbitrary
starting point (which may be some particular event) to the k th event
follows a gamma distribution, f (x; , k). The Poisson parameter is
per unit x. The special case k = 1 (i.e., f (x; , 1) = ex ) is called the
exponential distribution.
A sum of k exponential random variables xi is
distributed as f ( xi ; , k ).
The parameter k is not required to be an integer. For = 1/2 and
k = n/2, the gamma distribution reduces to the 2 (n) distribution.
See the full Review for further discussion and all references.
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271
33. Statistics
33. STATISTICS
Revised September 2009 by G. Cowan (RHUL).
There are two main approaches to statistical inference, which we
may call frequentist and Bayesian. In frequentist statistics, probability is
interpreted as the frequency of the outcome of a repeatable experiment.
The most important tools in this framework are parameter estimation,
covered in Section 33.1, and statistical tests, discussed in Section 33.2.
Frequentist condence intervals, which are constructed so as to cover
the true value of a parameter with a specied probability, are treated in
Section 33.3.2. Note that in frequentist statistics one does not dene a
probability for a hypothesis or for a parameter.
In Bayesian statistics, the interpretation of probability is more general
and includes degree of belief (called subjective probability). One can then
speak of a probability density function (p.d.f.) for a parameter, which
expresses ones state of knowledge about where its true value lies. Using
Bayes theorem Eq. (32.4), the prior degree of belief is updated by the
data from the experiment. Bayesian methods for interval estimation are
discussed in Sections 33.3.1 and 33.3.2.6
Following common usage in physics, the word error is often used in
this chapter to mean uncertainty. More specically it can indicate the
size of an interval as in the standard error or error propagation, where
the term refers to the standard deviation of an estimator.
33.1. Parameter estimation
Here we review the frequentist approach to point estimationof
parameters. An estimator (written with a hat) is a function of the data
whose value, the estimate, is intended as a meaningful guess for the value
of the parameter .
33.1.1. Estimators for mean, variance and median : Suppose we
have a set of N independent measurements, xi , assumed to be unbiased
measurements of the same unknown quantity with a common, but
unknown, variance 2 . Then
N
1
=
xi
(33.4)
N
i=1
2 = 1
(xi
)2
N 1
(33.5)
i=1
are unbiased estimators of and 2 . The variance of
is 2 /N and the
2
variance of is
2 = 1 m N 3 4 ,
V
(33.6)
4
N
N 1
where m4 is the 4th central moment of x. For Gaussian distributed xi ,
this becomes 2 4 /(N 1) for any N 2, andfor large N , the standard
deviation of
(the error of the error) is / 2N . Again, if the xi are
2
Gaussian,
is an ecient estimator for , and the estimators
and
are uncorrelated. Otherwise the arithmetic mean (33.4) is not necessarily
the most ecient estimator.
If the xi have dierent, known variances i2 , then the weighted average
N
1
wi xi
(33.7)
=
w
i=1
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33. Statistics
is an unbiased estimator for with
a smaller variance than an unweighted
average;
here wi = 1/i2 and w = i wi . The standard deviation of
is
1/ w.
33.1.2. The method of maximum likelihood : Suppose we have a
set of N measured quantities x = (x1 , . . . , xN ) described by a joint p.d.f.
f (x; ), where = (1 , . . . , n ) is set of n parameters whose values are
unknown. The likelihood function is given by the p.d.f. evaluated with the
data x, but viewed as a function of the parameters, i.e., L() = f (x; ).
If the measurements xi are statistically independent and each follow the
p.d.f. f (x; ), then the joint p.d.f. for x factorizes and the likelihood
function is
N
L() =
f (xi ; ) .
(33.8)
i=1
The method of maximum likelihood takes the estimators to be those
values of that maximize L().
Note that the likelihood function is not a p.d.f. for the parameters ;
in frequentist statistics this is not dened. In Bayesian statistics, one can
obtain from the likelihood the posterior p.d.f. for , but this requires
multiplying by a prior p.d.f. (see Sec. 33.3.1).
It is usually easier to work with ln L, and since both are maximized for
the same parameter values , the maximum likelihood (ML) estimators
can be found by solving the likelihood equations,
ln L
=0,
i = 1, . . . , n .
(33.9)
i
In evaluating the likelihood function, it is important that any
normalization factors in the p.d.f. that involve be included.
The inverse V 1 of the covariance matrix Vij = cov[i , j ] for a set of
ML estimators can be estimated by using
2 ln L
(V 1 )ij =
.
(33.10)
i
j
For nite samples, however, Eq. (33.10) can result in an underestimate
of the variances. In the large sample limit (or in a linear model with
Gaussian errors), L has a Gaussian form and ln L is (hyper)parabolic. In
this case, it can be seen that a numerically equivalent way of determining
s-standard-deviation errors is from the contour given by the such that
(33.11)
ln L( ) = ln Lmax s2 /2 ,
where ln Lmax is the value of ln L at the solution point (compare
with Eq. (33.56)). The extreme limits of this contour on the i axis
give an approximate s-standard-deviation condence interval for i (see
Section 33.3.2.4).
33.1.3. The method of least squares : The method of least squares
(LS) coincides with the method of maximum likelihood in the following
special case. Consider a set of N independent measurements yi at known
points xi . The measurement yi is assumed to be Gaussian distributed with
mean F (xi ; ) and known variance i2 . The goal is to construct estimators
for the unknown parameters . The likelihood function contains the sum
of squares
N
(yi F (xi ; ))2
2 () = 2 ln L() + constant =
.
(33.13)
i2
i=1
The set of parameters which maximize L is the same as those which
minimize 2 .
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The minimum of Equation (33.13) denes the least-squares estimators
for the more general case where the yi are not Gaussian distributed
as long as they are independent. If they are not independent but rather
have a covariance matrix Vij = cov[yi , yj ], then the LS estimators are
determined by the minimum of
2 () = (y F ())T V 1 (y F ()) ,
(33.14)
where y = (y1 , . . . , yN ) is the vector of measurements, F () is the
corresponding vector of predicted values (understood as a column vector
in (33.14)), and the superscript T denotes transposed (i.e., row) vector.
In many practical cases, one further restricts the problem to the
situation where F (xi ; ) is a linear function of the parameters, i.e.,
m
j hj (xi ) .
(33.15)
F (xi ; ) =
j=1
Here the hj (x) are m linearly independent functions, e.g., 1, x, x2 , . . . , xm1 ,
or Legendre polynomials. We require m < N and at least m of the xi
must be distinct.
Minimizing 2 in this case with m parameters reduces to solving a
system of m linear equations. Dening Hij = hj (xi ) and minimizing 2
by setting its derivatives with respect to the i equal to zero gives the LS
estimators,
= (H T V 1 H)1 H T V 1 y Dy .
(33.16)
The covariance matrix for the estimators Uij = cov[i , j ] is given by
Expanding
dened by
2 ()
(33.17)
U = DV DT = (H T V 1 H)1 .
one nds that the contour in parameter space
about ,
+ 1 = 2 + 1
2 () = 2 ()
min
(33.23)
has tangent planes located at approximately plus-or-minus-one standard
deviation from the LS estimates .
As the minimum value of the 2 represents the level of agreement
between the measurements and the tted function, it can be used for
assessing the goodness-of-t; this is discussed further in Section 33.2.2.
33.1.5. Propagation of errors :
Consider a set of n quantities
= (1 , . . . , n ) and a set of m functions () = (1 (), . . . , m ()).
Suppose we have estimated = (1 , . . . , n ), using, say, maximumlikelihood or least-squares, and we also know or have estimated the
covariance matrix Vij = cov[i , j ]. The goal of error propagation is to
i , j ], where
determine the covariance matrix for the functions, Uij = cov[
i ] give the
= ( ). In particular, the diagonal elements Uii = V [
variances. The new covariance matrix can be found by expanding the
functions () about the estimates to rst order in a Taylor series.
Using this one nds
i j
V .
Uij
(33.29)
k l kl
k,l
This can be written in matrix notation as U AV AT where the matrix of
derivatives A is
i
Aij =
,
(33.30)
j
and AT is its transpose. The approximation is exact if () is linear.
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33. Statistics
33.2. Statistical tests
33.2.1. Hypothesis tests : Consider an experiment whose outcome is
characterized by a vector of data x. A hypothesis is a statement about
the distribution of x. It could, for example, dene completely the p.d.f.
for the data (a simple hypothesis), or it could specify only the functional
form of the p.d.f., with the values of one or more parameters left open (a
composite hypothesis).
A statistical test is a rule that states for which values of x a given
hypothesis (often called the null hypothesis, H0 ) should be rejected in
favor of its alternative H1 . This is done by dening a region of x-space
called the critical region; if the outcome of the experiment lands in this
region, H0 is rejected, otherwise it is accepted.
Rejecting H0 if it is true is called an error of the rst kind. The
probability for this to occur is called the size or signicance level of the
test, , which is chosen to be equal to some pre-specied value. It can also
happen that H0 is false and the true hypothesis is the alternative, H1 . If
H0 is accepted in such a case, this is called an error of the second kind,
which will have some probability . The quantity 1 is called the power
of the test relative to H1 .
Often one tries to construct a test to maximize power for a given
signicance level, i.e., to maximize the signal eciency for a given
signicance level. The NeymanPearson lemma states that this is done by
dening the acceptance region such that, for x in that region, the ratio of
p.d.f.s for the hypotheses H1 (signal) and H0 (background),
f (x|H1 )
,
(33.31)
(x) =
f (x|H0 )
is greater than a given constant, the value of which is chosen to give
the desired signal eciency. Here H0 and H1 must be simple hypotheses,
i.e., they should not contain undetermined parameters. The lemma is
equivalent to the statement that (33.31) represents the test statistic with
which one may obtain the highest signal eciency for a given purity for the
selected sample. It can be dicult in practice, however, to determine (x),
since this requires knowledge of the joint p.d.f.s f (x|H0 ) and f (x|H1 ).
In the usual case where the likelihood ratio (33.31) cannot be
used explicitly, there exist a variety of other multivariate classiers
that eectively separate dierent types of events. Methods often used
in HEP include neural networks or Fisher discriminants (see [10]).
Recently, further classication methods from machine-learning have been
applied in HEP analyses; these include probability density estimation
(PDE) techniques, kernel-based PDE (KDE or Parzen window), support
vector machines, and decision trees. Techniques such as boosting and
bagging can be applied to combine a number of classiers into a stronger
one with greater stability with respect to uctuations in the training data.
33.2.2. Significance tests : Often one wants to quantify the level of
agreement between the data and a hypothesis without explicit reference to
alternative hypotheses. This can be done by dening a statistic t, which
is a function of the data whose value reects in some way the level of
agreement between the data and the hypothesis.
The hypothesis in question, say, H0 , will determine the p.d.f. g(t|H0 )
for the statistic. The signicance of a discrepancy between the data and
what one expects under the assumption of H0 is quantied by giving the
p-value, dened as the probability to nd t in the region of equal or lesser
compatibility with H0 than the level of compatibility observed with the
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actual data. For example, if t is dened such that large values correspond
to poor agreement with the hypothesis,
then the p-value would be
p=
tobs
g(t|H0 ) dt ,
(33.32)
where tobs is the value of the statistic obtained in the actual experiment.
The p-value should not be confused with the size (signicance level) of a
test, or the condence level of a condence interval (Section 33.3), both of
which are pre-specied constants.
