Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language Lec#1,2,3 Qurat-ul-Ain

Computer Science Department National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences Islamabad

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Overview
Welcome to COAL 2012 Assembly-, Machine-, and High-Level Languages Assembly Language Programming Tools Programmers View of a Computer System Data Representation

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Welcome to COAL 2012

Instructor: Qurat-ul-Ain

Office#N-111C Email: [email protected] Office Hours: Folder on Slate: Computer Organization & Assembly Language Lab Instructors:
To be announced later

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Text Books
Computer Organization and Architecture, William Stallings, 6th Edition Kip Irvine: Assembly Language for Intel-Based Computers 5th edition (2007)

Read the textbook!

Key for learning and obtaining a good grade

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Tentative Grading Policy

Assignments and Quizzes Midterm Exams Term Project Class Performance Lab Final Exam 14% 24% 10% 02% 10% 40%

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Grading Policy
All deadlines will be hard. Re-grading can be requested after grade reporting, within following time limits: Midterm: Same day Assignments: 3 days Quizzes: 3 days On the 4th day everything will be final

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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General Guidelines
Visit slate course folder regularly for updates Start working on projects/assignments right from the first day. No assignments will be accepted after due date Students are not allowed to copy each others work. Any such work would be marked zero for both students. Repeated cheating can lead to F grade in course. If you miss an assignment/quiz/sessional there will be no way to replace it. Come prepared in the class Quiz can be taken at any time in class. Read book(s)
Basic Concepts Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES Qurat-ul-Ain slide 7

Next
Welcome to COAL 2012 Assembly-, Machine-, and High-Level Languages Assembly Language Programming Tools Programmers View of a Computer System Data Representation

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Some Important Questions to Ask

What is Assembly Language? Why Learn Assembly Language? What is Machine Language? How is Assembly related to Machine Language? What is an Assembler? How is Assembly related to High-Level Language? Is Assembly Language portable?

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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A Hierarchy of Languages

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Assembly and Machine Language

Machine language

Native to a processor: executed directly by hardware Instructions consist of binary code: 1s and 0s
Assembly language

Slightly higher-level language Readability of instructions is better than machine language One-to-one correspondence with machine language instructions
Assemblers translate assembly to machine code Compilers translate high-level programs to machine code

Either directly, or Indirectly via an assembler

Basic Concepts Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES Qurat-ul-Ain slide 11

Compiler and Assembler

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Translating Languages
English: D is assigned the sum of A times B plus 10.

High-Level Language: D = A * B + 10
A statement in a high-level language is translated typically into several machine-level instructions

Intel Assembly Language: mov eax, A mul add B eax, 10

Intel Machine Language: A1 00404000 F7 25 00404004 83 C0 0A A3 00404008

mov D, eax
Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Advantages of High-Level Languages

Program development is faster

High-level statements: fewer instructions to code

Program maintenance is easier

For the same above reasons

Programs are portable

Contain few machine-dependent details

Can be used with little or no modifications on different machines

Compiler translates to the target machine language However, Assembly language programs are not portable
Basic Concepts Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES Qurat-ul-Ain slide 14

Why Learn Assembly Language?

Two main reasons:

Accessibility to system hardware Space and time efficiency

Accessibility to system hardware

Assembly Language is useful for implementing system software Also useful for small embedded system applications
Space and Time efficiency

Understanding sources of program inefficiency Tuning program performance Writing compact code
Basic Concepts Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES Qurat-ul-Ain slide 15

Assembly vs High-Level Languages

Some representative types of applications:

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Next
Welcome to COAL 2012 Assembly-, Machine-, and High-Level Languages Assembly Language Programming Tools (Lab) Programmers View of a Computer System Data Representation

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Next
Welcome to COAL 2012 Assembly-, Machine-, and High-Level Languages Assembly Language Programming Tools Programmers View of a Computer System Data Representation

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Programmers View of a Computer System

Increased level of abstraction
Application Programs High-Level Language Assembly Language Level 5

