Semester Project: Dark Matter

When a figure skater enters a spin they maintain a certain angular momentum (L=r x mv). As they extend their arms and legs outward their rotational speed decreases. The inverse is also true, when they bring their arms closer their rotational speed increases, all the while the angular momentum remains constant. The concept of angular momentum is a physical law that should be followed on every scale. Observers noticed that galaxies dont follow the presumed relative speed assumed by the angular momentum model. This discretion has lead scientists like Fritz Zwicky to question weather the mass we have detected, in the emitted or scattered electromagnetic spectrum's, is all that exists. Theories behind the discrepancy described above have been around for many years. Many believed the missing mass could be explained by neutron stars and black holes, which we obviously cannot see . In 1933 a Swiss astrophysicist Fritz Zwicky proposed the existence of dark matter. He estimated the galaxys total mass based on the speeds of stars orbiting in them. He found that there was not nearly enough visible mass in the galaxy in order to account for the motions of the outer orbits. He calculated that there should be more than 400 times as much mass as was currently visible. This was called the missing math problem. (Zwicky) Zwickys findings were accepted as true but not much work was done to further investigate this mysterious missing mass. Fourty years later Vera Rubin, based on new more accurate spectrograph data announced at the American Astronomical Society that instead of slowing down as radii increased, speed of stars in fact remained constant throughout galaxies. Rubin related the motion of stars to that of cars in a city. Despite location and density of traffic each car moved around the city center at the same

speed. In the 1980s Rubin worked with astronomers to dispel widespread skepticism; with ever increasing data corroborating Rubins findings regarding galaxies revolving speeds, dark matter was finally accepted to dominate most galaxies. Without dark matter galaxies would disperse due to the fact that the stars are moving at or faster than the escape velocity required to escape the gravitational pull of the galactic center; that is, if we negate the extra mass of dark matter (Rubin). Still the question remains, how can we know something exists that we cant possibly see? As in other realms of physics, we apply what we know to the unknown. Each star emits light in the form of a ray. A ray is a line that has a specific start point that extends infinitely in a single direction. This is true when light is considered as only a wave, but light can also be considered a particle. When light is viewed as a particle it is affected by gravity, including the gravity associated with dark matter. Gravitational lensing is a method by which one can estimate the gravitational mass dark matter by looking at its effect on the light coming from background galaxies. A key element in the dark matter theory is this distortion of light. Through observation scientists have been able to plot the size and distribution on dark matter. When observing the gravitational lensing of galaxy clusters it has been found that a majority of the gravitational mass was coming from something that is not visible.

Although dark matter is not visible scientists are still trying to find way to prove its existence. There are a number of experiments going on currently that are aimed at detecting dark matter. Scientists believe that dark matter is made up of Weakly Interactive Massive Particles, or WIMPs. If the dark matter in our galaxy is made up of WIMPs, then there must be WIMPs passing through the Earth constantly, and this is what some of the experiments are aiming to detect. One type of experiment is the direct detection method. These are set up in laboratories deep underground in order to reduce background cosmic radiation. There are two types of detector technologies: cryogenic detectors and noble liquid detectors. Cryogenic detectors operate at temperatures very near absolute zero. They are made to detect the heat produced when a particle smashes into an atom in the crystal absorber. Noble liquid detectors, however, detect the flash of light produced when theres a particle collision in a liquid noble gas, such as Argon or Xenon. In December 2009 researchers of CDMS reported two possible WIMP events. They calculated that the chance of this just being background radiation to be 23%. They came to conclude that "this analysis cannot be interpreted as significant evidence
for WIMP interactions, but we cannot reject either event as signal" (Ahmed). If these were

shown to conclusively be WIMPs, then that would be a large step forward toward actually discovering dark matter. Due to the fact that we cannot in fact see dark matter some skepticism still exists. Alternative theories that explain the gravitational effects typically associated with dark matter, without the massive amounts of unaccounted mass, can be explained through quantum gravity and modified gravity laws. Quantum gravity is a set of theories that attempt to link quantum mechanics with the gravitational laws of physics. Quantum gravity theories, more specifically super-string theories allow for more than just the x,y,z dimensions as well as a time dimension, quantum gravity provides for as many as 11 dimensions. These extra dimensions are hidden and are only detectable on the

quantum level. Even so, the energy and particles that only exists in these hidden dimensions interact with particles in our dimension. The missing mass[s] gravity is associated with these hidden particles. Many dismiss dark matter simply by stating that we do not fully understand gravity. The first of many modified gravitation theories is the Modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND). MOND proposed acceleration is not linearly proportional to force at low values thus predicting the rotational curves of elliptical galaxies. Unfortunately MOND is based on old Newtonian physics laws and not Einstein's modern relative laws. There are several modified versions of MOND that take into account for relativity. MOND dose not provide for widely observed gravitational lensing, leaving doubt of validity in many minds. (Anastopoulos) Another theory is that of something called Dark Energy. This differs from dark matter through the way it exists in space. Dark matter is theorized to be in strads on the outside of galaxies. Dark energy, on the other hand, is supposed evenly distributed throughout all of outer space. These particles can pass through normal, or baryonic, matter. The only way these particles interact with normal matter is through the force of gravity. Dark energy is required to have strong negative pressure, because that is the only way it could explain the acceleration observed in the expansion rate for the universe. Dark energy is supposedly dispersed evenly across all of space, and the amount of energy in a certain space is related to cosmological constant. This is essentially the cost of having space, which is that any volume of space has some intrinsic energy, even if there is no baryonic matter present there. Once dark energy was theorized to exist, it was found that if it existed, it would compose 74% of all mater in the universe, with dark matter composing only 22%, and then the remaining 4% delegated to baryonic matter. (Hinshaw) Both dark matter and dark energy arose from mysterious missing mass. The investigation into this unknown, unseen mass has driven advances in theoretical physic,

quantum physics and has led to the development or numerous research facilities, all in order to see the invisible. Astronomers and Physicists alike are attempting to solve this missing mass problem, and the dark matter / dark energy combination is currently the most accepted theory for a solution to the problem.

Sources

1) Ahmed, Z., et al (2009).Results from the Final Exposure of the CDMS II Experiment.

2) Anastopoulos, C. (2009). "Gravitational backreaction in cosmological spacetimes". Physical Review D 79: 084029 3) Hooper, Dan. DARK MATER. New Scientist 209.2798 (2011): i-viii. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 21 April 2011. 4) V. Rubin, W. K. Ford, Jr (1970). "Rotation of the Andromeda Nebula from a Spectroscopic Survey of Emission Regions". Astrophysical Journal 159: 379. 5) Zwicky, F. (1937). "On the Masses of Nebulae and of Clusters of Nebulae". Astrophysical Journal 86: 217. 6) Hinshaw, Gary F. (April 30, 2008). "WMAP Cosmological Parameters Model: lcdm+sz+lens Data: wmap5". NASA. Retrieved 2011-04-20.