The p-value is a function of the data, and is therefore itself a random
variable. If the hypothesis used to compute the p-value is true, then
for continuous data, p will be uniformly distributed between zero and
one. Note that the p-value is not the probability for the hypothesis;
in frequentist statistics, this is not dened. Rather, the p-value is the
probability, under the assumption of a hypothesis H0 , of obtaining data at
least as incompatible with H0 as the data actually observed.
When estimating parameters using the method of least squares, one
obtains the minimum value of the quantity 2 (33.13). This statistic can
be used to test the goodness-of-t, i.e., the test provides a measure of
the signicance of a discrepancy between the data and the hypothesized
functional form used in the t. It may also happen that no parameters
are estimated from the data, but that one simply wants to compare a
histogram, e.g., a vector of Poisson distributed numbers n = (n1 , . . . , nN ),
with a hypothesis for their expectation values i = E[ni ]. As the
distribution is Poisson with variances i2 = i , the 2 (33.13) becomes
Pearsons 2 statistic,
N
(ni i )2
.
(33.34)
2 =
i
i=1
If the hypothesis = (1 , . . . , N ) is correct, and if the expected values
i in (33.34) are suciently large (in practice, this will be a good
approximation if all i > 5), then the 2 statistic will follow the 2
p.d.f. with the number of degrees of freedom equal to the number of
measurements N minus the number of tted parameters. The minimized
2 from Eq. (33.13) also has this property if the measurements yi are
Gaussian.
Assuming the goodness-of-t statistic follows a 2 p.d.f., the p-value for
the hypothesis is then
p=
f (z; nd ) dz ,
(33.35)
2
where f (z; nd ) is the
p.d.f. and nd is the appropriate number of degrees
of freedom. Values can be obtained from Fig. 33.1 or from the CERNLIB
routine PROB or the ROOT function TMath::Prob.
Since the mean of the 2 distribution is equal to nd , one expects in a
reasonable experiment to obtain 2 nd . Hence the quantity 2 /nd is
sometimes reported. Since the p.d.f. of 2 /nd depends on nd , however,
one must report nd as well if one wishes to determine the p-value. The
p-values obtained for dierent values of 2 /nd are shown in Fig. 33.2.
33.2.3. Bayesian model selection : In Bayesian statistics, all of ones
knowledge about a model is contained in its posterior probability, which
one obtains using Bayes theorem. Thus one could reject a hypothesis H
if its posterior probability P (H|x) is suciently small. The diculty here
is that P (H|x) is proportional to the prior probability P (H), and there
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33. Statistics
1.000
p-value for test
for confidence intervals
0.500
0.200
n=1
3 4
6 8
15
25
40
0.100
10
0.050
20 30
50
0.020
0.010
0.005
0.002
0.001
1
3 4 5
7 10
20
30 40 50 70 100
Figure 33.1: One minus the 2 cumulative distribution, 1F (2 ; n),
for n degrees of freedom. This gives the p-value for the 2 goodnessof-t test as well as one minus the coverage probability for condence
regions (see Sec. 33.3.2.4).
2.5
2.0
1%
1.5
10%
2/n
1.0
50%
0.5
90%
99%
0.0
5%
10
32%
20
30
Degrees of freedom n
68%
95%
40
50
Figure 33.2: The reduced 2 , equal to 2 /n, for n degrees
of freedom. The curves show as a function of n the 2 /n that
corresponds to a given p-value.
will not be a consensus about the prior probabilities for the existence
of new phenomena. Nevertheless one can construct a quantity called the
Bayes factor (described below), which can be used to quantify the degree
to which the data prefer one hypothesis over another, and is independent
of their prior probabilities.
Consider two models (hypotheses), Hi and Hj , described by vectors
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of parameters i and j , respectively. Some of the components will
be common to both models and others may be distinct. The full prior
probability for each model can be written in the form
(Hi , i ) = P (Hi )( i |Hi ) ,
(33.36)
Here P (Hi ) is the overall prior probability for Hi , and ( i |Hi ) is
the normalized p.d.f. of its parameters. For each model, the posterior
probability is found using Bayes theorem,
L(x|i , Hi )P (Hi )( i |Hi ) d i
P (Hi |x) =
,
(33.37)
P (x)
where the integration is carried out over the internal parameters i of the
model. The ratio of posterior
probabilities for the models is therefore
L(x|i , Hi )( i |Hi ) d i P (Hi )
P (Hi |x)
=
.
(33.38)
P (Hj |x)
L(x|j , Hj )( j |Hj ) d j P (Hj )
The Bayes factor is dened as
L(x| i , Hi )( i |Hi ) di
Bij =
.
(33.39)
L(x|j , Hj )( j |Hj ) d j
This gives what the ratio of posterior probabilities for models i and j
would be if the overall prior probabilities for the two models were equal.
If the models have no nuisance parameters i.e., no internal parameters
described by priors, then the Bayes factor is simply the likelihood ratio.
The Bayes factor therefore shows by how much the probability ratio of
model i to model j changes in the light of the data, and thus can be
viewed as a numerical measure of evidence supplied by the data in favour
of one hypothesis over the other.
Although the Bayes factor is by construction independent of the overall
prior probabilities P (Hi ) and P (Hj ), it does require priors for all internal
parameters of a model, i.e., one needs the functions ( i |Hi ) and ( j |Hj ).
In a Bayesian analysis where one is only interested in the posterior p.d.f.
of a parameter, it may be acceptable to take an unnormalizable function
for the prior (an improper prior) as long as the product of likelihood
and prior can be normalized. But improper priors are only dened up to
an arbitrary multiplicative constant, which does not cancel in the ratio
(33.39). Furthermore, although the range of a constant normalized prior
is unimportant for parameter determination (provided it is wider than
the likelihood), this is not so for the Bayes factor when such a prior is
used for only one of the hypotheses. So to compute a Bayes factor, all
internal parameters must be described by normalized priors that represent
meaningful probabilities over the entire range where they are dened.
An exception to this rule may be considered when the identical
parameter appears in the models for both numerator and denominator of
the Bayes factor. In this case one can argue that the arbitrary constants
would cancel. One must exercise some caution, however, as parameters
with the same name and physical meaning may still play dierent roles in
the two models. Both integrals in equation (33.39) are of the form
m=
L(x|)() d ,
(33.40)
which is called the marginal likelihood (or in some elds called the evidence).
A review of Bayes factors including a discussion of computational issues is
Ref. [26].
33.3. Intervals and limits
When the goal of an experiment is to determine a parameter ,
the result is usually expressed by quoting, in addition to the point
estimate, some sort of interval which reects the statistical precision of the
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33. Statistics
measurement. In the simplest case, this can be given by the parameters
estimated value plus or minus an estimate of the standard deviation of
. If, however, the p.d.f. of the estimator is not Gaussian or if there
,
are physical boundaries on the possible values of the parameter, then
one usually quotes instead an interval according to one of the procedures
described below.
33.3.1. Bayesian intervals : As described in Sec. 33.1.4, a Bayesian
posterior probability may be used to determine regions that will have a
given probability of containing the true value of a parameter. In the single
parameter case, for example, an interval (called a Bayesian or credible
interval) [lo , up ] can be determined which contains a given fraction 1
of the posterior probability, i.e.,
up
1=
p(|x) d .
(33.41)
lo
Sometimes an upper or lower limit is desired, i.e., lo can be set to zero
or up to innity. In other cases, one might choose lo and up such that
p(|x) is higher everywhere inside the interval than outside; these are
called highest posterior density (HPD) intervals. Note that HPD intervals
are not invariant under a nonlinear transformation of the parameter.
If a parameter is constrained to be non-negative, then the prior p.d.f.
can simply be set to zero for negative values. An important example is
the case of a Poisson variable n, which counts signal events with unknown
mean s, as well as background with mean b, assumed known. For the
signal mean s, one often uses the prior
0
s<0
(s) =
.
(33.42)
1
s0
In the absence of a clear discovery, (e.g., if n = 0 or if in any case n is
compatible with the expected background), one usually wishes to place an
upper limit on s (see, however, Sec. 33.3.2.6 on ip-opping concerning
frequentist coverage). Using the likelihood function for Poisson distributed
n,
(s + b)n (s+b)
L(n|s) =
e
,
(33.43)
n!
along with the prior (33.42) in (33.24) gives the posterior density for s.
An upper limit sup at condence level (or here, rather, credibility level)
1 can be obtained by requiring
sup
sup
L(n|s) (s) ds
1=
p(s|n)ds =
,
(33.44)
L(n|s) (s) ds
where the lower limit of integration is eectively zero because of the cut-o
in (s). By relating the integrals in Eq. (33.44) to incomplete gamma
functions, the equation reduces
to
n
(s + b)m /m!
sup
m=0
n up m
=e
.
(33.45)
m=0 b /m!
This must be solved numerically for the limit sup . For the special case of
2
b = 0, the sums can be related to the quantile F1
2 of the distribution
(inverse of the cumulative distribution) to give
sup = 12 F1
(33.46)
2 (1 ; nd ) ,
where the number of degrees of freedom is nd = 2(n + 1). The quantile of
the 2 distribution can be obtained using the CERNLIB routine CHISIN,
or the ROOT function TMath::ChisquareQuantile. It so happens that
for the case of b = 0, the upper limits from Eq. (33.46) coincide numerically
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with the values of the frequentist upper limits discussed in Section 33.3.2.5.
Values for 1 = 0.9 and 0.95 are given by the values up in Table 33.3.
As in any Bayesian analysis, it is important to show how the result
would change if one uses dierent prior probabilities. For example, one
could consider the Jereys prior as describedin Sec. 33.1.4. For this
problem one nds the Jereys prior (s) 1/ s + b for s 0 and zero
otherwise. As with the constant prior, one would not regard this as
representing ones prior beliefs about s, both because it is improper and
also as it depends on b. Rather it is used with Bayes theorem to produce
an interval whose frequentist properties can be studied.
33.3.2. Frequentist confidence intervals :
33.3.2.1. The Neyman construction for condence intervals: Consider
a p.d.f. f (x; ) where x represents the outcome of the experiment and
is the unknown parameter for which we want to construct a condence
interval. The variable x could (and often does) represent an estimator for
. Using f (x; ), we can nd for a pre-specied probability 1 , and for
every value of , a set of values x1 (, ) and x2 (, ) such that
x2
;;;;
;;;;
;;;;
;;;;
P (x1 < x < x2 ; ) = 1 =
x1
f (x; ) dx .
(33.47)
This is illustrated in Fig. 33.3: a horizontal line segment [x1 (, ),
x2 (, )] is drawn for representative values of . The union of such
intervals for all values of , designated in the gure as D(), is known
as the condence belt. Typically the curves x1 (, ) and x2 (, ) are
monotonic functions of , which we assume for this discussion.
parameter
D()
x2(), 2(x)
x1(), 1(x)
x1(0)
x2(0)
Possible experimental values x
Figure 33.3: Construction of the condence belt (see text).
Upon performing an experiment to measure x and obtaining a value
x0 , one draws a vertical line through x0 . The condence interval for
is the set of all values of for which the corresponding line segment
[x1 (, ), x2 (, )] is intercepted by this vertical line. Such condence
intervals are said to have a condence level (CL) equal to 1 .
Now suppose that the true value of is 0 , indicated in the gure.
We see from the gure that 0 lies between 1 (x) and 2 (x) if and only
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33. Statistics
if x lies between x1 (0 ) and x2 (0 ). The two events thus have the same
probability, and since this is true for any value 0 , we can drop the
subscript 0 and obtain
1 = P (x1 () < x < x2 ()) = P (2 (x) < < 1 (x)) .
