CHAPTER 4

BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW:

APPLICATION TO EXTERNAL FLOW
4.1 Introduction
Navier-Stokes equations and the energy equation are simplified using the boundary layer
concept.
- Under special conditions certain terms in the equations can be neglected.
- Two key questions:
(1) What are the conditions under which terms in the governing equations can be
dropped?
(2) What terms can be dropped?
4.2 The Boundary Layer Concept: Simplification of the Governing Equations
4.2.1 Qualitative Description
- Consider convection over a semi-
infinite plate (Fig. 4.1).
- Under certain conditions the effect of
viscosity is confined to a thin region
near the surface called the velocity or
viscous boundary layer, o .
- Under certain conditions the effect of thermal interaction is confined to a thin region
near the surface called the thermal boundary layer
t
o .
- Conditions for the formation of the two boundary layers:
- Velocity boundary layer conditions:
(1) Slender body
(2) High Reynolds number (Re > 100)
- Thermal boundary layer conditions:
(1) Slender body
(2) High product of Reynolds and Prandtl numbers (Re Pr > 100)
k
L V c
k
c
L V
RePr Pe
p p

= = = =

Number Peclet (4.1)

2
NOTE:
- Fluid velocity at the surface vanishes.
- Large changes in velocity across . o
- Large changes in temperature across .
t
o
- Viscosity plays no role outside . o
4.2.2 The Governing Equations
Assumptions: (1) Steady, (2) two-dimensional, (3) laminar, (4) uniform properties, (5) no
dissipation, and (6) no gravity.
Governing equations:
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
(2.3)
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
1
y
u
x
u
x
p
y
u
v
x
u
u

(2.10x)
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
1
y
v
x
v
y
p
y
v
v
x
v
u

(2.10y)
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
y
T
x
T
k
y
T
v
x
T
u c
p
(2.19)
4.2.3 Mathematical Simplification
- Simplify the above equations based on boundary layer approximations.
4.2.4 Simplification of the Momentum Equations
(i) Intuitive Argument
- Follow the intuitive argument leading to:
2
2
2
2
y
u
x
u
c
c
<<
c
c
(4.2)
and
0 ~
c
c
y
p
(4.3)
Therefore
p ~ p(x)
It follows that
dx
dp
dx
dp
x
p

~ ~
c
c
(4.4)
- (2.10x) simplifies to the following boundary layer x-momentum equation
3
2
2
1
y
u
x
dp
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
+
c
=
c
c
+
c
c

(4.5)
(ii) Scale Analysis
- We start by assuming that
1 <<
L
o
(4.6)
- Follow scale analysis leading to equations (4.2)-(4.4)
- Follow scale analysis leading to:
L
Re
L
1
~
o
(4.14b)
- (4.14b) shows that (4.6) is valid when . 1 >>
L
Re
- (4.14b) is generalized as
x
Re
x
1
~
o
(4.16)
4.2.5 Simplification of the Energy Equation
- The energy equation for two-dimensional constant properties flow is
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
P
2
2
2
2
y
T
x
T
k
y
T
v
x
T
u c (2.19)
- (2.19) is simplified for boundary layer flow using two arguments:
(i) Intuitive Argument
- Follow the intuitive argument leading to:
2
2
2
2
y
T
x
T
c
c
<<
c
c
(4.17)
- (2.19) simplifies to the following boundary layer energy
2
2
y
T
y
T
v
x
T
u
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
o (4.18)
(ii) Scale Analysis
- We start by assuming that
1 <<
L
t
o
(4.19)
- Follow scale analysis leading to equations (4.17) and (4.18)
- Follow scale analysis for the validity of (4.19). Two cases are considered:
4
Case (1): o o >
t
. Follow the argument leading to:
L
e PrR
L
t
1
~
o
(4.24)
Thus
1 <<
L
t
o
when 1 >>
L
e PrR (4.25)
- The criterion for o o >
t
: Taking the ratio of (4.24) to (4.14b) gives
Pr
t
1
~
o
o
(4.27)
Thus
o o >
t
when 1 << Pr (4.28)
Case (2): o o <
t
. Follow the argument leading to:
L
e R Pr
L
t
1/3
1
~
o
(4.31)
Thus
1 <<
L
t
o
when 1
1/3
>>
L
e R Pr (4.32)
- The criterion for o o <
t
: Taking the ratio of (4.31) to (4.14b)
1/3
1
Pr
t
~
o
o
(4.33)
Thus
o o <
t
when 1
1/3
>> Pr (4.34)
4.3 Summary of Boundary Layer Equations for Steady Laminar Flow
- Review all assumptions leading to the following boundary layer equations:
Continuity:
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
(2.3)
x-Momentum:
2
2
1
y
u
dx
dp
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
+ =
c
c
+
c
c

