FACTS: FLEXIBLE A.

C TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
FACT is a static equipment used for the AC transmission of electrical energy and is defined as "a power electronic based system and other static equipment that provide control of one or more AC transmission system parameters to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability. Basics of FACTS: The main objective of FACTS devices is to replace the existing slow acting mechanical controls required to react to the changing system conditions by rather fast acting electronic Controls. The main idea of FACTS can be explained by the basic equation for AC power transmission. Series compensation: In series compensation, FACTS is connected in series with the power system. It works as a controllable voltage source. Shunt compensation: In shunt compensation, power system is connected in shunt with the FACTS. It works as a controllable current source. Load flow control: Power transmitted b/w 2 nodes of the system depends on voltages at both ends of interconnection, the line impedance & the phase angle difference b/w both systems. NECESSITY OF FACTS CONTROLLERS: One of the most important challenge that the utility industry facing is the more efficient utilization of the existing transmission network, in view of the many difficulties involved in adding new transmission capacity. The power transfer capability & the transient performance of the existing network can be considerably enhanced using FACTS by Minimizing undesired loop flows, introducing fast real , reactive modulation capabilities. Introducing more flexible power flow control capabilities Achieving higher voltage loading levels for long transmission lines. BASIC TYPES OF FACTS DEVICES In general, FACTS controllers can be divided into four categories: Series Connected Controllers Shunt Connected Controllers Combined Shunt and Series Controllers Combined series and shunt controllers

BENEFITS FROM THE FACTS TECHNOLOGY : Control of power flow as ordered Increase the system security through raising the transient stability limit, limiting shortcircuit currents and overloads Provide secure tie line connections to neighboring utilities and regions thereby decreasing overall generation reserve requirements on both sides. Provide greater flexibility . Reduce reactive power flows, thus allowing the lines to carry more active power.

Facts controllers :
STATIC SERIES COMPENSATOR

GCSC - GTO Thyristor-controlled series capacitor. TSSC - Thyristor switched series capacitor. TCSC - Thyristor-controlled series capacitor. SSSC - Static synchronous series compensator

STATIC SHUNT COMPENSATOR

SVC - Static Var Compensation STATCOM STATic COMpensator

COMBINED

CONTROLLERS

UPFC-Unified Power Flow Controller IPFC-Inter line Power Flow Controller

Examples of FACTS for series compensation

Examples of FACTS for series compensation

Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC): a series capacitor bank is shunted by a thyristor-controlled reactor Thyristor Controlled Series Reactor (TCSR): a series reactor bank is shunted by a thyristorcontrolled reactor Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC): a series capacitor bank is shunted by a thyristor-switched reactor Thyristor Switched Series Reactor (TSSR): a series reactor bank is shunted by a thyristorswitched reactor

Examples of FACTS for shunt compensation

Examples of FACTS for shunt compensation

Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) previously known as a Static Condenser (STATCON) Static VAR compensator (SVC). Most common SVCs are: o Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR): reactor is connected in series with a bidirectionnal thyristor valve. The thyristor valve is phase-controlled. Equivalent reactance is varied continously. o Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR): Same as TCR but thyristor is either in zero- or full- conduction. Equivalent reactance is varied in stepwise manner. o Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC): capacitor is connected in series with a bidirectionnal thyristor valve. Thyristor is either in zero- or full- conduction. Equivalent reactance is varied in stepwise manner.

Mechanically Switched Capacitor (MSC): capacitor is switched by circuit-breaker. It aims at compensating steady state reactive power. It is switched only a few times a day.

OVERVIEW OF FACTS CONTROLLER DEVICES: Devices are normally operated automatically and can be located in unmanned Substations. Changing of set-points can be done locally and remotely. The classification of FACTS is as follows: A.STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR (SVC): A static VAr compensator is an electrical device for providing fast-acting reactive power compensation on high-voltage electricity transmission networks, based on thyristor controlled reactors (TCR), thyristors controlled capacitors (TSC) and or fixed capacitor (FC) tuned filters. . (SVC is a shunt connected Static Var Generator or absorber whose output is adjusted to control capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control specific parameters of the electric power system .