(33.48)
In this probability statement, 1 (x) and 2 (x), i.e., the endpoints of the
interval, are the random variables and is an unknown constant. If the
experiment were to be repeated a large number of times, the interval
[1 , 2 ] would vary, covering the xed value in a fraction 1 of the
experiments.
The condition of coverage in Eq. (33.47) does not determine x1 and x2
uniquely, and additional criteria are needed. The most common criterion
is to choose central intervals such that the probabilities excluded below
x1 and above x2 are each /2. In other cases, one may want to report
only an upper or lower limit, in which case the probability excluded below
x1 or above x2 can be set to zero. Another principle based on likelihood
ratio ordering for determining which values of x should be included in the
condence belt is discussed in Sec. 33.3.2.2
When the observed random variable x is continuous, the coverage
probability obtained with the Neyman construction is 1 , regardless of
the true value of the parameter. If x is discrete, however, it is not possible
to nd segments [x1 (, ), x2 (, )] that satisfy Eq. (33.47) exactly for all
values of . By convention, one constructs the condence belt requiring
the probability P (x1 < x < x2 ) to be greater than or equal to 1 .
This gives condence intervals that include the true parameter with a
probability greater than or equal to 1 .
33.3.2.4. Gaussian distributed measurements: An important example
of constructing a condence interval is when the data consists of a single
random variable x that follows a Gaussian distribution; this is often
the case when x represents an estimator for a parameter and one has a
suciently large data sample. If there is more than one parameter being
estimated, the multivariate Gaussian is used. For the univariate case with
known ,
+
2
2
1
1=
e(x) /2 dx = erf
(33.53)
2
2
is the probability that the measured value x will fall within of the true
value . From the symmetry of the Gaussian with respect to x and , this
is also the probability for the interval x to include . Fig. 33.4 shows a
= 1.64 condence interval unshaded. The choice = gives an interval
called the standard error which has 1 = 68.27% if is known. Values
of for other frequently used choices of are given in Table 33.1.
Table 33.1: Area of the
Gaussian distribution.
0.3173
4.55 102
2.7 103
6.3105
5.7107
2.0109
tails outside from the mean of a
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.01
0.001
104
1.28
1.64
1.96
2.58
3.29
3.89
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281
f (x; ,)
1
/2
3
/2
2
0
1
(x) /
Figure 33.4: Illustration of a symmetric 90% condence interval
(unshaded) for a measurement of a single quantity with Gaussian
errors. Integrated probabilities, dened by , are as shown.
We can set a one-sided (upper or lower) limit by excluding above x +
(or below x ). The values of for such limits are half the values in
Table 33.1.
The relation (33.53) can be re-expressed using the cumulative
distribution function for the 2 distribution as
= 1 F (2 ; n) ,
(33.54)
for 2 = (/)2 and n = 1 degree of freedom. This can be obtained from
Fig. 33.1 on the n = 1 curve or by using the CERNLIB routine PROB or
the ROOT function TMath::Prob.
For multivariate measurements of, say, n parameter estimates
= (1 , . . . , n ), one requires the full covariance matrix Vij = cov[i , j ],
which can be estimated as described in Sections 33.1.2 and 33.1.3. Under
fairly general conditions with the methods of maximum-likelihood or
least-squares in the large sample limit, the estimators will be distributed
according to a multivariate Gaussian centered about the true (unknown)
values , and furthermore, the likelihood function itself takes on a
Gaussian shape.
The standard error ellipse for the pair (i , j ) is shown in Fig. 33.5,
corresponding to a contour 2 = 2min + 1 or ln L = ln Lmax 1/2. The
and the tangents to the
ellipse is centered about the estimated values ,
ellipse give the standard deviations of the estimators, i and j . The
angle of the major axis of the ellipse is given by
2ij i j
,
(33.55)
tan 2 = 2
j i2
where ij = cov[i , j ]/i j is the correlation coecient.
The correlation coecient can be visualized as the fraction of the
distance i from the ellipses horizontal centerline at which the ellipse
becomes tangent to vertical, i.e., at the distance ij i below the centerline
as shown. As ij goes to +1 or 1, the ellipse thins to a diagonal line.
As in the single-variable case, because of the symmetry of the Gaussian
one nds that contours of constant ln L or
function between and ,
2 cover the true values with a certain, xed probability. That is, the
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33. Statistics
inner
^i
iji
i
j
j
j
^j
Figure 33.5: Standard error ellipse for the estimators i and j . In
this case the correlation is negative.
Table 33.2: 2 or 2 ln L corresponding to a coverage probability
1 in the large data sample limit, for joint estimation of m
parameters.
(1 ) (%)
68.27
90.
95.
95.45
99.
99.73
m=1
1.00
2.71
3.84
4.00
6.63
9.00
m=2
2.30
4.61
5.99
6.18
9.21
11.83
m=3
3.53
6.25
7.82
8.03
11.34
14.16
condence region is determined by
ln L() ln Lmax ln L ,
(33.56)
or where a 2 has been dened for use with the method of least-squares,
2 () 2min + 2 .
(33.57)
Values of 2 or 2 ln L are given in Table 33.2 for several values of the
coverage probability and number of tted parameters.
For nite data samples, the probability for the regions determined by
equations (33.56) or (33.57) to cover the true value of will depend on
, so these are not exact condence regions according to our previous
denition.
33.3.2.5. Poisson or binomial data:
Another important class of
measurements consists of counting a certain number of events, n. In this
section, we will assume these are all events of the desired type, i.e., there
is no background. If n represents the number of events produced in a
reaction with cross section , say, in a xed integrated luminosity L, then
it follows a Poisson distribution with mean = L. If, on the other hand,
one has selected a larger sample of N events and found n of them to have
a particular property, then n follows a binomial distribution where the
parameter p gives the probability for the event to possess the property
in question. This is appropriate, e.g., for estimates of branching ratios or
selection eciencies based on a given total number of events.
For the case of Poisson distributed n, the upper and lower limits on the
mean value can be found from the Neyman procedure to be
lo = 12 F1
(33.59a)
2 (lo ; 2n) ,
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33. Statistics
up = 12 F1
2 (1 up ; 2(n + 1)) ,
12:56
283
(33.59b)
where the upper and lower limits are at condence levels of 1 lo and
2
1 up , respectively, and F1
2 is the quantile of the distribution
(inverse of the cumulative distribution). The quantiles F1
2 can be
obtained from standard tables or from the CERNLIB routine CHISIN. For
central condence intervals at condence level 1 , set lo = up = /2.
Table 33.3: Lower and upper (one-sided) limits for the mean
of a Poisson variable given n observed events in the absence of
background, for condence levels of 90% and 95%.
1 =90%
1 =95%
lo
up
lo
up
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.105
0.532
1.10
1.74
2.43
3.15
3.89
4.66
5.43
6.22
2.30
3.89
5.32
6.68
7.99
9.27
10.53
11.77
12.99
14.21
15.41
0.051
0.355
0.818
1.37
1.97
2.61
3.29
3.98
4.70
5.43
3.00
4.74
6.30
7.75
9.15
10.51
11.84
13.15
14.43
15.71
16.96
It happens that the upper limit from Eq. (33.59a) coincides numerically
with the Bayesian upper limit for a Poisson parameter, using a uniform
prior p.d.f. for . Values for condence levels of 90% and 95% are shown
in Table 33.3. For the case of binomially distributed n successes out of N
trials with probability of success p, the upper and lower limits on p are
found to be
nFF1 [lo ; 2n, 2(N n + 1)]
plo =
,
(33.60a)
N n + 1 + nFF1 [lo ; 2n, 2(N n + 1)]
pup =
(n + 1)FF1 [1 up ; 2(n + 1), 2(N n)]
(N n) + (n + 1)FF1 [1 up ; 2(n + 1), 2(N n)]
(33.60b)
Here FF1 is the quantile of the F distribution (also called the Fisher
Snedecor distribution; see [4]).
33.3.2.6. Diculties with intervals near a boundary:
A number of issues arise in the construction and interpretation of
condence intervals when the parameter can only take on values in a
restricted range. Important examples are where the mean of a Gaussian
variable is constrained on physical grounds to be non-negative and where
the experiment nds a Poisson-distributed number of events, n, which
includes both signal and background. Application of some standard recipes
can lead to intervals that are partially or entirely in the unphysical region.
Furthermore, if the decision whether to report a one- or two-sided interval
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12:56
33. Statistics
is based on the data, then the resulting intervals will not in general cover
the parameter with the stated probability 1 .
Several problems with such intervals are overcome by using the unied
approach of Feldman and Cousins [27]. Properties of these intervals are
described further in the Review. Table 33.4 gives the unied condence
intervals [1 , 2 ] for the mean of a Poisson variable given n observed events
in the absence of background, for condence levels of 90% and 95%. The
values of 1 given here refer to the coverage of the true parameter
by the whole interval [1 , 2 ]. In Table 33.3 for the one-sided upper and
lower limits, however, 1 referred to the probability to have individually
up or lo .
Table 33.4: Unied condence intervals [1 , 2 ] for a the mean
of a Poisson variable given n observed events in the absence of
background, for condence levels of 90% and 95%.
1 =90%
1 =95%
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.00
0.11
0.53
1.10
1.47
1.84
2.21
3.56
3.96
4.36
5.50
2.44
4.36
5.91
7.42
8.60
9.99
11.47
12.53
13.99
15.30
16.50
0.00
0.05
0.36
0.82
1.37
1.84
2.21
2.58
2.94
4.36
4.75
3.09
5.14
6.72
8.25
9.76
11.26
12.75
13.81
15.29
16.77
17.82
Another possibility is to construct a Bayesian interval as described in
Section 33.3.1. The presence of the boundary can be incorporated simply
by setting the prior density to zero in the unphysical region. Advantages
and pitfalls of this approach are discussed further in the Review.
Another alternative is presented by the intervals found from the
likelihood function or 2 using the prescription of Equations (33.56) or
(33.57). As in the case of the Bayesian intervals, the coverage probability
is not, in general, independent of the true parameter. Furthermore, these
intervals can for some parameter values undercover.
In any case it is important to report sucient information so that the
result can be combined with other measurements. Often this means giving
an unbiased estimator and its standard deviation, even if the estimated
value is in the unphysical region. It is also useful to report the likelihood
function or an appropriate summary of it. Although this by itself is not
sucient to construct a frequentist condence interval, it can be used to
nd the Bayesian posterior probability density for any desired prior p.d.f.
Further discussion and all references may be found in the full Review of
Particle Physics; the equation and reference numbering corresponds to
that version.