(4.13)
Energy:
2
2
y
T
y
T
v
x
T
u
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
o (4.18)
Note the following:
- The continuity is not simplified.
5
- Solution to inviscid flow outside the boundary layer gives pressure gradient needed
in (4.13).
- To include buoyancy effect, add [ ) (

T T g | ] to (4.13).
4.4 Solutions: External Flow
- For constant properties, velocity distribution is independent of temperature.
- First obtain the flow field solution and then use it to determine temperature
distribution.
4.4.1 Laminar Boundary Layer Flow over Semi-infinite Flat Plate: Uniform Surface
Temperature
The basic problem is shown in Fig. 4.5.
- The plate is at uniform temperature .
s
T
- Upstream temperature is .

T
- Apply all the assumptions summarized in
Section 4.3.
- Governing equations: (continuity, momentum, and energy) are given in (2.3), (4.13),
and (4.18).
(i) Velocity Distribution.
Determine:
- Velocity and pressure distribution.
- Boundary layer thickness ) (x o .
- Wall shear ). (x
o
t
(a) Governing equations and boundary conditions
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
y x
u v
(2.3)
2
2
1
y
u
dx
dp
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
+ =
c
c
+
c
c

(4.13)
The velocity boundary conditions are:
0 ) 0 , ( = x u (4.35a)
0 ) 0 , ( = x v (4.35b)

= V x u ) , ( (4.35c)

= V y u ) , 0 ( (4.35d)
(b) Scale analysis: boundary layer thickness, wall shear and friction coefficient.
We showed that
6
x
Re
x
1
~
o
(4.16)
Define Darcy friction coefficient
f
C
2
) 2 / 1 (

=
V
C
o
f

t
(4.37a)
Follow scale analysis leading to
x
Re
C
f
1
~ (4.37b)
(c) Blasius solution: similarity method
- Equations (2.3) and (4.13) are solved analytically by Blasius.
- For inviscid flow over flat plate
u = , v = 0, p = = constant (4.38)

p
Thus the pressure gradient is
0 =

dx
dp
(4.39)
(4.39) into (4.13)
2
2
y
u
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
(4.40)
- (2.3) and (4.40) are solved by the method of similarity transformation.
- The basic approach is combining the two independent variables x and y into a single
variable q(x, y) and postulate that u/V

depends on q only.
- For this problem the correct form of the transformation variable q is
x
V
y y x

= ) , ( q (4.41)
- Assume
q d
df
V
u
=

(4.42)
- Using (4.41) and (4.42), integration of the continuity gives
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

f
d
df
x V V
v
q
q

2
1
(4.43)
- Transform all derivatives in terms of f and q , substitute (4.42), (4.43)
0 ) ( 2
2
2
3
3
= +
q
q
q d
f d
f
d
f d
(4.44)
- Boundary conditions (4.35a-4.35d) transform to
7
0
) 0 (
=
q d
df
(4.45a)
0 ) 0 ( = f (4.45b)
1
) (
=

q d
df
(4.45c)
1
) (
=

q d
df
(4.45d)
NOTE:
- The momentum is transformed into
an ordinary differential equation.
Table 4.1
Blasius solution [1]
q
v
=

y
V
x
f

=
V
u
q d
df
2
2
q d
f d
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.33206
0.4 0.02656 0.13277 0.33147
0.8 0.10611 0.26471 0.32739
1.2 0.23795 0.39378 0.31659
1.6 0.42032 0.51676 0.29667
2.0 0.65003 0.62977 0.26675
- Boundary conditions (4.35c) and
(4.35d) coalesce into a single
condition.
- (4.44) is solved by power series.
The solution is presented in Table
4.1.
- From Table 4.1 we obtain
x
Re
x
2 . 5
=
o
2.4 0.92230 0.72899 0.22809
2.8 1.23099 0.81152 0.18401
3.2 1.56911 0.87609 0.13913
3.6 1.92954 0.92333 0.09809
(4.46)
Scaling gives
x
Re
x
1
~
o
4.0 2.30576 0.95552 0.06424
4.4 2.69238 0.97587 0.03897
4.8 3.08534 0.98779 0.02187
5.0 3.28329 0.99155 0.01591
5.2 3.48189 0.99425 0.01134
5.4 3.68094 0.99616 0.00793
(4.16)
- From Table 4.1 we obtain
x
f
Re
C
664 . 0
=
5.6 3.88031 0.99748 0.00543
6.0 4.27964 0.99898 0.00240
7.0 5.27926 0.99992 0.00022
8.0 6.27923 1.00000 0.00001
(4.48)
Scaling gives
x
Re
C
f
1
~ (4.37b)
(ii) Temperature Distribution.
Determine:
- Temperature distribution.
- Thermal boundary layer thickness
t
o .
- Heat transfer coefficient h(x).
- Nusselt number Nu(x).
(a) Governing equation and boundary conditions
8
2
2
y
T
y
T
v
x
T
u
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
o (4.18)
The boundary conditions are:
s
T x T = ) 0 , ( (4.49a)

