Many materials are subjected to forces or loads while in use or in service.

It is therefore necessary to know and understand the characteristics of the material and to design the member from which it is made such that any resulting deformation will not be excessive and fracture will not occur.

 The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the relationship between its response or deformation to an applied load or force. The mechanical properties are determined by performing laboratory experiments that replicate as nearly as possible the service conditions.

 Mechanical testing and the interpretation of results are usually standardized by professional societies

One of the most active organization in the US is the ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials).

 Mechanical properties are of concern to producers and consumers, research organizations, government agencies, engineers) Structural engineers are concerned with stresses and distribution of stresses while the materials and metallurgical engineers are concerned with producing and fabricating

 materials that meet service requirements based from the stress analyses. A material is selected by matching its properties to the service conditions required of the component. The selection process requires the analysis of the application to determine the most important characteristics that the material must possess.

 Should it be strong, or stiff, or ductile? Will it be subjected to repeated application of a high force, sudden intense force, high stress at elevated temperature, or abrasive conditions? Once properties are known, the appropriate material is selected based from data available in handbooks.

 These data however were obtained from idealized tests w/c may not exactly apply to real-life engineering applications. So, the method in obtaining the values listed and their applications must be understood.

 The common tests performed on materials to measure how a material withstand applied force are then presented

and the properties obtained are called the mechanical properties of the material.

Tensile Test: Use of the Stress-Strain Diagram

The tensile test measures the resistance of a material to a static or slowly applied force.
The specimen is placed in the testing machine and a force F, called the load, is applied.

 A Strain gage or extensometer is used to measure the amount that the specimen stretches between the gage marks when the force is applied. The effect of the load is recorded, can be plotted (stress-strain curve)

Engineering Stress and Engineering strain Engineering stress, = F . Ao Engineering strain, = li lo = l

where: Ao = the original cross- sectional area before test lo, li = length before & after test F = applied force

lo

lo

 The common units for stress: lbf/in2 or psi & MPa Units for strain: inch/inch , cm/cm, m/m or unitless Common conversion factors: 1 lbf = 4.448 N 1 ksi = 1000 psi 1 MPa = 145 psi 1000 psi = 6.895 MPa

Ways in w/c load may be applied tension, compression, shear

A. Tension Tests: The specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a gradually increasing tensile load applied uniaxially along its long axis.

 The specimen is mounted by its end into the holding grips of the testing apparatus.
The testing machine elongates the specimen at a constant rate and simultaneously measures the instantaneous applied load and the resulting elongations (with extensometer).

 The result of the tensile test is recorded on a strip chart or in computers

Tension

Compression

B. Compression Tests: The force applied is compressive and the specimen contracts along the direction of the stress. The same equations apply for compression as for tension but the signs are opposite.

 Compressive tests are used when a materials behavior under large and permanent strains (i.e. plastic) is desired or when the material is brittle in tension.

C. Shear and Torsional Tests: Shear stress, = F/Ao where F is the load imposed parallel to the upper and lower faces, each of which has an area of Ao. Shear strain, = tan where is the strain angle Torsion is a variation of pure shear. The structural member is twisted.

 The torsional forces produce a rotational motion about the longitudinal axis of one end of the member relative to the other end. Shear stress, is a function of the applied torque, T whereas shear strain, is related to the twist angle, . Torsion are found in machine axles and drive shafts, twist drill

Shear Strain

Torsion

 Consider subjecting the cylindrical specimen to a tensile stress applied parallel to its axis. Consider also the plane p-p oriented at some arbitrary angle relative to the plane of the specimen end-face. The applied stress on this plane p-p is no longer a pure tensile one.

 Rather a more complex stress state is present that consists of: a tensile (or normal) stress that acts normal to the p-p plane a shear stress that acts parallel to this plane The relationships of these stresses are given by: = cos2 = [(1 + cos2)/2] = sin cos = [(sin2)/2]

Typical Engg - behavior to fracture, point F.

ELASTIC DEFORMATION Stress()-Strain() Behavior The degree to which structure deforms or strains, depends on the magnitude of the imposed stress. For most metals, stress and strain are related by the Hookes Law. E = / where E is the modulus of elasticity or Youngs modulus

 units: GPa or psi Elastic deformation is deformation in which stress and strain are proportional. A plot of stress vs strain results in a linear relationship. The modulus of elasticity is thought of as: Stiffness or the materials resistance to elastic deformation

 The greater the modulus, the stiffer the material or the smaller the elastic strain that results from the application of a given stress. The modulus values of metals, ceramics and polymers differ because of the different types of atomic bonding that exist for these materials.