Principle: SVC configuration employs a thyristor-controlled reactor with a bank of three mechanically-switched capacitors in conjunction with a thyristor-controlled air- or iron-cored reactor. By means of phase angle modulation switched by the thyristors, the reactor may be variably switched into the circuit, & so provide a continuously variable MVAr injection to the electrical network. Few improvements obtained by use of SVC : Dynamic stability is increased due to the increased damping provided,Steady state and temporary over voltages can be controlled,Load power factor is improved and hence system efficiency is improved. 2.. Thyristor controlled series compensator(TCSC): TCSC was the first generation of series compensation FACTS devices made of a parallel connection of a capacitor and a thyristor-controlled reactor and giving higher transferability. It is a static voltage controller in series with a transmission line which contains the thyristor as its switching device.Although it is capable to continuously adjust its reactance, it has the drawback of

presenting a parallel resonance b/w the capacitor and the SCR controlled reactor at the fundamental frequency.

Static Shunt Compensators: (SVC &STATCOM)

Shunt compensation is used to influence the natural electrical characteristics of the transmission line to increase the steady-state transmittable power and to control the voltage profile along the line.As static shunt compensators are known Static Var Compensators (SVC) and Static Synchronous Compensators (STATCOM). Static VAR Compensator (SVC): A shunt-connected static var generator or absorber whose output is adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control specific parameters of the electrical power system (typically bus voltage).SVC is an umbrella term for several devices. The SVC devices discussed in the following sections are the TCR, TSR and TSC. The characteristics of a SVC are described as based on normal inductive and capacitive elements not based on rotating machines control function is through power electronics. The STATCOM has the following characteristics based on voltage source synchronized to network not based on rotating machines control function is based on adjustment of voltage. By placing the shunt in the middle of a line and therefore dividing the line into two segments, the voltage at this point can be controlled such that it has the same value as the end line voltages. This has the advantage that the maximal power transmission is increased.If the shunt compensator is located at the end of a line in parallel to a load it ispossible to regulate the voltage at this end and therefore to prevent voltage instability caused by load variations or generation or line outages. As shunt compensation is able to change the power flow in the system by varying the value of the applied shunt compensation during and following dynamic disturbances the transient stability limit can be increased and effective power oscillation damping is provided. Thereby the voltage of the transmission line counteracts the accelerating and decelerating swings of the disturbed machine and therefore dampens the power oscillations. 1.1 Thyristor-Controlled and Thyristor-Switched Reactor (TCR &tcr And TSR): TCR: A shunt-connected, thruster-controlled inductor whose effective reactance is varied in a continuous manner by partial-conduction control of the thyristor value.An elementary single-

phase thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) is shown in Fig. 1. The current in the reactor can be controlled from maximum to zero by the method of firing delay angle control. That is the duration of the current conduction intervals is controlled by delaying the closure of the thyristor valve with respect to the peak of the applied voltage in each half-cycle (Fig. 1). For alpha = 0. The amplitude is at its maximum and for alpha = 90. The amplitude is zero and no current is flowing during the corresponding half-cycle. Like this the same effect is provided as with an inductance of changing value.A thyristor switched reactor (TSR) has similar equipment to a TCR, but is used only at fixed angles of 90. And 180., i.e. full conduction or no conduction. The reactive current is(t) will be proportional to the applied voltage. Several TSRs can provide a reactive admittance controllable in a step-like manner. 1 Static Shunt Compensators:

TSR: A shunt-connected, thyristor-switched inductor whose effective reactance is varied in a stepwise manner by full- or zero-conduction operation of the thyristor value.If a TSR or TCR is placed in the middle of the line to keep the voltage at this place at the same value as at the ends of the line the maximal transmittable power is doubled. This can be shown considering the diagram in Fig. 2

