Training report

Continental tyres India limited.

TYRE TECHNOLOGY

TYRE - A HI-TECH PRODUCT

STEPS INTERFACE CONSIDERED SCIENCE & ENGG

DESIGN

RUBBER COMPOUNDING TYRE ENGINEERING TYRE DEVELOPMENT

MATERIAL CHEMISTRY MATERIAL PHYSICS MECH. ENGINEERING ADV. TYRE MECHANICS

MATERIAL

POLYMER / POLYMER POLYMER / FILLER CORD / RUBBER COMPD. WIRE / RUBBER COMPD.

MATERIAL CHEMISTRY MATERIAL PHYSICS THERMODYNAMICS SURFACE SCIENCE

TYRE - A HI-TECH PRODUCT

STEPS MANUFACTURING INTERFACE CONSIDERED MATERIAL MACHINE MAN METHOD SCIENCE & ENGG SYSTEM RHEOLOGY OF RUBBER COMPOUND, TRIBOLOGY. DIFFUSION CHEMISTRY THERMODYNAMICS

HEAT TRANSFER
PROCESS ENGINEERING PERFO RMANCE VEHICLE -TYRE- ROAD TRACTION / WEAR / NOISE VEHICLE DYNAMICS SOUND ENGG. SIMULATION ENGG. VIBRATION MECHANICS

TYRE - A HI-TECH PRODUCT

INTERFACE PERFORMANCE DETERMINES THE TYRE PERFORMANCE - DIFFUSION - BONDING / ADHESION - DURABILITY OF THE ABOVE

TYRE IS A VERY COMPLEX PRODUCT WITH BROAD PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENT. TYRE IS A HI-TECH COMPOSITE OBJECT WHOSE PREPARATION CALLS FOR YEARS OF RESEARCH, BOTH ON THE PRODUCT ITSELF AND ON ITS MANUFACTURE

PNEUMATIC TYRE - AN INTRODUCTION

EVOLUTION OF TODAYS PNEUMATIC TYRE: WHEEL INVENTED, 3500 B.C. IN A.D. 1490, LEONARDO DA VINCI, DESIGNED A WHEEL WHOSE HUB WAS SUSPENDED FROM THE RIM ON THIN WIRE SPOKES - THE PRINCIPLE OF THE MODERN BICYCLE

WHEEL.
FIRST SELF PROPELLED VEHICLE, A.D. 1769 --- BUILT BY FRENCH ENGINEER NICHOLAS JOSEPH CUGNOT.

CALENDER DEVELOPED IN 1836 BY EDWIN M. CHAFFEE OF

ROXBURY

PNEUMATIC TYRE - AN INTRODUCTION

FIRST PEDAL DRIVEN BICYCLE IN 1839 WAS INVENTED BY K. MAC MILLAN OF SCOTLAND. VULCANISATION DISCOVERED, 1839 YEAR. PNEUMATIC TYRE INVENTED 1845. THE ACTUAL INVENTOR OF THE PNEUMATIC TYRE WAS ROBERT W.THOMSON OF MIDDLESEN, ENGLAND. THOMSONS PATENT DESCRIBES A PNEUMATIC TYRE CONSISTING OF A RUBBER COATED CANVAS TUBE ENCASED IN A LEATHER BY CHARLES GOOD

COVERING

AND

MOUNTED

ON

A WOODEN

WHEEL

UNFORTUNATELY, HIS INVENTION WAS TOO FAR AHEAD OF ITS TIME.

PNEUMATIC TYRE - AN INTRODUCTION

FIRST SOLID, RUBBER TYRE PRODUCED, 1846 -- MANUFACTURED BY THOMAS HANCOCK (ENGLAND) FIRST COMMERCIALLY PRODUCED FOUR WHEEL MOTOR CAR, IN 1886 WAS OFFERED BY GERMAN INVENTOR GOTTLIEB

DAIMLER. FIRST PNEUMATIC TYRE WAS DEVELOPED IN 1888 BY JOHN BOYD DUNLOP, WHO APPARENTLY KNEW NOTHING OF THOMSONS EARLIER INVENTION. HIS OBJECTIVE WAS TO REPLACE THE

SOLID RUBBER TYRES ON HIS GRANDSONS TRICYCLE TO

PROVIDE A SMOOTHER RIDE.