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1 + 1/2
3
2
+3 3
+2 +1 1 +2 +2
1 1/2
1/3 2/3 3/2
5/2
+ 5/2
+ 3/2 + 1
1
+ 3/2 0
+ 1/2 + 1
3/21
Ym = (1)m Ym
1
1
0 1 1/2 1/2 2
1 0 1/2 1/2 2
1 1 1
+ 1 1 1/6 1/2 1/3
0 0 2/3
0 1/3 2
1 + 1 1/6 1/2 1/3 1
2
1
1
1
1/2 1/2 3/4 1/4 2
3/2 + 1/2 1/4 3/4 2
+ 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
1/2 + 1/2 1/2 1/2
+ 1/2 + 1/2 3/4 1/4
5/2 3/2
+ 3/2 + 3/2
3/2 1/2
2/5 3/5 5/2
3/5 2/5 + 1/2 + 1/2 + 1/2
1 1 2/3 1/3 3
2 0 1/3 2/3 3
2 1 1
j1 j2 m1 m2 |j1 j2 JM
= (1)Jj1 j2 j2 j1 m2 m1 |j2 j1 JM
3/2 1/2 1
2/5 1/2
+ 3/2 1 1/10
+ 1/2 0 3/5 1/15 1/3 5/2
3/2 1/2
1/2 + 1 3/10 8/15 1/6 1/2 1/2 1/2
+ 1/2 1 3/10 8/15 1/6
1
2
3
1/2 0 3/5 1/15 1/3 5/2 3/2
1 1
1
3/2 + 1 1/10 2/5 1/2 3/2 3/2
1/2 1 3/5 2/5 5/2
0 1 2/5 1/2 1/10
3/2 0 2/5 3/5 5/2
1 0 8/15 1/6 3/10
2
3
2 + 1 1/15 1/3 3/5 2 2
3/2 1
1
2
3
+ 2 0 1/3 2/3
1
+ 1 + 1 2/3 1/3
+1
+1
+1
+ 2 1 1/15 1/3 3/5
1/6 3/10
3
2
1
11 + 22 2 1 + 10 + 01 8/15
2/5 1/2 1/10
0
0
0
+1 +1 1 +1 +1
+ 1 1 1/5 1/2 3/10
1
+ 1 0 1/2 1/2 2
0
0 2/5
0 0 3/5
0
0 + 1 1/2 1/2
0
0
1 + 1 1/5 1/2 3/10
21
J
J
...
Note: A square-root sign is to be understood over every coecient, e.g., for 8/15 read 8/15. Notation: M M ...
m1 m2
3
1/21/2 + 11 1 0
cos
Y10 =
5/2
m 1 m 2 Coefficients
21/2
4
5/2
+
5/2
3/2
0
0
+ 1/2 + 1/2 1
.
.
+ 2 + 1/2
1 + 3/2 + 3/2
+ 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1
3
.
.
1
i
sin e
Y1 =
1/2 + 1/2 1/2 1/2 1
.
.
5/2
3/2
1/5
4/5
+
2
1/2
8
+ 1 + 1/2 4/5 1/5 + 1/2 + 1/2
1/2 1/2 1
3
5
1
+ 1 1/2 2/5 3/5 5/2 3/2
cos2
Y20 =
0 + 1/2 3/5 2/5 1/2 1/2
4 2
2
1 1/2 + 3/2
0 1/2 3/5 2/5 5/2 3/2
3/2 3/2 1/2
15
1
i
1 + 1/2 2/5 3/5 3/2 3/2
sin cos e
Y2 =
1 + 1/2 + 1/2
+ 1 + 1/2
8
2
1 1/2 4/5 1/5 5/2
+ 1 1/2 1/3 2/3 3/2 1/2
3/21/2 + 2 2 1
2 + 1/2 1/5 4/5 5/2
1 15
0 + 1/2 2/3 1/3 1/2 1/2
+ 3/2 +1/2 1 + 1 + 1
sin2 e2i
Y22 =
2 1/2
1
0 1/2 2/3 1/3 3/2
4 2
1
+ 3/2 1/2 1/4 3/4 2
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36. Clebsch-Gordan coecients
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285
36. CLEBSCH-GORDAN COEFFICIENTS,
SPHERICAL HARMONICS, AND d FUNCTIONS
12:56
j
(1)mm d m,m
j
d m,m
4
Y m eim
2 + 1
3/2 3/2
1 + cos
1/2
3
d 10,0 = cos
d 1/2,1/2 = cos
d 11,1 =
2
2
+3 3
2
sin
+ 3/2 + 3/2
1 +2
+2
1/2
d 1/2,1/2 = sin
d 11,0 =
7/2
23/2 + 7/2 7/2 5/2
3
2
1
+ 3/2 + 1/2 1/2 1/2
2
2
+ 1/2 + 3/2 1/2 1/2 + 1 + 1
+1
1 cos
+ 2 + 3/2
1 + 5/2 + 5/2
d 11,1 =
+ 3/2 1/2 1/5 1/2 3/10
+ 2 + 1/2 3/7 4/7 7/2
5/2 3/2
2
2
1
0
3
0 2/5
+ 1/2 + 1/2 3/5
+ 1 + 3/2 4/7 3/7 + 3/2 + 3/2 + 3/2
0
0
1/2 + 3/2 1/5 1/2 3/10
0
0
+ 2 1/2 1/7 16/35 2/5
+ 3/2 3/2 1/20 1/4 9/20 1/4
+ 1 +1/2 4/7 1/35 2/5
7/2
5/2 3/2
1/2
+ 1/2 1/2 9/20 1/4 1/20 1/4
0 +3/2 2/7 18/35 1/5 + 1/2 + 1/2 + 1/2 + 1/2
3
2
1
2 2 + 44 4 3
1/2 + 1/2 9/20 1/4 1/20 1/4
1
3/2 + 3/2 1/20 1/4 9/20 1/4 1 1
6/35
2/5
2/5
+
2
3/2
1/35
+2 +2 1 +3 +3
0 3/10
+ 1 1/2 12/35 5/14
1/5
1/2
3/10
+
1/2
3/2
3
2
4
+ 2 + 1 1/2 1/2
7/2
1/5
0 +1/2 18/35 3/35 1/5
5/2 3/2 1/2
0 2/5
1/2 1/2 3/5
3
2
+ 1 + 2 1/2 1/2 + 2
+2 +2
1 +3/2 4/35 27/70 2/5 1/10 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
3/2 + 1/2 1/5 1/2 3/10 2 2
+ 2 0 3/14 1/2 2/7
+ 1 3/2 4/35 27/70 2/5 1/10
3
1/2
1/2
3/2
1/2
4
0 3/7
3
2
1
+ 1 +1 4/7
0 1/2 18/35 3/35 1/5 1/5
3/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 3
+1
+1
+1
+1
0 +2 3/14 1/2 2/7
1 +1/2 12/35 5/14
5/2 3/2
0 3/10 7/2
3/2 3/2 1
2 +3/2 1/35 6/35 2/5 2/5 3/2 3/2 3/2
+ 2 1 1/14 3/10 3/7 1/5
+ 1 0 3/7 1/5 1/14 3/10
0 3/2 2/7 18/35 1/5
4
3
2
1
0
0 +1 3/7 1/5 1/14 3/10
1 1/2 4/7 1/35 2/5 7/2 5/2
0
1 +2 1/14 3/10 3/7 1/5
0
0
0
0
2 + 1/2 1/7 16/35 2/5 5/2 5/2
+ 2 2 1/70 1/10 2/7 2/5 1/5
1 3/2 4/7 3/7 7/2
+ 1 1 8/35 2/5 1/14 1/10 1/5
2 1/2 3/7 4/7 7/2
0 2/7
0 1/5
0 0 18/35
1 + cos
2 3/2
1
2
1
1 +1 8/35 2/5 1/14 1/10 1/5
4
3
3/2
cos
d 3/2,3/2 =
2 +2 1/70 1/10 2/7 2/5 1/5
1
1
1
1
2
2
1 + cos 2
1/5
+
1
2
3/7
1/14
3/10
1
+
cos
3/2
d 22,2 =
sin
d 3/2,1/2 = 3
0 1 3/7 1/5 1/14 3/10
2
2
2
4
3
1 0 3/7 1/5 1/14 3/10
2
1 + cos
cos
3/2
2 +1 1/14 3/10 3/7 1/5
2 2 2
sin
d 22,1 =
cos
d 3/2,1/2 = 3
2
2
2
0 2 3/14 1/2 2/7
1 + cos
6
1 cos
0 3/7
4
3
1 1 4/7
3/2
(2 cos 1)
d 21,1 =
sin
sin2
d 22,0 =
d 3/2,3/2 =
2 0 3/14 1/2 2/7 3 3
2
2
2
4
1 2 1/2 1/2 4
3
3 cos 1
1 cos
3/2
sin cos
d 21,0 =
2 1 1/2 1/2 4
d 22,1 =
cos
sin
d 1/2,1/2 =
2
2
2
2
2 2 1
3 cos + 1
1 cos 2
1 cos
3
1
3/2
2
2
2
2
sin
(2 cos + 1)
d 0,0 =
cos
d 1/2,1/2 =
d 2,2 =
d 1,1 =
2
2
2
2
2
2
j
d m ,m
d m,0 =
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36. Clebsch-Gordan coecients
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40. Kinematics
40. KINEMATICS
Revised January 2000 by J.D. Jackson (LBNL) and June 2008 by D.R.
Tovey (Sheeld).
Throughout this section units are used in which = c = 1. The following
conversions are useful: c = 197.3 MeV fm, (c)2 = 0.3894 (GeV)2 mb.
40.1. Lorentz transformations
The energy E and 3-momentum p of a particle of mass m form a
4-vector p = (E, p) whose square p2 E 2 |p|2 = m2 . The velocity of
the particle is = p/E. The energy and momentum (E , p ) viewed from
a frame moving with velocity f are given by
E
E
f
f f
(40.1)
=
,
pT = pT ,
p
p
f f
f
where f = (1f2 )1/2 and pT (p ) are the components of p perpendicular
(parallel) to f . Other 4-vectors, such as the space-time coordinates of
events, of course transform in the same way. The scalar product of two
4-momenta p1 p2 = E1 E2 p1 p2 is invariant (frame independent).
40.2. Center-of-mass energy and momentum
In the collision of two particles of masses m1 and m2 the total
center-of-mass energy can be expressed in the Lorentz-invariant form
1/2
,
Ecm = (E1 + E2 )2 (p1 + p2 )2
1/2
= m21 + m22 + 2E1 E2 (1 1 2 cos )
,
(40.2)
where is the angle between the particles. In the frame where one particle
(of mass m2 ) is at rest (lab frame),
Ecm = (m21 + m22 + 2E1 lab m2 )1/2 .
(40.3)
The velocity of the center-of-mass in the lab frame is
cm = plab /(E1 lab + m2 ) ,
(40.4)
where plab p1 lab and
cm = (E1 lab + m2 )/Ecm .
(40.5)
The c.m. momenta of particles 1 and 2 are of magnitude
m2
pcm = plab
.
(40.6)
Ecm
For example, if a 0.80 GeV/c kaon beam is incident on a proton target,
the center of mass energy is 1.699 GeV and the center of mass momentum
of either particle is 0.442 GeV/c. It is also useful to note that
Ecm dEcm = m2 dE1 lab = m2 1 lab dplab .
(40.7)
40.3. Lorentz-invariant amplitudes
The matrix elements for a scattering or decay process are written in
terms of an invariant amplitude iM . As an example, the S-matrix for
2 2 scattering is related to M by
p1 p2 |S| p1 p2 = I i(2)4 4 (p1 + p2 p1 p2 )
M (p1 , p2 ; p1 , p2 )
.
(40.8)
1/2
(2E1 )
(2E2 )1/2 (2E1 )1/2 (2E2 )1/2
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12:56
40. Kinematics
The state normalization is such that
p |p = (2)3 3 (p p ) .
(40.9)
40.4. Particle decays
The partial decay rate of a particle of mass M into n bodies in its rest
frame is given in terms of the Lorentz-invariant matrix element M by
(2)4
|M |2 dn (P ; p1 , . . . , pn ),
d =
(40.10)
2M
where dn is an element of n-body phase space given by
n
n
d3 pi
dn (P ; p1 , . . . , pn ) = 4 (P
pi )
.