Figure 2: Two machine system with SVC in the middle The transmitted power results in

Figure 3: Transmitted power versus transmission angle characteristic for a SVC

In a three-phase system, three single-phase thyristor-controlled reactors are used, usually in delta connection. Under balanced conditions, the triple-n harmonic currents (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc.) circulate in the delta connected TCRs and do not enter the power system. The magnitudes of the other harmonics generated by the thyristor-controlled reactors can be reduced by various methods. One method employs m parallel-connected TCRs, each with 1/m of the total rating required (Fig. 4). The reactors are sequentially controlled, i.e. only one of the m reactors is delay angle controlled, and each of the remaining m - 1 reactors is either fully on or fully off depending on the total reactive power required. Like this the amplitude of every harmonic is reduced by the factor m with respect to the maximum rated fundamental current.

Figure 4: Method for controlling four TCR banks to achieve harmonic reduction Another method employs a 12-pulse TCR arrangement. In this, two identical three phase delta connected thyristor-controlled reactors are used, one operated from wye connected windings, the other from delta-connected windings of the secondary of a coupling transformer. Because of the 30-degree phase shift between the related voltages of the two transformer windings, the

harmonic currents of order 6(2k - 1) and 6(2k - 1) + 1, k = 1, 2, 3, ... cancel, resulting in a nearly sinusoidal output current at all delay angles. Further harmonic cancellation is possible by operating three or more delta connected TCRs from appropriately phase shifted voltage sets. In practice, these 18 and higher pulse circuit arrangements tend to be too complex and expensive. If the TCR generated harmonics cannot be reduced sufficiently by circuit arrangements, such as the four-reactor system or the 12-pulse structure, harmonic filters are employed. Normally, these filters are series LC and LCR branches in parallel with the TCR and are tuned to the dominant harmonics. 1.2 Thyristor-Switched Capacitor (TSC): TSC: A shunt-connected, thyristor-switched capacitor whose effective reactance is varied in a stepwise manner by full- or zero-conduction operation of the thyristor value. In Fig. 5, a single-phase thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC) is shown. The TSC branch can be switched out at a zero crossing of the current. At this time instance the capacitor value has reached its peak value. The disconnected capacitor ideally stays charged at this peak value and the voltage across the nonconducting thyristor varies in phase with the applied ac voltage.

Figure 5: Thyristor-Switched Capacitor Normally, the voltage across the capacitor does not remain constant during the time when the thyristor is switched out, but it is discharged after disconnection. To minimize transient disturbances when switching the TSC on, the reconnection has to take place at an instance where the AC voltage and the voltage across the conductor are equal, that is when the voltage across the thyristor valve is zero. However, there will still be transients caused by the nonzero duS/dt at the instant of switching, which, without the reactor, would result an instant current in the capacitor (iS = C duS/dt). The interaction between the capacitor and the current (and diS/dt) limiting reactor produces oscillatory transients on current and voltage. From these elaborations it follows that firing delay angle control is not applicable to capacitors; the capacitor switching must take place at that specific instant in each cycle at which

the conditions for minimum transients are satisfied. For this reason, a TSC branch can provide only a step-like change in the reactive current it draws (maximum or zero). Thus, the TSC is a single capacitive admittance which is either connected to or disconnected from the AC system. The current through the capacitor varies with the applied voltage. To approximate continuous current variations, several TSC branches in parallel may be used. 1.3 Static synchronous compensator: STATCOM: STATCOM: A static synchronous generator operated as a shunt-connected static VAR compensator whose capacitive or inductive output current can be controlled independent of the AC system voltage. A STATCOM is a controlled reactive-power source. It provides voltage support by generating or absorbing reactive power at the point of common coupling without the need of large external reactors or capacitor banks. The basic voltage-source converter scheme is shown in Fig. 6.