Level 4

Operating System Instruction Set Architecture Microarchitecture Digital Logic

Level 3

Level 2 Level 1

Level 0

Each level hides the details of the level below it

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Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

Programmer's View 2
Application Programs (Level 5)

Written in high-level programming languages Such as Java, C++, Pascal, Visual Basic . . . Programs compile into assembly language level (Level 4)
Assembly Language (Level 4)

Instruction mnemonics are used Have one-to-one correspondence to machine language Calls functions written at the operating system level (Level 3) Programs are translated into machine language (Level 2)

Operating System (Level 3)

Provides services to level 4 and 5 programs Translated to run at the machine instruction level (Level 2)

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Programmer's View 3
Instruction Set Architecture (Level 2)

Specifies how a processor functions Machine instructions, registers, and memory are exposed Machine language is executed by Level 1 (microarchitecture)
Microarchitecture (Level 1)

Controls the execution of machine instructions (Level 2) Implemented by digital logic (Level 0)
Digital Logic (Level 0)

Implements the microarchitecture Uses digital logic gates Logic gates are implemented using transistors
Basic Concepts Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES Qurat-ul-Ain slide 21

Next
Welcome to COAL 2012 Assembly-, Machine-, and High-Level Languages Assembly Language Programming Tools Programmers View of a Computer System Data Representation

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Data Representation
Binary Numbers Hexadecimal Numbers Base Conversions Integer Storage Sizes Binary and Hexadecimal Addition Signed Integers and 2's Complement Notation Binary and Hexadecimal subtraction Carry and Overflow Character Storage

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Binary Numbers
Digits are 1 and 0

1 = true 0 = false
MSB most significant bit LSB least significant bit Bit numbering:
MSB 15 LSB 0

1011001010011100

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Binary Numbers
1 1
26

1
25

1
24

1
23

1
22

1
21

1
20

Each digit (bit) is either 1 or 0 Each bit represents a power of 2:

27

Every binary number is a sum of powers of 2

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Converting Binary to Decimal

Weighted positional notation shows how to calculate the decimal value of each binary bit: Decimal = (dn-1 2n-1) (dn-2 2n-2) ... (d1 21) (d0 20) d = binary digit binary 00001001 = decimal 9: (1 23) + (1 20) = 9

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Convert Unsigned Decimal to Binary

Repeatedly divide the decimal integer by 2. Each remainder is a binary digit in the translated value:
least significant bit

most significant bit stop when quotient is zero

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37 = 100101
Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

Hexadecimal Integers
Binary values are represented in hexadecimal.

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Converting Binary to Hexadecimal

Each hexadecimal digit corresponds to 4 binary bits. Example: Translate the binary integer 000101101010011110010100 to hexadecimal:

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Converting Hexadecimal to Decimal

Multiply each digit by its corresponding power of 16: Decimal = (d3 163) + (d2 162) + (d1 161) + (d0 160) d = hexadecimal digit Examples:

Hex 1234 = (1 163) + (2 162) + (3 161) + (4 160) = Decimal 4,660 Hex 3BA4 = (3 163) + (11 * 162) + (10 161) + (4 160) = Decimal 15,268
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Converting Decimal to Hexadecimal

Repeatedly divide the decimal integer by 16. Each remainder is a hex digit in the translated value:

least significant digit

most significant digit stop when quotient is zero

Decimal 422 = 1A6 hexadecimal

Basic Concepts Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES Qurat-ul-Ain slide 31

Integer Storage Sizes

byte 8 16 32 64

Standard sizes:

word doubleword quadword

What is the largest unsigned integer that may be stored in 20 bits?