(40.11)
(2)3 2Ei
i=1
i=1
This phase space can be generated recursively, viz.
dn (P ; p1 , . . . , pn ) = dj (q; p1 , . . . , pj )
dnj+1 (P ; q, pi+1 , . . . , pn )(2)3 dq 2 ,
(40.12)
2
j
j
where q 2 = ( i=1 Ei )2 i=1 pi . This form is particularly useful in
the case where a particle decays into another particle that subsequently
decays.
40.4.1. Survival probability : If a particle of mass M has mean
proper lifetime (= 1/) and has momentum (E, p), then the probability
that it lives for a time t0 or greater before decaying is given by
P (t0 ) = et0 / = eM t0 /E ,
(40.13)
and the probability that it travels a distance x0 or greater is
P (x0 ) = eM x0 /|p| .
(40.14)
40.4.2. Two-body decays :
p1, m1
P, M
p2, m2
Figure 40.1: Denitions of variables for two-body decays.
In the rest frame of a particle of mass M , decaying into 2 particles
labeled 1 and 2,
M 2 m22 + m21
E1 =
,
(40.15)
2M
|p1 | = |p2 |
1/2
M 2 (m1 + m2 )2 M 2 (m1 m2 )2
,
2M
and
d =
|p |
1
|M |2 12 d ,
32 2
M
(40.16)
(40.17)
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289
where d = d1 d(cos 1 ) is the solid angle of particle 1. The invariant mass
M can be determined from the energies and momenta using Eq. (40.2)
with M = Ecm .
40.4.3. Three-body decays :
p1, m1
P, M
p2, m2
p3, m3
Figure 40.2: Denitions of variables for three-body decays.
Dening pij = pi + pj and m2ij = p2ij , then m212 + m223 + m213 =
+ m21 + m22 + m23 and m212 = (P p3 )2 = M 2 + m23 2M E3 , where
E3 is the energy of particle 3 in the rest frame of M . In that frame,
the momenta of the three decay particles lie in a plane. The relative
orientation of these three momenta is xed if their energies are known.
The momenta can therefore be specied in space by giving three Euler
angles (, , ) that specify the orientation of the nal system relative to
the initial particle [1]. Then
1
1
|M |2 dE1 dE2 d d(cos ) d .
(40.18)
d =
(2)5 16M
M2
Alternatively
d =
1
1
|M |2 |p1 | |p3 | dm12 d1 d3 ,
(2)5 16M 2
(40.19)
where (|p1 |, 1 ) is the momentum of particle 1 in the rest frame of 1
and 2, and 3 is the angle of particle 3 in the rest frame of the decaying
particle. |p1 | and |p3 | are given by
1/2
2
m12 (m1 + m2 )2 m212 (m1 m2 )2
,
(40.20a)
|p1 | =
2m12
and
1/2
2
M (m12 + m3 )2 M 2 (m12 m3 )2
|p3 | =
.
(40.20b)
2M
[Compare with Eq. (40.16).]
If the decaying particle is a scalar or we average over its spin states,
then integration over the angles in Eq. (40.18) gives
1
1
d =
|M |2 dE1 dE2
(2)3 8M
1
1
=
|M |2 dm212 dm223 .
(40.21)
(2)3 32M 3
This is the standard form for the Dalitz plot.
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40. Kinematics
40.4.3.1. Dalitz plot: For a given value of m212 , the range of m223 is
determined by its values when p2 is parallel or antiparallel to p3 :
(m223 )max =
2
E22 m22 E32 m23
,
(E2 + E3 )2
(40.22a)
(m223 )min =
2
(E2 + E3 )2
E22 m22 + E32 m23
.
(40.22b)
Here E2 = (m212 m21 + m22 )/2m12 and E3 = (M 2 m212 m23 )/2m12 are
the energies of particles 2 and 3 in the m12 rest frame. The scatter plot
in m212 and m223 is called a Dalitz plot. If |M |2 is constant, the allowed
region of the plot will be uniformly populated with events [see Eq. (40.21)].
A nonuniformity in the plot gives immediate information on |M |2 . For
example, in the case of D K, bands appear when m(K) = mK (892) ,
reecting the appearance of the decay chain D K (892) K.
10
(m1+m2) 2
(Mm1) 2
8
2
m23
(GeV 2)
(m223)max
(Mm3) 2
4
2 )
(m23
min
(m2+m3) 2
2
3
2 (GeV 2)
m12
Figure 40.3: Dalitz plot for a three-body nal state. In this
example, the state is + K 0 p at 3 GeV. Four-momentum conservation
restricts events to the shaded region.
40.4.4. Kinematic limits :
40.4.4.1. Three-body decays: In a three-body decay (Fig. 40.2) the
maximum of |p3 |, [given by Eq. (40.20)], is achieved when m12 = m1 + m2 ,
i.e., particles 1 and 2 have the same vector velocity in the rest frame of the
decaying particle. If, in addition, m3 > m1 , m2 , then |p3 |max > |p1 |max ,
|p2 |max . The distribution of m12 values possesses an end-point or
maximum value at m12 = M m3 . This can be used to constrain the
mass dierence of a parent particle and one invisible decay product.
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40.4.5. Multibody decays : The above results may be generalized to
nal states containing any number of particles by combining some of the
particles into eective particles and treating the nal states as 2 or 3
eective particle states. Thus, if pijk... = pi + pj + pk + . . ., then
(40.25)
mijk... = p2 ijk... ,
and mijk... may be used in place of e.g., m12 in the relations in Sec. 40.4.3
or Sec. 40.4.4 above.
40.5. Cross sections
p3, m3
p1, m1
.
.
.
p2, m2
pn+2, mn+2
Figure 40.5: Denitions of variables for production of an n-body
nal state.
The dierential cross section is given by
(2)4 |M |2
d =
4 (p1 p2 )2 m21 m22
dn (p1 + p2 ; p3 , . . . , pn+2 ) .
(40.26)
[See Eq. (40.11).] In the rest frame of m2 (lab),
(p1 p2 )2 m21 m22 = m2 p1 lab ;
(40.27a)
while in the center-of-mass
frame
(p1 p2 )2 m21 m22 = p1cm s .
(40.27b)
40.5.1. Two-body reactions :
p1, m1
p3, m3
p2, m2
p4, m4
Figure 40.6: Denitions of variables for a two-body nal state.
Two particles of momenta p1 and p2 and masses m1 and m2 scatter
to particles of momenta p3 and p4 and masses m3 and m4 ; the
Lorentz-invariant Mandelstam variables are dened by
s = (p1 + p2 )2 = (p3 + p4 )2
= m21 + 2E1 E2 2p1 p2 + m22 ,
t = (p1 p3 )2 = (p2 p4 )2
= m21 2E1 E3 + 2p1 p3 + m23 ,
(40.28)
(40.29)
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12:56
40. Kinematics
u = (p1 p4 )2 = (p2 p3 )2
= m21 2E1 E4 + 2p1 p4 + m24 ,
(40.30)
s + t + u = m21 + m22 + m23 + m24 .
(40.31)
and they satisfy
The two-body cross section may be written as
d
1
1
=
|M |2 .
dt
64s |p1cm |2
(40.32)
In the center-of-mass frame
t = (E1cm E3cm )2 (p1cm p3cm )2
4p1cm p3cm sin2 (cm /2)
= t0 4p1cm p3cm sin2 (cm /2) ,
(40.33)
where cm is the angle between particle 1 and 3. The limiting values
t0 (cm = 0) and t1 (cm = ) for 2 2 scattering are
2
2
m1 m23 m22 + m24
t0 (t1 ) =
(p1 cm p3 cm )2 .
(40.34)
2 s
In the literature the notation tmin (tmax ) for t0 (t1 ) is sometimes used,
which should be discouraged since t0 > t1 . The center-of-mass energies
and momenta of the incoming particles are
s + m21 m22
s + m22 m21
E1cm =
,
E2cm =
,
(40.35)
2 s
2 s
For E3cm and E4cm , change m1 to m3 and m2 to m4 . Then
m
p
2 .
pi cm = Ei2cm m2i and p1cm = 1 lab
s
(40.36)
Here the subscript lab refers to the frame where particle 2 is at rest. [For
other relations see Eqs. (40.2)(40.4).]
40.5.2. Inclusive reactions : Choose some direction (usually the beam
direction) for the z-axis; then the energy and momentum of a particle can
be written as
(40.37)
E = mT cosh y , px , py , pz = mT sinh y ,
where mT , conventionally called the transverse mass, is given by
m2T = m2 + p2x + p2y .
and the rapidity y is dened by
y=
= ln
1
ln
2
E + pz
mT
E + pz
E pz
(40.38)
= tanh1
p
z
(40.39)
Note that the denition of the transverse mass in Eq. (40.38) diers
from that used by experimentalists at hadron colliders (see Sec. 40.6.1
below). Under a boost in the z-direction to a frame with velocity ,
y y tanh1 . Hence the shape of the rapidity distribution dN/dy is
invariant, as are dierences in rapidity. The invariant cross section may
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293
also be rewritten
d3
d3
d2
E 3 =
.
=
d p
d dy pT dpT
dy d(p2T )
(40.40)
The second form is obtained using the identity dy/dpz = 1/E, and the
third form represents the average over .
Feynmans x variable is given by
E + pz
pz
(pT
|pz |) .
(40.41)
x=
pz max
(E + pz )max
In the c.m. frame,
x
and
2mT sinh ycm
2pz cm
=
s
s
= (ycm )max = ln( s/m) .
(40.42)
(40.43)
The invariant mass M of the two-particle system described in Sec. 40.4.2
can be written in terms of these variables as
(40.44)
M 2 = m21 + m22 + 2[ET (1)ET (2) cosh y pT (1) pT (2)] ,
where
ET (i) =
|pT (i)|2 + m2i ,
(40.45)
and pT (i) denotes the transverse momentum vector of particle i.
For p m, the rapidity [Eq. (40.39)] may be expanded to obtain
y=
cos2 (/2) + m2 /4p2 + . . .
1
ln
2
sin2 (/2) + m2 /4p2 + . . .
ln tan(/2)
(40.46)
where cos = pz /p. The pseudorapidity dened by the second line is
approximately equal to the rapidity y for p m and 1/, and in any
case can be measured when the mass and momentum of the particle are
unknown. From the denition one can obtain the identities
sinh = cot , cosh = 1/ sin , tanh = cos .
(40.47)
40.5.3. Partial waves : The amplitude in the center of mass for elastic
scattering of spinless particles may be expanded in Legendre polynomials
1
(2 + 1)a P (cos ) ,
(40.48)
f (k, ) =
k
where k is the c.m. momentum, is the c.m. scattering angle, a =
( e2i 1)/2i, 0 1, and is the phase shift of the th partial
wave. For purely elastic scattering, = 1. The dierential cross section
is
d
= |f (k, )|2 .
(40.49)
d
The optical theorem states that
4
tot =
Im f (k, 0) ,
(40.50)
k
and the cross section in the th partial wave is therefore bounded:
4
4(2 + 1)
.
(40.51)
= 2 (2 + 1)|a |2
k
k2
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40. Kinematics
40.5.3.1. Resonances: The Breit-Wigner (nonrelativistic) form for an
elastic amplitude a with a resonance at c.m. energy ER , elastic width
el , and total width tot is
el /2
,
(40.54)
a =
ER E itot /2
where E is the c.m. energy.