Figure 6: Static Synchronous Compensator The charged capacitor Cdc provides a DC voltage to the converter, which produces a set of controllable three-phase output voltages with the frequency of the AC power system. By varying the amplitude of the output voltage U, the reactive power exchange between the converter and the AC system can be controlled. If the amplitude of the output voltage U is increased above that of the AC system UT , a leading current is produced, i.e. the STATCOM is seen as a conductor by the AC system and reactive power is generated. Decreasing the amplitude of the output voltage below that of the AC system, a lagging current results and the STATCOM is seen as an inductor. In this case reactive power is absorbed. If the amplitudes are equal no power exchange takes place. A practical converter is not lossless. In the case of the DC capacitor, the energy stored in this capacitor would be consumed by the internal losses of the converter. By making the output voltages of the converter lag the AC system voltages by a small angle, the converter absorbs a small amount of active power from the AC system to balance the losses in the converter.Instead of a capacitor also a battery can be used as DC energy. In this case the converter can control both reactive and active power exchange with the AC system. The capability of controlling active as

well as reactive power exchange is a significant feature which can be used effectively in applications requiring power oscillation damping, to level peak power demand, and to provide uninterrupted power for critical load. The derivation of the formula for the transmitted active power employs considerable calculations.

The resulting characteristic of the transmitted power versus transmission angle is given in Fig. 9.

Figure 9: Transmitted power versus transmission angle characteristic of a STATCOM 2 Static Series Compensators: The variable series compensation is highly effective in both controlling power flow in the line and in improving stability. With series compensation the overall effective series transmission impedance from the sending end to the receiving end can be arbitrarily decreased thereby influencing the power flow (P = U2/X sin ). This capability to control power flow can effectively be used to increase the transient stability limit and to provide power oscillation damping.

Unit IV Power System Control centers :

Aim of control centres, Funtions of Control centres Planning, Monitoring & Data acquisition and System control. Setup, locations, central & civil facilities. Facilities in control room. Communication-PLCC. Emergency control Distribution Automation: Flow diagram for man machine power system interface. Schematic diagram of Remote Terminal Unit. Block diagram of smart and intelligent transmitter, SCADA system

SCADA is not a specific technology, but a type of application. SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition any application that gets data about a system in order to control that system is a SCADA application. A SCADA application has two elements: The process/system/machinery you want to monitor a control this can be a power plant, a water system, a network, a system of traffic lights, or anything else. 2. A network of intelligent devices that interfaces with the first system through sensors and control outputs. This network, which is the SCADA system, gives you the ability to measure and control specific elements of the first system.
1.

You can build a SCADA system using several different kinds of technologies and protocols. This white paper will help you evaluate your options and decide what kind of SCADA system is best for your needs. Where is SCADA Used? You can use SCADA to manage any kind of equipment. Typically, SCADA systems are used to automate complex industrial processes where human control is impractical systems where there are more control factors, and more fast-moving control factors, than human beings can comfortably manage. Around the world, SCADA systems control:

Electric power generation, transmission and distribution: Electric utilities use SCADA systems to detect current flow and line voltage, to monitor the operation of circuit breakers, and to take sections of the power grid online or offline. Water and sewage: State and municipal water utilities use SCADA to monitor and regulate water flow, reservoir levels, pipe pressure and other factors. Buildings, facilities and environments: Facility managers use SCADA to control HVAC, refrigeration units, lighting and entry systems. Manufacturing: SCADA systems manage parts inventories for just-in-time manufacturing, regulate industrial automation and robots, and monitor process and quality control.

Mass transit: Transit authorities use SCADA to regulate electricity to subways, trams and trolley buses; to automate traffic signals for rail systems; to track and locate trains and buses; and to control railroad crossing gates. Traffic signals: SCADA regulates traffic lights, controls traffic flow and detects out-oforder signals.