PNEUMATIC TYRE - AN INTRODUCTION

IN THE 1900S A NUMBER OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS HAD TAKEN PLACE TO KEEP UP WITH THE GROWING AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY AND DEVELOPING INFRASTRUCTURE. A FEW OF THE NOTABLE ADVANCEMENTS INCLUDE: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TYRE BEAD WHICH LED TO THE DETACHABLE CLINCHER TYRE-WHEEL COMBINATION. THE EVALUATION OF DIFFERENT CARCASS REINFORCING

MATERIALS FROM COTTON TO POLYESTER TO SUPPLY STRENGTH

AND DIMENSIONAL STABILITY TO THE TYRE.

THE DISCOVERY OF CARBON BLACKS USE IN REINFORCING RUBBER COMPOUNDS.

PNEUMATIC TYRE - AN INTRODUCTION

THE REPLACEMENT OF INNERTUBE WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TUBELESS TYRE.

THE PROGRESSION FROM BIAS PLY CARCASS DESIGN TO RADIAL PLY CARCASS DESIGN. AND FINALLY, TO TODAYS INNOVATIONS THAT ALLOW A TYRE TO TRAVEL A LIMITED DISTANCE AT REDUCED OR ZERO AIR PRESSURE i.e. THE RUN-FLAT TYRE.

Tyre - Definition & Functions

Definition : In many ways tyre is an engineering marvel.

Geometrically TYRE is a Torus, Mechanically, a Tyre is a flexible, high pressure container. Structurally, a tyre is high performance composite. Chemically , a tyre consists of materials form long chain molecules.

Functions:
o Provide load carrying capacity o Provide cushioning and damping o Resist abrasion o Generate steer response o Have low rolling resistance o Provide minimum noise and minimum vibration o Be durable through out the expected life span

o Transmit driving and breaking torque

o Providing cornering force

o Provide dimensional stability

Tyre Structure

The term tyre structure defines the number, location and dimension of the various components used in its composition. The primary components which govern the performance of the tyre are the casing plies, bead, belts, sidewall and tread. The secondary components are chafers, flippers and overlays, which are strips of fabric located in the bead and crown areas, protect the primary components by minimising stress concentration.

Cross sectional view of a Bias Tyre

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
TREAD : The part of the tyre which comes in contact with the road. It is wear resistant and provide traction, wet skid resistant, good cornering characteristics with silent running and low heat build-up. BEAD : This part of the tyre hold the tyre on the rim. It is made of several in-extensible steel wire (called strands) anchored with ply wrapping. BODY PLY: A layer of rubber coated fabric cords anchored with bead to bead. CARCASS : The rubber -bonded core structure of a tyre integral with the bead which provides the requisite strength to carry the load.

BEAD AREA

INCLUDE THE APEX OR

BEAD
WRAPER,

FILLER,

THE
WHICH

PROTECTS BEAD

THE

WIRE

COMPONENTS,

THE

CHIPPER

WHICH

PROTECTS THE LOWER SIDE WALL, AND THE FLIPPER, WHICH HELPS HOLD PLACE. THE BEAD IN

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
SIDE WALL : The part of the tyre between the bead and the tread which flexes in service. BREAKER(BIAS): Rubberised floating plies between tread and carcass and protects the casing form road shock. BELT(RADIAL)

Rubberised material under the tread with cords laid substantially in the direction of the tread center line that restrict the carcass in the circumferential direction and stiffen the tread area
LINER: Layer of compounded butyl rubber or derivatives of butyl rubber which retains the compressed air inside the tubeless tyre.