 The modulus is closely related to the binding energies. Steep slope indicates that high forces are required to separate the atoms and cause the material to stretch elastically. the material has a high E

 The magnitude of modulus elasticity is a measure of the resistance to separation of adjacent atoms/ions/molecules (interatomic bonding forces) The modulus is proportional to the slope of the interatomic forceseparation curve at equilibrium spacing: E (dF/dr)ro

 Thus, binding forces and modulus of elasticity are high for high melting point materials. The modulus is a measure of the stiffness of the material. A stiff material with a high modulus of elasticity maintains its size and shape even under an elastic load. The modulus of elasticity decreases with increasing temperature (with some rubber materials exempted)

 Elastic deformation is not permanent. That is, when the applied load is released, the material returns to its original shape. For non-linear stress-strain curve (as for gray cast iron, concrete, and many polymers), either tangent or secant modulus is used.

Non-linear Stress-Strain Curve

 The tangent modulus is taken as the slope of the stress-strain curve at some specified level of stress.
The secant modulus represents the slope of a secant drawn from the origin to some given point of the curve.

Elastic Properties of Materials: When a tensile stress is imposed on materials, an elastic elongation and accompanying strain z result in the direction of the applied stress (z direction). As a result of the elongation, there will be constrictions in the lateral (x & y) directions perpendicular to the applied stress.

 From these contractions, the compressive strain x & y are determined.

Poissons ratio, v, is the ratio of lateral and axial strains as follows: v = - x = - y z z

 where the (-) sign is included so

that v is always (+) since x & z are always opposite in sign

If the applied stress is uni-axial (z

direction only) and for isotropic materials, x = y.

 Shear Stress () and Strain () are related by the expression: = G where G is the shear modulus, slope of the linear elastic region of the shear stressstrain curve. Anelasticity: A time-dependent elastic behavior in which elastic deformation will continue after

 the stress application and upon release of the load, some finite time is required for complete recovery. The anelastic component for metals is normally small and is often neglected. It is significant for most polymers and is termed viscoelastic behavior.

 For isotropic materials, shear and elastic moduli are related to each other and Poissons ratio according to: E = 2G(1+v) For most metals, G = 0.4E. Many materials are elastically anisotropic (the elastic behavior, magnitude of E, varies w/ crystallographic direction).

Elastic & Plastic Deformation

 For most metallic materials, elastic deformation persists only to strains of 0.005 and as the material is deformed beyond this point, stress is no longer proportional to strain (Hookes law no longer apply). Plastic deformation is the condition in w/c deformation is permanent and non-recoverable.

 The transition from elastic to plastic is gradual for most metals, some curvature results at the onset of plastic deformation w/c increases more rapidly w/ rising stress. In the atomic perspective, plastic deformation corresponds to the breaking of bonds w/ original atom neighbors & then reforming bonds w/ new neighbors as large

 numbers of atoms or molecules move relative to one another. They do not however return to their original position upon removal of the stress. The permanent deformation of metals is accomplished by means of the slip process which also involve motion of dislocations.

Tensile Properties Yielding and Yield Strength: Proportional limit is the point in which departure from linearity of the stress-strain curve is first seen. Yield strength (y) is the stress at which plastic deformation becomes noticeable. In metals, this is usually the stress required for dislocations to slip.

 Sometimes it is difficult to determine the yield strength and so the ff convention has been established A straight line is drawn parallel to the elastic portion of the - curve usually by a 0.2% offset or 0.002 in/in. The point of intersection with the curve is the yield strength, y or offset yield strength.

Offset Yield Strength

 For materials having a non-linear elastic region, the usual practice is to define the yield strength as the stress required to produce some amount of strain (say, 0.5%) Certain low-carbon steels exhibit a behavior such as the one shown in the following figure.

Upper and Lower Yield Point Behavior in Low CS

 The material is expected to plastically deform at stress 1. However, small interstitial atoms clustered around the dislocations interfere with slip and raise the yield point to 2. Only when higher stress 2 is applied do the dislocation slip.

 The dislocations move away from the clusters of small atoms & continue to move very rapidly at the lower stress 1. For metals that display this effect, the yield strength is taken as the average stress that is associated with the lower yield point.