SCADA is used in nearly every industry and public infrastructure project anywhere where automation increases efficiency. In every industry, managers need to control multiple factors and the interactions between those factors. SCADA systems provide the sensing capabilities and the computational power to track everything thats relevant to your operations. Whats the Value of SCADA to You? Maybe you work in one of the fields I listed; maybe you dont. But think about your operations and all the parameters that affect your bottom-line results:

Does your equipment need an uninterrupted power supply and/or a controlled temperature and humidity environment? Do you need to know in real time the status of many different components and devices in a large complex system? Do you need to measure how changing inputs affect the output of your operations? What equipment do you need to control, in real time, from a distance? Where are you lacking accurate, real-time data about key processes that affect your operations?

Real-Time Monitoring and Control Increases Efficiency and Maximizes Profitability Ask yourself enough questions like that, and Im sure you can see where you can apply a SCADA system in your operations. But Im equally sure youre asking So what? What you really want to know is what kind of real-world results can you expect from using SCADA. Here are few of the things you can do with the information and control capabilities you get from a SCADA system:

Access quantitative measurements of important processes, both immediately and over time Detect and correct problems as soon as they begin Measure trends over time Discover and eliminate bottlenecks and inefficiencies Control larger and more complex processes with a smaller, less specialized staff.

A SCADA system gives you the power to fine-tune your knowledge of your systems. You can place sensors and controls at every critical point in your managed process (and as SCADA technology improves, you can put sensors in more and more places). As you monitor more things, you have a more detailed view of your operations and most important, its all in real time.

So even for very complex manufacturing processes, large electrical plants, etc., you can have an eagle-eye view of every event while its happening and that means you have a knowledge base from which to correct errors and improve efficiency. With SCADA, you can do more, at less cost, providing a direct increase in profitability.

How SCADA systems work? A SCADA system performs four functions:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Data acquisition Networked data communication Data presentation Control

These functions are performed by four kinds of SCADA components: Sensors (either digital or analog) and control relays that directly interface with the managed system. 2. Remote telemetry units (RTUs). These are small computerized units deployed in the field at specific sites and locations. RTUs serve as local collection points for gathering reports from sensors and delivering commands to control relays. 3. SCADAmaster units. These are larger computer consoles that serve as the central processor for the SCADA system. Master units provide a human interface to the system and automatically regulate the managed system in response to sensor inputs. 4. The communications network that connects the SCADA master unit to the RTUs in the field.
1.

The Worlds Simplest SCADA System The simplest possible SCADA system would be a single circuit that notifies you of one event. Imagine a fabrication machine that produces widgets. Every time the machine finishes a widget, it activates a switch. The switch turns on a light on a panel, which tells a human operator that a widget has been completed. Obviously, a real SCADA system does more than this simple model. But the principle is the same. A full-scale SCADA system just monitors more stuff over greater distances. Lets look at what is added to our simple model to create a fullscale SCADA system: Data Acquisition First, the systems you need to monitor are much more complex than just one machine with one output. So a real-life SCADA system needs to monitor hundreds or thousands of sensors. Some sensors measure inputs into the system (for example, water flowing into a reservoir), and some sensors measure outputs (like valve pressure as water is released from the reservoir).