Definitions
Ply Rating: This term is used to identify a given tyre with maximum recommended load when used in a specific type of service. It is an index of tyre strength and does not necessarily represent the number of plies in the tyre. Tyre Section Width This is the average of at least six measurements , at approximately equidistant positions, over smooth side walls of the tyre body when kept inflated for 24 hours minimum, but not loaded , on the measuring rim at the maximum specified pressure for duals if listed and prevailing atmospheric temperature, and then adjusted to the original pressure before taking measurements. Tyre Overall Width Measuement is done as above but tyre sidewall markings are included in this measurement.

Definitions
Tyre Overall Diameter: This is the diameter of an inflated tyre at the outer most surface of the tread, or twice the inflated section height of the tyre, plus the nominal Rim Diameter. Aspect Ratio Hundred times the ratio of section height to section width

TYRE PATTERN

Tyre Size Designation

TRUCK Numeric (Bias)

10.00
Construction Code for Bias tyre

20

14PR

Nominal Section Width Code

Nominal Rim Code

Ply Rating

Numeric (Radial)

10.00

20

16PR

Construction Code for Radial tyre

Tyre Size Designation

LIGHT TRUCK Numeric (Bias)

7.50 Construction Code for Bias tyre

16

14PR
Ply Rating

LT/C

Nominal Section Width Code

Nominal Rim Code

Tyre category , where ever applicable

Tyre Size Designation

LIGHT TRUCK Millimetric (Radial) Mentioned wherever applicable

225 /75 R
Nominal Aspect Ration
Nominal Section Width Code

14
Nominal Rim Code

LT/C108/104

Construction Code for Radial tyre

Tyre category

Load Index Single / Dual

Speed Symbol

Tyre Size Designation

PASSENGER Millimetric (Radial)

195 /70 R
Nominal Aspect Ratio
Nominal Section Width Code

15
Nominal Rim Code

92

Construction Code for Radial tyre

Load Index

Speed Symbol

Speed

Speed

Speed symbol

Speed category Km/h

symbol

category
Km/h

Q R S

160 170 180

H
V W Y

210
240 270 300

T
U

190
200

Types of tyres

(A) According to use:

(I) Automobile tyres: Vary in size, shape, load rating and speed rating. Automobile tyre types include winter, all season, summer and high performance tyres.
(II) Truck tyres: Light, medium or heavy load truck tyres. Bus tyres are usually included in the medium truck tyres. (III) Off the road tyres: These are used on earth moving road construction, mining and some recreational vehicles. Often required to operate on uneven terrain, these vehicles impose special demands on their tyres for floatation on soft grounds and resistance to bruising and cutting by sharp objects.

Types of tyres

(IV) Farm tyres: Requires floatation on soft grounds, hillside stability, minimum soil compact and resistance to damage from weathering. (V) Aircraft tyres: Includes those for commuter, commercial and military aircraft. Special demands on aircraft tyres are required by their use at high speeds and high loads relative to their size. (VI) Race tyres: These are required to provide high speed performance, high reliability during their relatively short service time and high friction levels in cornering, acceleration and braking modes of vehicle operation. (VII) Military tyres: Also have special demands such as extra margin of safety and a run flat capability.

Types of tyres

(B) Tubeless and tube type tyres: Advantages of tubeless tyres over tube type: 1. Simplicity 2. Weight saving 3. Fewer road delays 4. Cooler running 5. Labour savings (C) According to construction: (I) Bias / Cross ply tyre (II) Radial ply tyre

Types of tyres
(I) Bias / Cross ply tyre Reinforcing cords extend diagonally across the tyre from bead to bead (generally the angle of the cord path to the centre line of the tyre size is 54 - 630 approx.) The specific pressure or ground pressure between the tyre contact area and road varies greatly from point to point. A complex pattern movements (scissors-like motion) is set up in all directions in the tread elements and the parasitic slipping & creeping commonly known as shuffle cause unnecessary wear and the generation of heat.

Types of tyres

(II) Radial ply tyre The plies of reinforcing cords extends transversely from bead to bead i.e. the ply cords run in radial direction of tyre axis. The rigid belt imposes a fairly constant ground pressure throughout the contact area, while movements of the tread elements are much reduced since the limited deformation of the inextensible belt.