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Binary Addition
Start with the least significant bit (rightmost bit) Add each pair of bits Include the carry in the addition, if present
carry: 1

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 1

0 1

0 1

(4) (7)

0
bit position: 7

0
6

0
5

0
4

1
3

0
2

1
1

1
0

(11)

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Hexadecimal Addition
Divide the sum of two digits by the number base (16). The quotient becomes the carry value, and the remainder is the sum digit.
36 42 78 28 45 6D 28 58 80
1

6A 4B B5
21 / 16 = 1, remainder 5

Important skill: Programmers frequently add and subtract the addresses of variables and instructions.
Basic Concepts Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES Qurat-ul-Ain slide 34

Signed Integers
Several ways to represent a signed number

Sign-Magnitude Biased 1's complement 2's complement

Divide the range of values into 2 equal parts

First part corresponds to the positive numbers ( 0) Second part correspond to the negative numbers (< 0)
Focus will be on the 2's complement representation

Has many advantages over other representations Used widely in processors to represent signed integers
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Two's Complement Representation

Positive numbers Signed value = Unsigned value Negative numbers Signed value = Unsigned value 2n n = number of bits Negative weight for MSB Another way to obtain the signed value is to assign a negative weight to most-significant bit
1 0 1
32

8-bit Binary Unsigned value value 00000000 00000001 00000010 ... 01111110 01111111 10000000 0 1 2 ... 126 127 128 129 ... 254 255

Signed value 0 +1 +2 ... +126 +127 -128 -127 ... -2 -1

1
16

0
8

1
4

0
2

0
1

-128 64

10000001 ...

= -128 + 32 + 16 + 4 = -76
Basic Concepts

11111110 11111111

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Forming the Two's Complement

starting value step1: reverse the bits (1's complement) step 2: add 1 to the value from step 1 sum = 2's complement representation 00100100 = +36 11011011 + 1

11011100 = -36

Sum of an integer and its 2's complement must be zero:

00100100 + 11011100 = 00000000 (8-bit sum) Ignore Carry
The easiest way to obtain the 2's complement of a binary number is by starting at the LSB, leaving all the 0s unchanged, look for the first occurrence of a 1. Leave this 1 unchanged and complement all the bits after it.
Basic Concepts Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES Qurat-ul-Ain slide 37

Sign Bit
Highest bit indicates the sign. 1 = negative, 0 = positive
sign bit

Negative

Positive

If highest digit of a hexadecimal is > 7, the value is negative Examples: 8A and C5 are negative bytes A21F and 9D03 are negative words B1C42A00 is a negative double-word
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Sign Extension
Step 1: Move the number into the lower-significant bits Step 2: Fill all the remaining higher bits with the sign bit This will ensure that both magnitude and sign are correct Examples

Sign-Extend 10110011 to 16 bits

10110011 = -77 11111111 10110011 = -77

Sign-Extend 01100010 to 16 bits

01100010 = +98 00000000 01100010 = +98

Infinite 0s can be added to the left of a positive number Infinite 1s can be added to the left of a negative number
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Two's Complement of a Hexadecimal

To form the two's complement of a hexadecimal

Subtract each hexadecimal digit from 15 Add 1

Examples:

2's complement of 6A3D = 95C2 + 1 = 95C3 2's complement of 92F0 = 6D0F + 1 = 6D10 2's complement of FFFF = 0000 + 1 = 0001
No need to convert hexadecimal to binary

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Binary Subtraction
When subtracting A B, convert B to its 2's complement Add A to (B) 00001100 00001100 00000010 + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 (2's complement) 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 (same result) Carry is ignored, because Negative number is sign-extended with 1's You can imagine infinite 1's to the left of a negative number Adding the carry to the extended 1's produces extended zeros

Practice: Subtract 00100101 from 01101001.

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Hexadecimal Subtraction
When a borrow is required from the digit to the left, add 16 (decimal) to the current digit's value
16 + 5 = 21
-1 11

C675 A247 242E

C675 5DB9 242E

(2's complement) (same result)

Last Carry is ignored

Practice: The address of var1 is 00400B20. The address of the next variable after var1 is 0040A06C. How many bytes are used by var1?