Some of those sensors measure simple events that can be detected by a straightforward on/off switch, called a discrete input (or digital input). For example, in our simple model of the widget fabricator, the switch that turns on the light would be a discrete input. In real life, discrete inputs are used to measure simple states, like whether equipment is on or off, or tripwire alarms, like a power failure at a critical facility. Some sensors measure more complex situations where exact measurement is important. These are analog sensors, which can detect continuous changes in a voltage or current input. Analog sensors are used to track fluid levels in tanks, voltage levels in batteries, temperature and other factors that can be measured in a continuous range of input. For most analog factors, there is a normal range defined by a bottom and top level. For example, you may want the temperature in a server room to stay between 60 and 85 degrees Fahrenheit. If the temperature goes above or below this range, it will trigger a threshold alarm. In more advanced systems, there are four threshold alarms for analog sensors, defining Major Under, Minor Under, Minor Over and Major Over alarms. Data Communication In our simple model of the widget fabricator, the network is just the wire leading from the switch to the panel light. In real life, you want to be able to monitor multiple systems from a central location, so you need a communications network to transport all the data collected from your sensors. Early SCADA networks communicated over radio, modem or dedicated serial lines. Today the trend is to put SCADA data on Ethernet and IP over SONET. For security reasons, SCADA data should be kept on closed LAN/WANs without exposing sensitive data to the open Internet. Real SCADA systems dont communicate with just simple electrical signals, either. SCADA data is encoded in protocol format. Older SCADA systems depended on closed proprietary protocols, but today the trend is to open, standard protocols and protocol mediation. Sensors and control relays are very simple electric devices that cant generate or interpret protocol communication on their own. Therefore the remote telemetry unit (RTU) is needed to provide an interface between the sensors and the SCADA network. The RTU encodes sensor inputs into protocol format and forwards them to the SCADA master; in turn, the RTU receives control commands in protocol format from the master and transmits electrical signals to the appropriate control relays.

Data Presentation The only display element in our model SCADA system is the light that comes on when the switch is activated. This obviously wont do on a large scale you cant track a lightboard of a thousand separate lights, and you dont want to pay someone simply to watch a lightboard, either.

A real SCADA system reports to human operators over a specialized computer that is variously called a master station, an HMI (Human-Machine Interface) or an HCI (Human-Computer Interface). The SCADA master station has several different functions. Themaster continuously monitors all sensors and alerts the operator when there is an alarm that is, when a control factor is operating outside what is defined as its normal operation. The master presents a comprehensive view of the entire managed system, and presents more detail in response to user requests. The master also performs data processing on information gathered from sensors it maintains report logs and summarizes historical trends. An advanced SCADA master can add a great deal of intelligence and automation to your systems management, making your job much easier. Control Unfortunately, our miniature SCADA system monitoring the widget fabricator doesnt include any control elements. So lets add one. Lets say the human operator also has a button on his control panel. When he presses the button, it activates a switch on the widget fabricator that brings more widget parts into the fabricator. Now lets add the full computerized control of a SCADA master unit that controls the entire factory. You now have a control system that responds to inputs elsewhere in the system. If the machines that make widget parts break down, you can slow down or stop the widget fabricator. If the part fabricators are running efficiently, you can speed up the widget fabricator. If you have a sufficiently sophisticated master unit, these controls can run completely automatically, without the need for human intervention. Of course, you can still manually override the automatic controls from the master station. In real life, SCADA systems automatically regulate all kinds of industrial processes. For example, if too much pressure is building up in a gas pipeline, the SCADA system can automatically open a release valve. Electricity production can be adjusted to meet demands on the power grid. Even these real-world examples are simplified; a full-scale SCADA system can adjust the managed system in response to multiple inputs.

Power System Control Centres Introduction A modern control center is set up at appropriate locations to perform both dispatch and control functions to ensure quality and continuity of power supply (within prescribed limits) to the consumer at affordable cost. Nowadays major control centers possess SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems for system data collection and monitoring. LDC (Load Dispatch Centres) are synonymously used for control centres. To ensure security and proper functioning of the elements of Power System (PS) like Generator, Transformer, Lines etc. economic operation and display instantaneous state of PS To limit duration and extent of repercussions due to faults and restore the power line at the earliest. Hierarchial Control Scheme of PS
Central Control Centre HV Transmission Network

Distribution Network

Regional Control Centre Captive power

Subtransmissio n Network

Local Control Centre

Thermal Power Plant

Hydro Power Plant

Role of central control centre (CCC): Network management and decision making.

