CH 22 Sec 2 - The Enlightenment in Europe
CH 22 Sec 2 - The Enlightenment in Europe
SETTING THE STAGE In the wake of the Scientific Revolution, and the new
ways of thinking it prompted, scholars and philosophers began to reevaluate old notions about other aspects of society. They sought new insight into the underlying beliefs regarding government, religion, economics, and education. Their efforts spurred the Enlightenment, a new intellectual movement that stressed reason and thought and the power of individuals to solve problems. Known also as the Age of Reason, the movement reached its height in the mid-1700s and brought great change to many aspects of Western civilization.
TAKING NOTES
Outlining Use an outline to organize main ideas and details.
Enlightenment in Europe
called Leviathan (1651). The horrors of the English Civil War convinced him that all humans were naturally selfish and wicked. Without governments to keep order, Hobbes said, there would be war . . . of every man against every man, and life would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short. Hobbes argued that to escape such a bleak life, people had to hand over their rights to a strong ruler. In exchange, they gained law and order. Hobbes called this agreement by which people created a government the social contract. Because people acted in their own self-interest, Hobbes said, the ruler needed total power to keep citizens under control. The best government was one that had the awesome power of a leviathan (sea monster). In Hobbess view, such a government was an absolute monarchy, which could impose order and demand obedience.
New Idea
A governments power comes from the consent of the governed.
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Lockes Natural Rights The philosopher John Locke held a different, more
positive, view of human nature. He believed that people could learn from experience and improve themselves. As reasonable beings, they had the natural ability to govern their own affairs and to look after the welfare of society. Locke criticized absolute monarchy and favored the idea of self-government. According to Locke, all people are born free and equal, with three natural rights life, liberty, and property. The purpose of government, said Locke, is to protect these rights. If a government fails to do so, citizens have a right to overthrow it. Lockes theory had a deep influence on modern political thinking. His belief that a governments power comes from the consent of the people is the foundation of modern democracy. The ideas of government by popular consent and the right to rebel against unjust rulers helped inspire struggles for liberty in Europe and the Americas.
Contrasting How does Lockes view of human nature differ from that of Hobbes?
Voltaire 16941778
Voltaire befriended several European monarchs and nobles. Among them was the Prussian king Frederick II. The two men seemed like ideal companions. Both were witty and preferred to dress in shabby, rumpled clothes. Their relationship eventually soured, however. Voltaire disliked editing Fredericks mediocre poetry, while Frederick suspected Voltaire of shady business dealings. Voltaire eventually described the Prussian king as a nasty monkey, perfidious friend, [and] wretched poet. Frederick in turn called Voltaire a miser, dirty rogue, [and] coward.
Vocabulary
Satire is the use of irony, sarcasm, or wit to attack folly, vice, or stupidity.
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Montesquieu and the Separation of Powers Another influential French writer, the Baron de Montesquieu (MAHNtuhSKYOO), devoted himself to the study of
Analyzing Issues What advantages did Montesquieu see in the separation of powers?
political liberty. Montesquieu believed that Britain was the best-governed and most politically balanced country of his own day. The British king and his ministers held executive power. They carried out the laws of the state. The members of Parliament held legislative power. They made the laws. The judges of the English courts held judicial power. They interpreted the laws to see how each applied to a specific case. Montesquieu called this division of power among different branches separation of powers. Montesquieu oversimplified the British system. It did not actually separate powers this way. His idea, however, became a part of his most famous book, On the Spirit of Laws (1748). In his book, Montesquieu proposed that separation of powers would keep any individual or group from gaining total control of the government. Power, he wrote, should be a check to power. This idea later would be called checks and balances. Montesquieus book was admired by political leaders in the British colonies of North America. His ideas about separation of powers and checks and balances became the basis for the United States Constitution.
Rousseau: Champion of Freedom A third great philosophe, Jean Jacques Rousseau (rooSOH), was passionately committed to individual freedom. The son
of a poor Swiss watchmaker, Rousseau won recognition as a writer of essays. A strange, brilliant, and controversial figure, Rousseau strongly disagreed with other
PRIMARY SOURCE
I . . . therefore give the name Republic to every state that is governed by laws, no matter what the form of its administration may be: for only in such a case does the public interest govern, and the res republica rank as a reality. . . . Laws are, properly speaking, only the conditions of civil association. The people, being subject to the laws, ought to be their author: the conditions of the society ought to be regulated . . . by those who come together to form it.
JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU, The Social Contract
It is true that in democracies the people seem to act as they please; but political liberty does not consist in an unlimited freedom. . . . We must have continually present to our minds the difference between independence and liberty. Liberty is a right of doing whatever the laws permit, and if a citizen could do what they [the laws] forbid he would be no longer possessed of liberty, because all his fellowcitizens would have the same power.