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Ranges of Signed Integers

The unsigned range is divided into two signed ranges for positive and negative numbers

Practice: What is the range of signed values that may be stored in 20 bits?

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Carry and Overflow

Carry is important when

Adding or subtracting unsigned integers Indicates that the unsigned sum is out of range Either < 0 or >maximum unsigned n-bit value
Overflow is important when

Adding or subtracting signed integers Indicates that the signed sum is out of range
Overflow occurs when

Adding two positive numbers and the sum is negative Adding two negative numbers and the sum is positive Can happen because of the fixed number of sum bits
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Carry and Overflow Examples

We can have carry without overflow and vice-versa Four cases are possible
1 1 1 1 1 1

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 1

1 1 0

1 0 1

1 0 1

1 0 1

15 8 23

0 1 0

0 1 0

0 1 0

0 1 0

1 1 0

1 0 1

1 0 1

1 0 1

15 245 (-8) 7

Carry = 0
1

Overflow = 0
1

Carry = 1
1 1

Overflow = 0

0 0 1

1 1 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

1 0 1

1 0 1

1 0 1

1 0 1

79 64 143 (-113)

1 1 0

1 0 1

0 0 1

1 1 1

1 1 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

0 218 (-38) 1 157 (-99) 1 119

Carry = 0
Basic Concepts

Overflow = 1

Carry = 1

Overflow = 1
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Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

Character Storage
Character sets

Standard ASCII: 7-bit character codes (0 127) Extended ASCII: 8-bit character codes (0 255) Unicode: 16-bit character codes (0 65,535) Unicode standard represents a universal character set
Defines codes for characters used in all major languages Used in Windows-XP: each character is encoded as 16 bits

UTF-8: variable-length encoding used in HTML

Encodes all Unicode characters Uses 1 byte for ASCII, but multiple bytes for other characters Null-terminated String

Array of characters followed by a NULL character

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Printable ASCII Codes

0 2 3 4 5 6 7
space

1 2 3 ! " #

4 5 6 7 $ % & ' 4 5 6 7 D E F G T U V W d e f g t u v w

8 9 A B C D E F ( ) * + , - . / 8 9 : ; < = > ? H I J K L M N O X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ h i j k l m n o x y z { | } ~
DEL

0 1 2 3 @ A B C P Q R S ` a b c p q r s

Examples: ASCII code for space character = 20 (hex) = 32 (decimal) ASCII code for 'L' = 4C (hex) = 76 (decimal) ASCII code for 'a' = 61 (hex) = 97 (decimal)
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Control Characters
The first 32 characters of ASCII table are used for control Control character codes = 00 to 1F (hex)

Not shown in previous slide

Examples of Control Characters

Character 0 is the NULL character used to terminate a string Character 9 is the Horizontal Tab (HT) character Character 0A (hex) = 10 (decimal) is the Line Feed (LF) Character 0D (hex) = 13 (decimal) is the Carriage Return (CR) The LF and CR characters are used together

They advance the cursor to the beginning of next line One control character appears at end of ASCII table

Character 7F (hex) is the Delete (DEL) character

Basic Concepts

Computer Organization and Assembly Language NUCES

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Terminology for Data Representation

Binary Integer

Integer stored in memory in its binary format Ready to be used in binary calculations
ASCII Digit String

A string of ASCII digits, such as "123"

ASCII binary

String of binary digits: "01010101"

ASCII decimal

String of decimal digits: "6517"

ASCII hexadecimal

String of hexadecimal digits: "9C7B"

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Summary
Assembly language helps you learn how software is constructed at the lowest levels Assembly language has a one-to-one relationship with machine language An assembler is a program that converts assembly language programs into machine language A linker combines individual files created by an assembler into a single executable file A debugger provides a way for a programmer to trace the execution of a program and examine the contents of memory and registers A computer system can be viewed as consisting of layers. Programs at one layer are translated or interpreted by the next lower-level layer Binary and Hexadecimal numbers are essential for programmers working at the machine level.
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