 Tensile Strength (TS) is the stress obtained at the highest applied force. It is the maximum stress on the engineering stress-strain curve. It corresponds to the maximum stress that can be sustained by a structure in tension, if the stress is applied and maintained, fracture will result.

 In many ductile materials, deformation does not remain uniform. At some point, one region deforms more than others and large local decrease in the cross-sectional area occurs. This locally deformed region is called the neck.

 The cross-sectional area becomes smaller at this point and a lower force is required to continue its deformation. As a result, the engineering stress calculated from the original area, Ao, decreases.

 The tensile strength is the stress at which necking begins in ductile materials.

Modulus of Resilience (ER or UR) the area contained under the elastic portion of a stress-strain curve. It is the elastic energy that a material absorbs during loading and subsequently releases when the load is removed. For linear elastic behavior: ER = yield strength . 2(strain at yielding)

 The ability of a spring or a gold ball to perform satisfactorily depends on a high modulus of resilience. Ductility: is the measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture it measures the amount of deformation that a material can withstand without breaking.

 It is expressed quantitatively as either % elongation or % reduction in area.

% elongation, %EL = lf lo x 100 lo where lf = distance between gage marks after fracture

Or: % reduction in area: %RA = Ao Af x 100 Ao

Significance of ductility: It indicates the degree at which a structure will deform plastically before fracture (designers concern)

 It specifies the degree of allowable deformation during fabrication operations Brittle materials are those that have fracture strain less than about 5%. For brittle materials, modulus of elasticity, yield strength and tensile strength decrease with increasing temperature.

 Yield strength, tensile strength,

and modulus of elasticity decrease at higher temperatures whereas ductility commonly increases.
A material fabricator may wish to deform a material at a high temperature (hot working) to take advantage of the higher ductility and lower required stress.

Toughness It is a measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up to fracture. Notch toughness assessed by using an impact test Fracture toughness indicates the materials resistance to fracture

True Stress and Strain In the calculation of engineering stress, the original area Ao was used. But this is not precise since the area continually changes. This is the reason why true stress and strain should be defined. True stress is given by: T = F/Ai where Ai is the actual area

True strain is given by: T = ln (li/lo) = ln (Ai/Ao) used after necking begins True stress continues to increase after necking; although the load decreases, the area decreases even more. The true stress-strain curve lies above the engineering stressstrain curve.

True and Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

 True and engineering stress-strain are related by the ff equations: T = (1+) & T = ln(1+) For some metal alloys the region of the true stress-strain curve from the onset of plastic deformation to the point at which necking begins is approximated by: T = K nT

 where: K & n are constants varying from alloy to alloy n is also termed the strainhardening exponent, value is less than unity

Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation Elastic strain recovery: The elastic strain can be recovered or regained during the unloading process. When the load is reapplied, the curve traverse the same linear portion but in the opposite direction.

Compressive, Shear & Torsional Deformation Metals experience plastic deformation under the influence of applied compressive, shear and torsional loads. The curve will also reach the yield point but for compression, necking does not occur so there will be no maximum.

Problem 1: Ductility A piece of copper originally 305 mm long is pulled in tension w/ a stress of 276 MPa. If the deformation is entirely elastic, what will be the resultant elongation? ECu = 110 GPa Given: lo = 305 mm, = 276 MPa Reqd: l Soln: = E = l x E; l = lo lo E

Soln:

= E = l x E; l = lo lo E

l = 276 MPa x 305 mm 110,000 MPa = 0.765 mm

Problem 2: A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical brass rod that has a diameter of 10 mm. Determine the magnitude of the load required to produce a 2.5x10-3 mm change in diameter if the deformation is entirely elastic. vbrass = 0.34 and Ebrass = 97 GPa

Given: do = 10 mm, d = 2.5x10-3 mm in the x-direction Reqd: magnitude of the load, F. Soln: the strain in the x-direction is: x = d = -2.5x10-3 do 10 x = - 2.5x10-4 diameter is reduced

calc strain in z using Poissons ratio: z = -x = -(-2.5x10-4) v 0.34 z = 7.35x10-4

from the stress-strain eqn. = zE = (7.35x10-4)(97x103 MPa) = 71.3 MPa

The applied force is calculated from: F = Ao = (do/2)2 = (71.3x106 N/m2)(10x10-3 m/2)2 F = 5600 N