RCC (regional control centre) or RLDC (Regional Load Dispatch Centre): Implementation of CCC directives and control of HV transmission and sub-transmission network directly. Also controls captive power generation. Captive Power Plant is a generating unit(s) with aggregate capacity not exceeding 166 MW which produces power for captive consumption of its owners. LCC ( local control centre): To control generation as per directives. It also has control on subtransmission network. Functions of Control Centres: Control (load dispatch) centres perform a wide variety of functions under three broad categories 1. Planning 2. Monitoring of interconnected system 3. Data acquisition and control Planning Objectives: For controlling a PS properly, it is very much essential to plan the system operation with proper scheduling. Scheduling: may be short or long term. Short term scheduling may be hourly/daily scheduling. Long term scheduling may be on weekly/monthly basis. Main aim of scheduling is to find the optimal mix of hydro thermal generation and to decide upon exchanges with the neighboring systems. Planning objectives include Selection of generating units to serve normal load demand and to serve during emergency Anticipated load demand PS network structure to cope with demand and available generation Evaluation of possible contingencies and to tackle them

The most important planning aspect is load forecasting and generation scheduling. Short term scheduling on daily basis is preferred. This is done based on the data of previous day, same day in previous week and year and also taking into weather into account. Usually load

forecasting is done by automatic computer algorithms based on extrapolation. Forecasting programs based on ANN (artificial neural networks) is more effective and takes into account the role of weather, labour problem possibilities and contingencies. Next planning aspect is to determine the reserve power in the system. A certain amount of reserve power is usually maintained in excess of load demand for maintenance of units and to meet minor contingencies. It also covers errors in load estimation/forecasting. The capacity of reserve depends on number and size of generating units, maintenance requirements, security aspect, seasonal factors etc. though active power reserve is customary, still it is required to maintain some reserve of reactive power. Plant scheduling and unit commitment are also important planning aspects. In usual scheduling, major hydro and thermal plants serve as base load plants. Some low-merit thermal plants and pumped storage plants serve as peak load plants. Base load plants operate for fulltime while peak load plants work in the required intervals of time only. Maintenance of line loadability is also an important planning aspect. The control centre should plan the routing of power flow through designated lines to avoid any overloading. In proper PS planning the role of reactive power is very important. Proper reactive power flow can only maintain the voltage levels at different load buses within specified limits. Reactive power generation at strategic locations is very important. During light loads to avoid Ferranti effect in long lines shunt reactors have to be pressed into service to control the voltage at the remote ends of lines. During heavy loads, capacitive reactive power compensators have to be pressed into service to avoid voltage drops.

Monitoring To ensure that network is controlled in appropriate manner as power system loading differs from the scheduled scheme from time to time. It is very much required that load-generation

balance is maintained w.r.t. both active and reactive power so that the line flows are not exceeded and voltage levels of the buses are within limits. However, following a sudden contingency, the system may go beyond control and the control centre should have pre-drawn plans to encounter such urgencies and restore PS from vulnerable collapse. To perform this task, the control centre should have the facilities to know the following info. The active and reactive power demands at the load buses and available generation System frequency Volume of power exchange Exact configuration of power network Breaker status at sub-stations

All these info is picked up at RLDC and telemetered to CCC and updated in short time intervals. This provides almost an instantaneous picture of the power network condition. The control computers receive all these data and check their validity (using state estimation algorithm) and display info to the operator. The displays are both visual and through high speed printers and plotters. The control center data thus helps in real time assessment of PS.

Data Acquisition and System Control A data acquisition subsystem consists of remote terminal equipment for interfacing with power system instrumentation and control devices. It also interfaces with communication channels and master station equipment. The data is scanned at regular intervals (every alternate second). A data acquisition software is installed for processing, displaying and storing the data. The control aspect mainly includes system frequency and voltage control. Power exchange may be done by a single station or by number of stations (in a large interconnected system).