= T x T ) , ( (4.49b)

= T y T ) , 0 ( (4.49c)
(b) Scale analysis: Thermal boundary layer thickness, heat transfer coefficient and
Nusselt number
- Return to the results of Section 4.2.5:
Case (1): o o >
t
(Pr <<1)
x
e PrR
x
t
1
~
o
(4.50)
Case (2): o o <
t
(Pr >>1)
x
e R Pr
x
t
1/3
1
~
o
(4.51)
- Scale analysis for h. Begin with

c
c
=
T T
y
x T
k h
s
) 0 , (
(1.10)
Using the scales, the above gives
t
k
h
o
~ (4.52)
Case (1): o o >
t
(Pr <<1). Substituting (4.50) into (4.52)
x
e PrR
x
k
h ~ , for Pr <<1 (4.53)
Defining the local Nusselt number as
x
Nu
k
hx
Nu
x
= (4.54)
Substituting (4.53) into (4.54)
x
e R Pr Nu
x
1/2
~ , for Pr <<1 (4.55)
Case (2): o o <<
t
(Pr >>1). Substituting (4.51) into (4.52)
x
e R Pr
x
k
h
1/3
~ , for Pr >>1 (4.56)
The corresponding Nusselt number is
9
x
e R Pr Nu
x
1/3
~ , for Pr >>1 (4.57)
(c) Pohlhausens solution: Temperature distribution, thermal boundary layer
thickness, heat transfer coefficient, and Nusselt number
- Equation (4.18) is solved analytically by Pohlhausen using similarity transformation.
Define
s
s
T T
T T

u (4.58)
(4.58) into (4.18)
2
2
y
y
v
x
u
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c u
o
u u
(4.59)
Boundary conditions (4.49) become
0 ) 0 , ( = x u (4.60a)
1 ) , ( = x u (4.60b)
1 ) , 0 ( = y u (4.60c)
Combine x and y into a single variable q(x, y) given by
x
V
y y x

= ) , ( q (4.41)
Assume
) ( ) , ( q u u = y x
Velocity components u and v in (4.59) are given by Blasius solution
q d
df
V
u
=

(4.42)
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

f
d
df
x V V
v
q
q

2
1
(4.43)
(4.41)-(4.43) into (4.59)
0 ) (
2
2
2
= +
q
u
q
q
u
d
d
f
Pr
d
d
(4.61)
Using (4.41), the three boundary conditions (4.60a-4.60c) transform to
0 ) 0 ( = u (4.62a)
1 ) ( = u (4.62b)
1 ) ( = u (4.62c)
Integration details of (4.61) are found in Appendix B. The temperature solution is
10
)
)

=
0
2
2
2
2
)
1 ) (
q
q
q
q
q u
q
d
d
f d
d
d
f d
Pr
Pr
(4.63)
- Surface temperature gradient is
| |
)

=
q
q
q
q
u
d
d
f d
d
d
Pr
Pr
2
2
332 . 0 ) 0 (
t
(4.64)
- The integrals in (4.63) and (4.64)
are evaluated numerically.
- Boundary layer thickness o is
determined from Fig. 4.6. The
edge of the thermal layer is
defined as the distance y where
. This corresponds to

~ T T
0 . 1
6 . 0
4 . 0
2 . 0
2 4 6 8 12 14 10
01 . 0 = Pr
1 . 0
) ( 7 . 0 air 1 10
100
0
8 . 0
x V y v q

=
s
s
T T
T T

ature for temper solution s ' Pohlhausen 4.6 Fig.

a over flow laminar for on distributi
plate flat isothermal infinte - semi
1 ~

=
s
s
T T
T T
u , at
t
y o = (4.65)
The heat transfer coefficient h is determined using equation (1.10)

c
c
=
T T
y
x T
k h
s
) 0 , (
(1.10)
Using (4.41) and (4.58) into the above
q
u
d
d
x
V
k x h
) 0 (
) (