Cross sectional view of a Bias Tyre

Cross sectional view of a Radial Tyre

Cross sectional view of a Radial Tyre

= 40 to 50

= 12 to 23

Conventional

Radial

Conventional Sidewall

Radial Sidewall

Sidewall

Sidewall

Under Tread

Under Tread

Conventional

Radial

Conventional

Radial

Advantages of radial tyre over bias tyres: (1) Longer tread life - Almost upto 100% more wear life. Since the tread is free from lateral deflection, the tread wear is less. (2) Lower rolling resistance - Due to the lack of lateral deflection of tread elements the rolling resistance of radial tyre is less. The energy for traction is almost completely utilised. (3) Higher cornering power & smaller slip angle. (4) Better tractive and braking grip - Due to the greater area of contact patch, the ground pressure is slightly lower and more evenly distributed.

(5) Better high speed performance - Limiting speed for occurrence for force of distortion (known as standing waves) is higher for radial tyres due to its peculiar construction (mainly the lower crown angle of the belt). (6) Better riding comfort - This is because the greater flexibility and suppleness of the sidewall which can easily accommodate the damping vibrations. (7) More resistant to bruise or impact - since the rigidity of the belt and the flexibility of the body plies combined to distribute the impact over a greater area and reduce its destructive effect.

THE KEY ADVANTAGES OF RADIAL TYRES

ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY: Fewer raw materials are required to produce a tyre reducing consumption of natural resources. Lower fuel consumption brings down pollutant exhaust gas emissions. There are fewer unwanted spent carcasses.

GENERAL: The radial tyre produces ten times less heat than a conventional tyre. For every speed increase of 10 kmph, its rolling capacity doubles w.r.t bias. The reduced heat production from the radial tyre structure is an enormous advantage w.r.t bias resulting in greater endurance, longer mileage and less rolling resistance.

THE KEY ADVANTAGES OF RADIAL TYRES

SAFE: Road holding and steering characteristics are better than bias tyre Grip is improved on all types of grounds - dry, wet, soft or snow covered. Thanks to improved resistance, the tyre can be used safely at much higher speeds. With its steel reinforced belt, the tyre is highly puncture resistant ECONOMICAL: Thanks to improved endurance, the radials tread life is often increased by more than 100%. The tyre structure is lighter. Rolling resistance is 30-40 % lower, reducing 5-10 % fuel consumption.

Disadvantages of Radial Tyre:

1) Harsh ride at speeds below 20 kmph. Why? Due to increased contact patch area and higher stiffness (lesser flexibility) particularly radial stiffness, at low speeds the radial tyres resulting in comparatively higher harshness in riding because of immediate transmission of forces in the contact patch to the vehicle system. 2) Heavier steering at low speeds and when parking. Why? The aligning moment is very sensitive to the size of the contact patch. The sheer stress and the torque arm responsible for the moment are both proportional to the distance from the tyre centre.Thus the major contributors to aligning moment are the tread elements at the extremes of the contact patch. Because of the above reason, with the radial tyres, the increased contact patch area particularly at the extremes of the contact patch results in heavier steering at low speeds and when parking. 3) Higher cost

TYRE MANUFACTURING PROCESS (X-PLY)

TYRE MANUFACTURING PROCESS (X-PLY)

TYRE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

TYPICAL PERCENTAGE OF DIFFERENT MATERIAL USED IN A TYRE (BIAS)

MATERIAL
NR / SR TYRE CORD CARBON BLACK BEAD WIRE OTHER CHEMICALS
TOTAL

BY WEIGHT (%)
50.0 11.0 23.0 4.50 11.5
100.0 : : : :

BY VALUE (%)
36.0 33.0 15.0 2.80 13.2
100.0

COST STRUCTURE :
RAW MATERIAL COST ENERGY SALARY & WAGES OTHERS 60 - 65% 6 - 8% 8 - 12% 15 - 26%

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