BARON DE MONTESQUIEU, The Spirit of Laws
DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS
1. Analyzing Issues Why should citizens be the authors of societys laws, according to Rousseau? 2. Making Inferences Why does Montesquieu believe that disobeying laws leads to a loss of liberty?
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Enlightenment thinkers on many matters. Most philosophes believed that reason, science, and art would improve life for all people. Rousseau, however, argued that civilization corrupted peoples natural goodness. Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains, he wrote. Rousseau believed that the only good government was one that was freely formed by the people and guided by the general will of societya direct democracy. Under such a government, people agree to give up some of their freedom in favor of the common good. In 1762, he explained his political philosophy in a book called The Social Contract. Rousseaus view of the social contract differed greatly from that of Hobbes. For Hobbes, the social contract was an agreement between a society and its government. For Rousseau, it was an agreement among free individuals to create a society and a government. Like Locke, Rousseau argued that legitimate government came from the consent of the governed. However, Rousseau believed in a much broader democracy than Locke had promoted. He argued that all people were equal and that titles of nobility should be abolished. Rousseaus ideas inspired many of the leaders of the French Revolution who overthrew the monarchy in 1789.
Beccaria Promotes Criminal Justice An Italian philosophe named Cesare
Bonesana Beccaria (BAYKuhREEah) turned his thoughts to the justice system. He believed that laws existed to preserve social order, not to avenge crimes. Beccaria regularly criticized common abuses of justice. They included torturing of witnesses and suspects, irregular proceedings in trials, and punishments that were arbitrary or cruel. He argued that a person accused of a crime should receive a speedy trial, and that torture should never be used. Moreover, he said, the degree of punishment should be based on the seriousness of the crime. He also believed that capital punishment should be abolished. Beccaria based his ideas about justice on the principle that governments should seek the greatest good for the greatest number of people. His ideas influenced criminal law reformers in Europe and North America.
Thinker
Locke Montesquieu Voltaire
Impact
Fundamental to U.S. Declaration of Independence France, United States, and Latin American nations use separation of powers in new constitutions Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduce or eliminate censorship Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights; torture outlawed or reduced in nations of Europe and the Americas Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduce persecution Womens rights groups form in Europe and North America
Beccaria Voltaire
Womens equality
Wollstonecraft
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Drawing Conclusions Why do you think the issue of education was important to both Astell and Wollstonecraft? .
Galileo and Newton had discovered the key for unlocking the mysteries of nature in the 1500s and 1600s. With the door thus opened, the growth of scientific knowledge
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seemed to quicken in the 1700s. Scientists made key new discoveries in chemistry, physics, biology, and mechanics. The successes of the Scientific Revolution gave people the confidence that human reason could solve social problems. Philosophes and reformers urged an end to the practice of slavery and argued for greater social equality, as well as a more democratic style of government.
A More Secular Outlook A second outcome was the rise of a more secular, or
non-religious, outlook. During the Enlightenment, people began to question openly their religious beliefs and the teachings of the church. Before the Scientific Revolution, people accepted the mysteries of the universe as the workings of God. One by one, scientists discovered that these mysteries could be explained mathematically. Newton himself was a deeply religious man, and he sought to reveal Gods majesty through his work. However, his findings often caused people to change the way they thought about God. Meanwhile, Voltaire and other critics attacked some of the beliefs and practices of organized Christianity. They wanted to rid religious faith of superstition and fear and promote tolerance of all religions.
Importance of the Individual Faith in science and in progress produced a third
outcome, the rise of individualism. As people began to turn away from the church and royalty for guidance, they looked to themselves instead. The philosophes encouraged people to use their own ability to reason in order to judge what was right or wrong. They also emphasized the importance of the individual in society. Government, they argued, was formed by individuals to promote their welfare. The British thinker Adam Smith extended the emphasis on the individual to economic thinking. He believed that individuals acting in their own self-interest created economic progress. Smiths theory is discussed in detail in Chapter 25. During the Enlightenment, reason took center stage. The greatest minds of Europe followed each others work with interest and often met to discuss their ideas. Some of the kings and queens of Europe were also very interested. As you will learn in Section 3, they sought to apply some of the philosophes ideas to create progress in their countries.
SECTION
ASSESSMENT
TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
Enlightenment social contract John Locke philosophe Voltaire Montesquieu Rousseau Mary Wollstonecraft
MAIN IDEAS
3. What are the natural rights with
Enlightenment?
views of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau on government. Then write one paragraph about how their ideas reflect their understanding of human behavior.
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