= (4.66)
Average heat transfer coefficient
)
=
L
dx x h h
L
0
) (
1
(2.50)
Substituting (4.66) into (2.50) and integrating
q
u
d
d
Re
L
k
h
L
) 0 (
2 = (4.67)
The local Nusselt number is obtained by substituting (4.66) into (4.54)
11
x x
Re
d
d
Nu
q
u ) 0 (
= (4.68)
The corresponding average Nusselt number is
L L
Re
d
d
Nu
q
u ) 0 (
2 = (4.69)
Table 4.2 gives q u d d / ) 0 ( for various values of Pr.
2 / 1
564 . 0
) 0 (
Pr
d
d
=
q
u
, Pr < 0.05 (4.71a)
3 / 1
332 . 0
) 0 (
Pr
d
d
=
q
u
, 0.6 < Pr < 10 (4.71b)
3 / 1
339 . 0
) 0 (
Pr
d
d
=
q
u
, Pr >10 (4.71c)
4.4.2 Applications: Blasius Solution, Pohlhausens Solution, and Scaling
- Review Examples 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3. They illustrate the application of Blasius
solution, Pohlhausens solution, and scaling to the solution of convection problems.
4.4.3 Laminar Boundary Layer Flow over Semi-infinite Flat Plate: Variable Surface
Temperature
Table 4.2
Pr
q
u
d
d ) 0 (
0.001 0.0173
0.01 0.0516
0.1 0.140
0.5 0.259
0.7 0.292
1.0 0.332
7.0 0.645
10.0 0.730
15.0 0.835
50 1.247
100 1.572
1000 3.387
- Surface temperature varies with axial
distance x according to
n
Cx T x T
s
=

) ( (4.74)
- Assumptions: see Section 4.3.
(i) Velocity Distribution. Blasius flow field solution is applicable to this case:
q d
df
V
u
=

(4.42)
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

f
d
df
x V V
v
q
q

2
1
(4.43)
where the similarity variableq is defined as
12
x
V
y y x

= ) , ( q (4.41)
(ii) Governing Equations for Temperature Distribution. Based on the assumptions
listed in Section 4.3, temperature is governed by energy equation (4.18)
2
2
y
T
y
T
v
x
T
u
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
o (4.18)
The boundary conditions for this problem are:
n
Cx T T x T
s
+ = =

) 0 , ( (a)

= T x T ) , ( (b)

= T y T ) , 0 ( (c)
(iii) Solution. Define u as
s
s
T T
T T

u (4.58)
Assume
) ( ) , ( q u u = y x (4.75)
Using (4.41)-(4.43), (4.58), (4.74) and (4.75), energy equation (4.18) transforms to (see
Appendix C for details)
0 ) (
2
) 1 (
2
2
= + +
q
u
q u
q
q
u
d
d
f
Pr
d
df
Pr n
d
d
(4.76)
Boundary conditions (a)-(c) become
0 ) 0 ( = u (4.77a)
1 ) ( = u (4.77b)
1 ) ( = u (4.77c)
Local heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number are determined using (1.10)

c
c
=
T T
y
x T
k h
s
) 0 , (
(1.10)
Using (4.41), (4.58) and (4.72) into the above
q
u
d
d
x
V
Cx
y
x T
n
) 0 ( ) 0 , (

=
c
c
Substituting into (1.10)
q
u
d
d
x
V
k x h
) 0 (
) (

= (4.78)
The average heat transfer coefficient for a plate of length L is defined in equation (2.50)
13
)
=
L
dx x h h
L
0
) (
1
(2.50)
(4.78) into (2.50)
q
u
d
d
Re
L
k
h
L
) 0 (
2 = (4.79)
(4.78) into (4.54) gives the local Nusselt number
x x
Re
d
d
Nu
q
u ) 0 (
= (4.80)
The corresponding average Nusselt number is
L L
Re
d
d
Nu
q
u ) 0 (
2 = (4. 81)
- Key factor: surface temperature gradient . / ) 0 ( q u d d
(iv) Results. (4.76) is solved
numerically subject to boundary
conditions (4.77). Fig. 4.8 gives
q u d d / ) 0 ( for three Prandtl numbers.
0 1.0 0.5 1.5
1.0
q
u
d
d ) 0 (
0.7 = Pr
n
10
30
2.0
] 4 [
n
s
Cx T T =

re, temperatu surface ing with vary plate for

(0)
q
u
d
d
Fig.4.8
4.4.4 Laminar Boundary Layer Flow over a Wedge: Uniform Surface Temperature
- Assumptions: listed in Section 4.3.
- x-momentum equation:
2
2
1
y
u
dx
dp
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
+ =
c
c
+
c
c

m
Cx x V =

) (
(4.13)
- Inviscid flow solution for V is ) (x
(4.82)
C is a constant and is defined as m
14
|
|