The spin-averaged Breit-Wigner cross section for a spin-J resonance
produced in the collision of particles of spin S1 and S2 is
(2J + 1)
Bin Bout 2tot
,
(40.55)
BW (E) =
(2S1 + 1)(2S2 + 1) k 2 (E ER )2 + 2tot /4
where k is the c.m. momentum, E is the c.m. energy, and B in and B out
are the branching fractions of the resonance into the entrance and exit
channels. The 2S + 1 factors are the multiplicities of the incident spin
states, and are replaced by 2 for photons. This expression is valid only for
an isolated state. If the width is not small, tot cannot be treated as a
constant independent of E. There are many other forms for BW , all of
which are equivalent to the one given here in the narrow-width case. Some
of these forms may be more appropriate if the resonance is broad.
The relativistic Breit-Wigner form corresponding to Eq. (40.54) is:
mel
a =
.
(40.56)
s m2 + imtot
A betterform incorporates the known kinematic dependences, replacing
tot (s) is the width the resonanceparticle
mtot by s tot (s), where
would have if its mass were s, and correspondingly mel by s el (s)
where el (s) is the partial width in the incident channel for a mass s:
s el (s)
.
(40.57)
a =
s m2 + i s tot (s)
For the Z boson, all the decays are to particles whose masses
are small
enough to be ignored, so on dimensional grounds tot (s) = s 0 /mZ ,
where 0 denes the width of the Z, and el (s)/tot (s) is constant. A full
treatment of the line shape requires consideration of dynamics, not just
kinematics. For the Z this is done by calculating the radiative corrections
in the Standard Model.
40.6. Transverse variables
At hadron colliders, a signicant and unknown proportion of the energy
of the incoming hadrons in each event escapes down the beam-pipe.
Consequently if invisible particles are created in the nal state, their net
momentum can only be constrained in the plane transverse to the beam
direction. Dening the z-axis as the beam direction, this net momentum
is equal to the missing transverse energy vector
pT (i) ,
(40.58)
ETmiss =
i
where the sum runs over the transverse momenta of all visible nal state
particles.
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295
40.6.1. Single production with semi-invisible final state :
Consider a single heavy particle of mass M produced in association
with visible particles which decays as in Fig. 40.1 to two particles, of
which one (labeled particle 1) is invisible. The mass of the parent particle
can be constrained with the quantity MT dened by
MT2 [ET (1) + ET (2)]2 [pT (1) + pT (2)]2
= m21 + m22 + 2[ET (1)ET (2) pT (1) pT (2)] ,
where
(40.59)
pT (1) = ETmiss .
(40.60)
This quantity is called the transverse mass by hadron collider
experimentalists but it should be noted that it is quite dierent from
that used in the description of inclusive reactions [Eq. (40.38)]. The
distribution of event MT values possesses an end-point at MTmax = M . If
m1 = m2 = 0 then
MT2 = 2|pT (1)||pT (2)|(1 cos 12 ) ,
(40.61)
where ij is dened as the angle between particles i and j in the transverse
plane.
40.6.2. Pair production with semi-invisible final states :
p1 , m1
p3 , m1
M
p2 , m2
p4 , m4
Figure 40.9: Denitions of variables for pair production of semiinvisible nal states. Particles 1 and 3 are invisible while particles 2
and 4 are visible.
Consider two identical heavy particles of mass M produced such that
their combined center-of-mass is at rest in the transverse plane (Fig. 40.9).
Each particle decays to a nal state consisting of an invisible particle of
xed mass m1 together with an additional visible particle. M and m1 can
be constrained with the variables MT 2 and MCT which are dened in
Refs. [4] and [5].
Further discussion and all references may be found in the full Review of
Particle Physics. The numbering of references and equations used here
corresponds to that version.
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41. Cross-section formulae for specific processes
41. CROSS-SECTION FORMULAE
FOR SPECIFIC PROCESSES
Revised October 2009 by H. Baer (Florida State University) and R.N.
Cahn (LBNL).
PART I: STANDARD MODEL PROCESSES
Setting aside leptoproduction (for which, see Sec. 16 of this Review),
the cross sections of primary interest are those with light incident particles,
e+ e , , qq, gq , gg, etc., where g and q represent gluons and light
quarks. The produced particles include both light particles and heavy
ones - t, W , Z, and the Higgs boson H. We provide the production cross
sections calculated within the Standard Model for several such processes.
41.1. Resonance Formation
Resonant cross sections are generally described by the Breit-Wigner
formula (Sec. 16 of this Review).
2J + 1
2 /4
4
(E) =
(41.1)
Bin Bout ,
(2S1 + 1)(2S2 + 1) k 2 (E E0 )2 + 2 /4
where E is the c.m. energy, J is the spin of the resonance, and the
number of polarization states of the two incident particles are 2S1 + 1
and 2S2 + 1. The c.m. momentum in the initial state is k, E0 is the
c.m. energy at the resonance, and is the full width at half maximum
height of the resonance. The branching fraction for the resonance into
the initial-state channel is Bin and into the nal-state channel is Bout .
For a narrow resonance, the factor in square brackets may be replaced by
(E E0 )/2.
41.2. Production of light particles
The production of point-like, spin-1/2 fermions in e+ e annihilation
through a virtual photon, e+ e f f , at c.m. energy squared s is
d
2
= Nc [1 + cos2 + (1 2 ) sin2 ]Q2f ,
(41.2)
d
4s
where is v/c for the produced fermions in the c.m., is the c.m.
scattering angle, and Qf is the charge of the fermion. The factor Nc is 1
for charged leptons and 3 for quarks. In the ultrarelativistic limit, 1,
42
86.8 nb
= Nc Q2f
= Nc Q2f
.
(41.3)
3s
s (GeV2 )
The cross section for the annihilation of a qq pair into a distinct pair
q q through a gluon is completely analogous up to color factors, with the
replacement s . Treating all quarks as massless, averaging over the
colors of the initial quarks and dening t = s sin2 (/2), u = s cos2 (/2),
one nds
d
2 t2 + u2
(qq q q ) = s
.
d
9s s2
Crossing symmetry gives
2 s2 + u2
d
(qq qq ) = s
.
d
9s t2
If the quarks q and q are identical, we have
d
2 t2 + u2
s2 + u 2
2u2
(qq qq) = s
+
,
d
9s
s2
t2
3st
(41.4)
(41.5)
(41.6)
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41. Cross-section formulae for specific processes
and by crossing
2 t2 + s2
d
s2 + u 2
2s2
(qq qq) = s
+
.
d
9s
3ut
u2
t2
(41.7)
Annihilation of e+ e into has the cross section
d +
2 u2 + t2
(e e ) =
.
(41.8)
d
2s tu
The related QCD process also has a triple-gluon coupling. The cross
section is
d
9
82s 2
1
(qq gg) =
(t + u2 )( 2 ) .
d
27s
tu 4s
(41.9)
The crossed reactions are
d
2
9
1
(qg qg) = s (s2 + u2 )(
+
),
d
9s
su 4t2
(41.10)
d
9
2
1
(gg qq) = s (t2 + u2 )( 2 ) ,
d
24s
tu 4s
(41.11)
d
92s
ut su
st
(gg gg) =
(3 2 2 2 ) .
d
8s
s
t
u
(41.12)
Lepton-quark scattering is analogous (neglecting Z exchange)
2 2 s2 + u2
d
(eq eq) =
e
,
(41.13)
d
2s q t2
eq is the quark charge. For -scattering with the four-Fermi interaction
G2 s
d
(d
u) = F2 ,
(41.14)
d
4
where the Cabibbo angle suppression is ignored. Similarly
G2 s (1 + cos )2
d
(u
+ d) = F2
.
(41.15)
d
4
4
For deep inelastic scattering (presented in more detail in Section 16)
we consider quarks of type i carrying a fraction x = Q2 /(2M ) of the
nucleons energy, where = E E is the energy lost by the lepton in the
nucleon rest frame. With y = /E we have the correspondences
1 + cos 2(1 y) ,
dcm 4fi (x)dx dy ,
(41.16)
where the latter incorporates the quark distribution, fi (x). We nd
d
42 xs 1
(eN eX) =
1 + (1 y)2
4
dx dy
Q
2
4
1
(u(x) + u(x) + . . .)+ (d(x) + d(x) + . . .)
(41.17)
9
9
where now s = 2M E is the cm energy squared for the electron-nucleon
collision and we have suppressed contributions from higher mass quarks.
Similarly,
G2 xs
d
(N
X) = F [(d(x) + . . .) + (1 y)2 (u(x) + . . .)] , (41.18)
dx dy
G2F xs
d
+
(N
X) =
[(d(x) + . . .) + (1 y)2 (u(x) + . . .)] . (41.19)
dx dy
Quasi-elastic neutrino scattering ( n p, p + n) is directly
related to the crossed reaction, neutron decay.
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41. Cross-section formulae for specific processes
41.3. Hadroproduction of heavy quarks
For hadroproduction of heavy quarks Q = c, b, t, it is important to
one has
include mass eects in the formulae. For q q QQ,
2
d
= s (m2 t)2 + (m2 u)2 + 2m2 s ,
(q q QQ)
(41.20)
Q
Q
Q
3
d
9s
one has
while for gg QQ
2
d
= s 6 (m2 t)(m2 u)
(gg QQ)
Q
d
32s s2 Q
2
2
2
2
2
2
mQ (s 4mQ )
4 (mQ t)(mQ u) 2mQ (mQ + t)
+
3(m2Q t)(m2Q u) 3
(m2Q t)2
+
3
2
2
2
2
4 (mQ t)(mQ u) 2mQ (mQ + u)
3
(m2Q u)2
(m2Q t)(m2Q u) + m2Q (u t)
s(m2Q t)
(m2Q t)(m2Q u) + m2Q (t u)
s(m2Q u)
(41.21)
41.4. Production of Weak Gauge Bosons
41.4.1. W and Z resonant production :
Resonant production of a single W or Z is governed by the partial widths
2GF m3W
(W
i i ) =
(41.22)
12
2
3
2GF |Vij | mW
(W qi q j ) = 3
(41.23)
12 3
2GF mZ
(Z f f ) = Nc
6
(T3 Qf sin2 W )2 + (Qf sin W )2 . (41.24)
The weak mixing angle is W . The CKM matrix elements are Vij . Nc is 3
for qq and 1 for leptonic nal states. These widths along with associated
branching fractions may be applied to the resonance production formula
of Sec. 41.1 to gain the total W or Z production cross section.
41.4.2. Production of pairs of weak gauge bosons :
The cross section for f f W + W is given in term of the couplings of the
left-handed and right-handed fermion f ,
= 2(T3 QxW ), r = 2QxW ,
where T3 is the third component of weak isospin for the left-handed f , Q
is its electric charge
(in units of the proton charge), and xW =
sin2 W :
2
2
2
2
s
s
r
d
+r
A(s, t, u)
=
+
Q+
dt
4xW s m2Z
4xW s m2Z
N c s2
1
s
+
Q+
((Q)I(s, t, u) (Q)I(s, u, t))
2xW
2xW s m2Z
1
+ 2 ((Q)E(s, t, u) + (Q)E(s, u, t)) ,
(41.26)
8xW
where (x) is 1 for x > 0 and 0 for x < 0, and where
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41. Cross-section formulae for specific processes
A(s, t, u) =
I(s, t, u) =
E(s, t, u) =
tu
m4W
299
m4
1 m2W
s
+3 W
+ 2 4,
4
s
s2
mW
m4
m2
1 m2W
s
W + 2 2+2 W,
1
4
2s
st
t
mW
s
1 m4W
+ 2
+ 2 ,
1
(41.27)
4
t
mW
tu
1
m4W
tu
m4W
12:56
and s, t, u are the usual Mandelstam variables with s = (pf + pf )2 , t =
(pf pW )2 , u = (pf pW + )2 . The factor Nc is 3 for quarks and 1 for
leptons.