=
2
m (4.83)
Application of (4.13) to the inviscid flow outside the viscous boundary layer, gives
x
V
V
dx
dp
c
c
=

1
Substituting into (4.13)
2
2
y
u
x
V
V
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c

(4.84)
The boundary conditions are
0 ) 0 , ( = x u (4.85a)
0 ) 0 , ( = x v (4.85b)
m
Cx x V x u = =

) ( ) , ( (4.85c)
Solution to the velocity distribution is obtained by the method of similarity. Define q as
2 / ) 1 (
) (
) , (

= =
m
x
C
y
x
x V
y y x

q (4.86)
Assume
q d
dF
x V
u
=

) (
(4.87)
Continuity equation (2.3), (4.86), and (4.87) give the vertical velocity component v
(

+
=

q
q
d
dF
m
m
F
m
x xV
x V v
1
1
2
1
) (
) (

(4.88)
(4.82) and (4.86)-(4.88) into (4.84)
0
2
1
2
2
2
3
3
= +
(

+
+ m
d
dF
m
d
F d
F
m
d
F d
q
q q
(4.89)
This is the transformed momentum equation. Boundary conditions (4.85) transform to
0
) 0 (
=
q d
dF
(4.90a)
0 ) 0 ( = F (4.90b)
1
) (
=

q d
dF
(4.90c)
- Solution. (4.89) is integrated numerically. The solution gives ) (q F and . / q d dF
These in turn give the velocity components u and v.
- Temperature distribution. Start with the energy
15
2
2
y
y
v
x
u
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c u
o
u u
(4.59)
Boundary conditions
0 ) 0 , ( = x u (4.60a)
1 ) , ( = x u (4.60b)
1 ) , 0 ( = y u (4.60c)
Where u is defined as
s
s
T T
T T

u (4.58)
Assume
) (q u u = (4.75)
q is defined in (4.86). (4.86)-(4.88) and (4.75) into (4.59) and (4.60)
0 ) ( ) 1 (
2
2
2
= + +
q
u
q
q
u
d
d
F m
Pr
d
d
(4.91)
0 ) 0 ( = u (4.92a)
1 ) ( = u (4.92b)
1 ) ( = u (4.92c)
- Solution. Separating variables in (4.91), integrating twice and applying boundary
conditions (4.92), gives the temperature solution as
q q q
q q q
q u
q
q
q
d d F
Pr
d d F
Pr
) )
) )

=
0
0
0
) (
2
1) (m
exp
) (
2
1) (m
exp
1 ) (
(4.93)
(4.93) gives the temperature gradient at the surface
1
0
0
) (
2
1) (m
exp
) 0 (

+
=
) )
q q q
q
u
q
d d F
Pr
d
d
(4.94)
- The integrals in (4.93) and (4.94) are evaluated numerically.
- Results for q u d d / ) 0 ( are given in Table 4.3
16
Table 4.3 Surface temperature gradient
q
u
d
d ) 0 (
and surface velocity
gradient ) 0 ( F ' ' for flow over an isothermal wedge
q u d d / ) 0 ( at five values of Pr
m wedge angle t|
(0) F ' '
0.7 0.8 1.0 5.0 10.0
0 0 0.3206 0.292 0.307 0.332 0.585 0.730
0.111 5 / t (36
o
)
0.5120 0.331 0.348 0.378 0.669 0.851
0.333 2 / t (90
o
)
0.7575 0.384 0.403 0.440 0.792 1.013
1.0 t (180
o
)
1.2326 0.496 0.523 0.570 1.043 1.344
- Heat transfer coefficient h and Nusselt number Equation (1.10) gives h . Nu

c
c
=
T T
y
x T
k h
s
) 0 , (
(1.10)
Using (4.58), (4.75) and (4.86) into (1.10) gives
q
u
d
d
x
x V
k x h
) 0 ( ) (
) (

= (4.95)
(4.95) into (4.54) gives the Nusselt number
x x
Re
d
d
Nu
q
u ) 0 (
= (4.96)
where is the local Reynolds number defined as
x
Re

) (x xV
Re
x

= (4.97)