The analogous cross-section for qi q j W Z 0 is
2
2 |Vij |2
9 8xW
d
1
=
ut m2W m2Z
2
2
2
dt
4
6s xW
s mW
2
2
+ (8xW 6) s mW + mZ
ut m2W m2Z s(m2W + m2Z )
+
t
u
s m2W
2
s(m2W + m2Z )
i
j
ut m2W m2Z
j
2i
,
(41.28)
+ 2 +
+
4(1 xW )
2(1 xW ) tu
t2
u
where
i and
j are the couplings of the left-handed qi and qj as dened
above. The CKM matrix element between qi and qj is Vij .
The cross section for qi q i Z 0 Z 0 is
4i + ri4
1
2
u 4m2Z s
d
t
1
4
=
+ +
mZ 2 + 2
.
dt
96 x2W (1 x2W )2 s2 u
t
tu
t
u
(41.29)
41.5. Production of Higgs Bosons
41.5.1. Resonant Production :
The Higgs boson of the Standard Model can be produced resonantly
in the collisions of quarks, leptons, W or Z bosons, gluons, or photons.
The production cross section is thus controlled by the partial width of the
Higgs boson into the entrance channel and its total width. The partial
widths are given by the relations
3/2
GF m2f mH Nc
1 4m2f /m2H
, (41.30)
4 2
GF m3H W
(41.31)
(H W + W ) =
4 4aW + 3a2W ,
32 2
GF m3H Z
(H ZZ) =
(41.32)
4 4aZ + 3a2Z .
64 2
2 =
where Nc is 3 for quarks and 1 for leptons and where aW = 1 W
2 = 4m2 /m2 . The decay to two gluons
4m2W /m2H and aZ = 1 Z
Z
H
proceeds through quark loops, with the t quark dominating. Explicitly,
(H f f ) =
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300
12:56
41. Cross-section formulae for specific processes
(H gg) =
2s GF m3H
36 3 2
2
I(m2q /m2H ) ,
(41.33)
where I(z) is complex for z < 1/4. For z < 2 103 , |I(z)| is small so the
light quarks contribute negligibly. For mH < 2mt , z > 1/4 and
2
1
1
,
(41.34)
I(z) = 3 2z + 2z(1 4z) sin
2 z
which has the limit I(z) 1 as z .
41.5.2. Higgs Boson Production in W and Z decay :
The Standard Model Higgs boson can be produced in the decay of
a virtual W or Z (Higgstrahlung): In particular, if k is the c.m.
momentum of the Higgs boson,
(qi q j W H) =
2 |Vij |2 2k k 2 + 3m2W
36 sin4 W s (s m2W )2
22 (
2f + rf2 )
2k k 2 + 3m2Z
.
4
4
48Nc sin W cos W s (s m2Z )2
where
and r are dened as above.
(f f ZH) =
(41.35)
(41.36)
41.5.3. W and Z Fusion :
Just as high-energy electrons can be regarded as sources of virtual photon
beams, at very high energies they are sources of virtual W and Z beams.
For Higgs boson production, it is the longitudinal components of the W s
and Zs that are important. The distribution of longitudinal W s carrying
a fraction y of the electrons energy is
g2 1 y
,
(41.37)
16 2 y
where g = e/ sin W . In the limit s mH mW , the rate (H
WL WL ) = (g 2 /64)(m3H /m2W ) and in the equivalent W approximation
f (y) =
3
1
(e+ e e e H) =
16m2
sin2 W
W
m2
m2
s
1 + H log 2 2 + 2 H . (41.38)
s
s
mH
There are signicant corrections to this relation when mH is not large
compared
to mW . For mH = 150 GeV,
the estimate is too high by 51%
for s = 1000 GeV, 32% too high at s = 2000 GeV, and 22% too high
at s = 4000 GeV. Fusion of ZZ to make a Higgs boson can be treated
similarly. Identical formulae apply for Higgs production in the collisions
of quarks whose charges permit the emission of a W + and a W , except
that QCD corrections and CKM matrix elements are required. Even in
the absence of QCD corrections, the ne-structure constant ought to be
evaluated at the scale of the collision, say mW . All quarks contribute to
the ZZ fusion process.
Further discussion and all references may be found in the full Review; the
equation and reference numbering corresponds to that version.
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42. Plots of cross sections and related quantities 301
10
p (p) p
K p
10
Total cross section (mb)
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
s GeV
-4
10
1
10
10
10
pp
0.1
Kp
Re (T )
Im (T )
0.2
10
0.0
pp
-0.1
+p
K+p
s GeV
-0.2
1.6
10
10
10
10
1.6
10
10
10
s GeV
s GeV
10
1.6
10
10
10
10
Figure 40.10: Summary of hadronic, p, and total cross sections,
and ratio of the real to imaginary parts of the forward hadronic
amplitudes. Corresponding computer-readable data files may be found
at http://pdg.lbl.gov/current/xsect/. (Courtesy of the COMPAS
group, IHEP, Protvino, August 2005)
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6. ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
H2
D2
He
Li
Be
C diamond
C graphite
N2
O2
F2
Ne
Al
Si
Cl2
Ar
Ti
Fe
Cu
Ge
Sn
Xe
W
Pt
Au
Pb
U
1
1
2
3
4
6
6
7
8
9
10
13
14
17
18
22
26
29
32
50
54
74
78
79
82
92
1.00794(7)
2.01410177803(8)
4.002602(2)
6.941(2)
9.012182(3)
12.0107(8)
12.0107(8)
14.0067(2)
15.9994(3)
18.9984032(5)
20.1797(6)
26.9815386(8)
28.0855(3)
35.453(2)
39.948(1)
47.867(1)
55.845(2)
63.546(3)
72.64(1)
118.710(7)
131.293(6)
183.84(1)
195.084(9)
196.966569(4)
207.2(1)
[238.02891(3)]
0.99212
0.49650
0.49967
0.43221
0.44384
0.49955
0.49955
0.49976
0.50002
0.47372
0.49555
0.48181
0.49848
0.47951
0.45059
0.45961
0.46557
0.45636
0.44053
0.42119
0.41129
0.40252
0.39983
0.40108
0.39575
0.38651
Z/A
42.8
51.3
51.8
52.2
55.3
59.2
59.2
61.1
61.3
65.0
65.7
69.7
70.2
73.8
75.7
78.8
81.7
84.2
86.9
98.2
100.8
110.4
112.2
112.5
114.1
118.6
52.0
71.8
71.0
71.3
77.8
85.8
85.8
89.7
90.2
97.4
99.0
107.2
108.4
115.7
119.7
126.2
132.1
137.3
143.0
166.7
172.1
191.9
195.7
196.3
199.6
209.0
63.04
125.97
94.32
82.78
65.19
42.70
42.70
37.99
34.24
32.93
28.93
24.01
21.82
19.28
19.55
16.16
13.84
12.86
12.25
8.82
8.48
6.76
6.54
6.46
6.37
6.00
(4.103)
(2.053)
(1.937)
1.639
1.595
1.725
1.742
(1.825)
(1.801)
(1.676)
(1.724)
1.615
1.664
(1.630)
(1.519)
1.477
1.451
1.403
1.370
1.263
(1.255)
1.145
1.128
1.134
1.122
1.081
0.071(0.084)
0.169(0.168)
0.125(0.166)
0.534
1.848
3.520
2.210
0.807(1.165)
1.141(1.332)
1.507(1.580)
1.204(0.839)
2.699
2.329
1.574(2.980)
1.396(1.662)
4.540
7.874
8.960
5.323
7.310
2.953(5.483)
19.300
21.450
19.320
11.350
18.950
Nucl.coll. Nucl.inter. Rad.len. dE/dx|min Density
{ MeV {g cm3 }
X0
length T length I
{g cm2 } {g cm2 } {g cm2 } g1 cm2 } ({g1 })
77.29
90.20
85.03
27.07
2792.
3538.
239.1
87.26
3560.
3134.
2835.
3106.
2875.
165.1
5828.
4098.
3129.
2022.
4404.
453.6
1560.
63.15
54.36
53.53
24.56
933.5
1687.
171.6
83.81
1941.
1811.
1358.
1211.
505.1
161.4
3695.
2042.
1337.
600.6
1408.
Boiling
point
(K)
20.28
23.65
4.220
1615.
2744.
13.81
18.7
Melting
point
(K)
1.39[701.]
3.95
[773.]
1.23[281.]
1.20[298.]
1.22[271.]
[195.]
1.09[67.1]
2.42
1.11[132.]
1.11[138.]
1.02[35.0]
Refract.
index
(@ Na D)
302
Material
Table 6.1. Abridged from pdg.lbl.gov/AtomicNuclearProperties by D. E. Groom (2007). Quantities in parentheses are for NTP (20 C and
1 atm), and square brackets indicate quantities evaluated at STP. Boiling points are at 1 atm. Refractive indices n are evaluated at the sodium
D line blend (589.2 nm); values 1 in brackets are for (n 1) 106 (gases).
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6. Atomic and nuclear properties of materials
12:56
0.49919
0.50274
0.49707
0.42101
0.50000
0.62334
0.59861
0.59497
0.57778
0.57275
0.54790
0.52697
0.57034
0.52037
0.53937
0.55998
0.53768
0.47992
0.54141
0.49038
0.42207
0.49989
0.49989
0.41569
0.46262
0.50321
0.41315
0.49930
0.55509
0.42697
0.55509
0.50093
Air (dry, 1 atm)
Shielding concrete
Borosilicate glass (Pyrex)
Lead glass
Standard rock
Methane (CH4 )
Ethane (C2 H6 )
Butane (C4 H10 )
Octane (C8 H18 )
Paran (CH3 (CH2 )n23 CH3 )
Nylon (type 6, 6/6)
Polycarbonate (Lexan)
Polyethylene ([CH2 CH2 ]n )
Polyethylene terephthalate (Mylar)
Polymethylmethacrylate (acrylic)
Polypropylene
Polystyrene ([C6 H5 CHCH2 ]n )
Polytetrauoroethylene (Teon)
Polyvinyltoluene
Aluminum oxide (sapphire)
Barium ouride (BaF2 )
Carbon dioxide gas (CO2 )
Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice)
Cesium iodide (CsI)
Lithium uoride (LiF)
Lithium hydride (LiH)
Lead tungstate (PbWO4 )
Silicon dioxide (SiO2 , fused quartz)
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Sodium iodide (NaI)
Water (H2 O)
Silica aerogel
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27.25
27.94
9.91
36.20
36.20
8.39
39.26
79.62
7.39
27.05
21.91
9.49
36.08
46.47
45.66
45.23
45.00
44.85
41.92
41.50
44.77
39.95
40.55
44.77
43.79
34.84
43.90
36.62
26.57
28.17
7.87
26.54
1.740
1.647
1.303
1.819
1.787
1.243
1.614
1.897
1.229
1.699
1.847
1.305
1.992
(2.417)
(2.304)
(2.278)
2.123
2.088
1.973
1.886
2.079
1.848
1.929
2.041
1.936
1.671
1.956
(1.815)
1.711
1.696
1.255
1.688
0.200
3.970
4.893
(1.842)
1.563
4.510
2.635
0.820
8.300
2.200
2.170
3.667
1.000(0.756)
(0.667)
(1.263)
(2.489)
0.703
0.930
1.18
1.20
0.89
1.40
1.19
0.90
1.06
2.20
1.03
(1.205)
2.300
2.230
6.220
2.650
2.20
1.46
1.54
1.77
1.33
3223.
1738.
1577.
373.1
(0.03 H2 O, 0.97 SiO2 )
1.79
1.39
at 194.7 K
1553.
1946.
Sublimes
894.2
1121.
965.
1403.
1986.
1075.
933.2
273.1
1.77
1.47
[449.]
1.58
1.59
1.49
[444.]
3273.
2533.
111.7
184.5
272.6
398.8
2327.
1641.
90.68
90.36
134.9
214.4
78.80
6. Atomic and nuclear properties of materials
97.3
98.4
149.0
88.9
88.9
171.5
88.7
68.1
168.3
97.8
110.1
154.6
83.3
73.8
75.9
77.1
77.8
78.3
81.6
83.6
78.5
84.9
82.8
78.5
81.7
94.4
81.3
90.1
97.5
96.5
158.0
101.3
August 11, 2010
65.0
65.5
90.8
60.7
60.7
100.6
61.0
50.8
100.6
65.2
71.2
93.1
58.5
54.0
55.0
55.5
55.8
56.0
57.5
58.3
56.1
58.9
58.1
56.1
57.5
63.5
57.3
61.3
65.1
64.6
95.9
66.8
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NOTES
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NOTES
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NOTES
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1
IA
Beryllium
Sodium
22.98976928
B 6
15
VA
16
VIA
17
VIIA
Helium
Neon
4.002602
F 10
Ne
Fluorine
O 9
Oxygen
N 8
Nitrogen
C 7
Carbon
14
IVA
10.811 12.0107 14.0067 15.9994 18.9984032 20.1797
13
Al 14
Si 15
P 16
S 17
Cl 18
Ar
Boron
13
IIIA
18
VIIIA
He
Calcium
Magnesium
Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
German.
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton
Yttrium Zirconium Niobium
Molybd.
Technet.
Ruthen.
Rhodium Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon
Barium
89103
Lanthanides
Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury
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Ac 90
Th 91
U 93
Sm 63
Terbium
Bk 98
Fm 101
Yb 71
Md 102
Lu
Lawrenc.
(262.110)
Lr
174.9668
No 103
173.054
Ytterbium Lutetium
Tm 70
168.93421
Thulium
Er 69
Erbium
167.259
Es 100
164.93032
Cf 99
162.500
(288)
Ho 68
Holmium
Dy 67
Dyspros.
Tb 66
158.92535
Cm 97
157.25
Am 96
151.964
Pu 95
150.36
Gd 65
Gadolin.
Eu 64
Samarium Europium
Np 94
144.242 (144.91275)
Pa 92
140.90765
Pm 62
Prometh.
Nd 61
Praseodym. Neodym.
Pr 60
Bismuth Polonium Astatine
Radon
208.98040 (208.98243) (209.98715) (222.01758)
Actinium Thorium Protactin. Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americ.
Curium Berkelium Californ. Einstein. Fermium Mendelev. Nobelium
(227.02775) 232.03806 231.03588 238.02891 (237.04817) (244.06420) (243.06138) (247.07035) (247.07031) (251.07959) (252.0830) (257.09510) (258.09843) (259.1010)
89
Cerium
140.116
Ce 59
Lanthan.
La 58
138.90547
57
Lead
August 11, 2010
Actinide
series
Lanthanide
series
Thallium
178.49 180.94788 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.084 196.966569 200.59 204.3833 207.2
104
Rf 105 Db 106 Sg 107 Bh 108 Hs 109 Mt 110 Ds 111 Rg 112 Cp
114
Francium
Radium Actinides Rutherford. Dubnium Seaborg. Bohrium Hassium Meitner. Darmstadt. Roentgen. Copernicium
(223.01974) (226.02541)
(267.122) (268.125) (271.133) (270.134) (269.134) (276.151) (281.162) (280.164)
(277)
87
132.9054519
137.327
Fr 88
Ra
Cesium
85.4678
87.62
88.90585 91.224 92.90638 95.96 (97.90722) 101.07 102.90550 106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760
127.60 126.90447 131.293
55
Cs 56
Ba 5771 72
Hf 73
Ta 74
W 75
Re 76
Os 77
Ir 78
Pt 79
Au 80
Hg 81
Tl 82
Pb 83
Bi 84
Po 85
At 86
Rn
Rubidium Strontium
39.0983
40.078 44.955912 47.867 50.9415 51.9961 54.938045 55.845 58.933195 58.6934 63.546
65.38
69.723
72.64 74.92160
78.96
79.904
83.798
37
Rb 38
Sr 39
Y 40
Zr 41
Nb 42
Mo 43
Tc 44
Ru 45
Rh 46
Pd 47
Ag 48
Cd 49
In 50
Sn 51
Sb 52
Te 53
I 54
Xe
Potassium
19
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
9
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
11
12
Aluminum Silicon
Phosph.
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon
VIII
24.3050
26.9815386 28.0855 30.973762
32.065
35.453
39.948
IIIB
IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB
IB
IIB
K 20
Ca 21
Sc 22
Ti 23
V 24
Cr 25
Mn 26
Fe 27
Co 28
Ni 29
Cu 30
Zn 31
Ga 32
Ge 33
As 34
Se 35
Br 36
Kr
6.941
9.012182
11
Na 12
Mg
Lithium
Hydrogen
2
IIA
1.00794
3
Li 4
Be
Table 1.1. Revised 2010 by D.E. Groom (LBNL), and E. Bergren. Atomic weights of stable elements are adapted from the Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights, Atomic Weights of the Elements 2007, http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AtWt/. The atomic number (top left) is
the number of protons in the nucleus. The atomic mass (bottom) of a stable elements is weighted by isotopic abundances in the Earths surface. If
the element has no stable isotope, the atomic mass (in parentheses) of the most stable isotope currently known is given. In this case the mass is from
http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/amdc/masstables/Ame2003/mass.mas03 and the longest-lived isotope is from www.nndc.bnl.gov/ensdf/za form.jsp. The exceptions
are Th, Pa, and U, which do have characteristic terrestrial compositions. Atomic masses are relative to the mass of 12 C, defined to be exactly 12 unified atomic
mass units (u) (approx. g/mole). Relative isotopic abundances often vary considerably, both in natural and commercial samples; this is reflected in the number of
significant figures given. Previously confirmed element 112 was named Copernicium (Cp). The discovery of element 114 was confirmed in 2009. There are no other
confirmed elements with Z > 112.
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****** INSIDE BACK COVER ******
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3 4 5 6 7
10 11 12 13 14
17 18 19 20 21
24 25 26 27 28
3 4 5 6
10 11 12 13
17 18 19 20
24 25 26 27
31
APRIL
S M T W T
2
9
16
23
30
S
1
8
15
22
29
7
14
21
28
F S
1 2
8 9
15 16
22 23
29 30
7
14
21
28
S
1
8
15
22
29
6
13
20
27
S
2
9
16
23
30
S
3
10
17
24
31
S
1
8
15
22
29
JANUARY
S M T W T F
3
10
17
24
31
4
11
18
25
JULY
M T W T F
1 2
5 6 7 8 9
12 13 14 15 16
19 20 21 22 23
26 27 28 29 30
OCTOBER
M T W T F
1
4 5 6 7 8
11 12 13 14 15
18 19 20 21 22
25 26 27 28 29
2010
S
6
13
20
27
S
7
14
21
28
M
2
9
16
23
30
MAY
T W T
3 4 5
10 11 12
17 18 19
24 25 26
31
F S
6 7
13 14
20 21
27 28
FEBRUARY
M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5
7 8 9 10 11 12
14 15 16 17 18 19
21 22 23 24 25 26
28
2011
AUGUST
M T W T F
2 3 4 5 6
9 10 11 12 13
16 17 18 19 20
23 24 25 26 27
30 31
NOVEMBER
M T W T F
1 2 3 4 5
8 9 10 11 12
15 16 17 18 19
22 23 24 25 26
29 30
MARCH
T W T
1 2 3
8 9 10
15 16 17
22 23 24
29 30 31
JUNE
S M T W T
1 2
5 6 7 8 9
12 13 14 15 16
19 20 21 22 23
26 27 28 29 30
6 7
13 14
20 21
27 28
S M
5
12
19
26
5
12
19
26
S
4
11
18
25
S
4
11
18
25
F S
3 4
10 11
17 18
24 25
F S
4 5
11 12
18 19
25 26
SEPTEMBER
M T W T F
1 2 3
6 7 8 9 10
13 14 15 16 17
20 21 22 23 24
27 28 29 30
DECEMBER
M T W T F
1 2 3
6 7 8 9 10
13 14 15 16 17
20 21 22 23 24
27 28 29 30 31
S
1
8
15
22
29
S
1
8
15
22
29
2
9
16
23
30
JANUARY
M T W T F
2 3 4 5 6
9 10 11 12 13
16 17 18 19 20
23 24 25 26 27
30 31
APRIL
M T W T F
2 3 4 5 6
9 10 11 12 13
16 17 18 19 20
23 24 25 26 27
30
3 4 5 6 7
10 11 12 13 14
17 18 19 20 21
24 25 26 27 28
31
OCTOBER
S M T W T F
3
10
17
24
31
S
7
14
21
28
S
7
14
21
28
S
1
8
15
22
29
JULY
M T W T F S
1 2
4 5 6 7 8 9
11 12 13 14 15 16
18 19 20 21 22 23
25 26 27 28 29 30
6
13
20
27
5
12
19
26
FEBRUARY
M T W T F
1 2 3
6 7 8 9 10
13 14 15 16 17
20 21 22 23 24
27 28 29
MAY
M T W T F
1 2 3 4
7 8 9 10 11
14 15 16 17 18
21 22 23 24 25
28 29 30 31
2012
S
5
12
19
26
S
4
11
18
25
NOVEMBER
S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26
27 28 29 30
S M
1
7 8
14 15
21 22
28 29
2011
AUGUST
T W T F S
2 3 4 5 6
9 10 11 12 13
16 17 18 19 20
23 24 25 26 27
30 31
3 4 5 6 7
10 11 12 13 14
17 18 19 20 21
24 25 26 27 28
MARCH
S M T W T
1
4 5 6 7 8
11 12 13 14 15
18 19 20 21 22
25 26 27 28 29
JUNE
S M T W T
S
3
10
17
24
31
S
3
10
17
24
31
F S
1 2
8 9
15 16
22 23
29 30
F
2
9
16
23
30
DECEMBER
S M T W T F
1 2
4 5 6 7 8 9
11 12 13 14 15 16
18 19 20 21 22 23
25 26 27 28 29 30
SEPTEMBER
S M T W T F S
1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28 29 30
*** NOTE TO PUBLISHER OF Particle Physics Booklet ***
Please use crop marks to align pages
August 11, 2012
*** NOTE TO PUBLISHER OF Particle Physics Booklet ***
Please use crop marks to align pages
August 11, 2012
12:56
Prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy
under Contract DE-AC02-05CH11231
****** OUTSIDE BACK COVER ******
12:56
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