The control programs include criteria for economic operation and control the schedule of generation effectively. Setup In early days PS network is simple and one LDC at a suitable location is sufficient. As the PS developed and became complex, the dispatching control system, acquired a two or three-tier structure. In modern control centers three-tier system being implemented. First tier system dispatching centre Second tier regional load dispatching centre Third tier remote control centre Functions of system dispatching centre Data acquisition of the state of network Data recording LFC and AGC Economic operation, state estimation and security assessment

Second tier (Regional load dispatching centre) collects and stores the data from the system. Third tier controls the breaker status under normal operating conditions. It is also equipped with emergency control like load shedding in case of contingencies. The first tier usually controls the whole transmission network and second tier serves as a back up for the first tier, for the purpose of data acquisition. Locations Location: Location of control centre is very important. It must be located at an appropriate place and must be equipped with necessary facilities for data acquisition and control. Communication: Communication with all the predetermined sections of the network is an important aspect of for selecting the location of the centre. Since a reliable communication system is vital for operation, the location of the centre must take this aspect into account. The location of a control centre is based on the following broad principles

 Is not governed by proximity to generating stations, substations or load centres It should be close to the hub central communication facility of the area and should have a number of leased/hired channels of communication at its disposal. It should be close to the points in the network such that power line carrier communication (PLCC) facilities are available. The load dispatch centre should be well connected by rail and road. Since the load dispatch centre is the hub of activity of power operations, key personnel must be available close to it. Central Facilities: The central facilities to be provided at a LDC are A telephone exchange A mainframe computer with number of terminals A display board Telemetry equipment Control equipment Batteries UPS A central airconditioning/heating plant Teleprinter Weather information facilities A diesel generator (in addition to UPS) Fire fighting system A workshop for in-house maintenance of equipment against minor problems OHP and LCD projectors Good illumination

Civil Facilities Housing of all equipment Proper sitting arrangements for engineers and staff Proper water supply Refrigerated food and water storage facilities Soundproof enclosures (where necessary) Smooth soundproof flooring Proper building protection against lightning Immunity to floods and other natural calamities up to a certain extent A good canteen A first-aid centre An ambulance Security personnel

Facilities in Control Room Control desk Mimic diagram Instrument consoles Control desk should be equipped with CRT displays, meters, recorders, annunciation panels and intercom facility. It is used by the operator to monitor and/or control system frequency and voltage, load level, generation level and inter-system load transfer. The annunciation panels provide the state of equipment. In emergency annunciating window blinks with alarm sound or gives a red-coloured indication. Mimic diagram is basically an indicator of the power network in the form of single line diagram. Alpha-numeric display units (VDU) for indication, metering and alarm display. Mimic board gives overall pictorial view of entire system with breaker status. It also indicates system frequency, system demand at strategic locations, voltage levels at different buses and lines, system demand, inter system MW transfer etc. Lamp indicators are provided to indicate circuit breaker status. Luminous load indicators are provided to give the quantum and direction of power flow in the network. Special types of signals/lights will be used to identify overloads. This mimic board is also used in emergency. The control room consists of a computer system. The computer system usually is duplex system. The first one is master computer while the second one is a standby. Incoming data is entered in both computers simultaneously. The computer also helps in the display of entire network and the telemetered data at strategic points of the network. Other facilities: auxiliary and backup power supply and air-conditioning system. The following equipment is also needed for proper functioning of control centre. DC battery system Harmonic-free stabilized AC supply UPS with auto changeover facility Diesel-generator set

 Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems Communication The following communication techniques are in use for effective communication at LDC Power line carrier communication (PLCC) Leased telephone lines Microwave channels Fibre optic channels Satellite channels

PLCC Telephonic and data communication system hardware operate at low dc voltage, it cannot be connected to EHV or HV power line. Radio frequency data, voice are prevented from entering the substation bus and are directed towards the carrier equipment. On the other hand, power frequency voltage or current is allowed to the substation bus while they are prevented from entering the carrier equipment. Wave trap and coupling capacitor are employed to achieve this. 50 Hz voltage signal
Wave Trap

50 Hz voltage signal

Receiving End

PLCC Signal
Coupling Capacito r

PLCC Signal

Sending End

Metering Element

PLCC Equipmen t

Fig: PLCC Scheme In PLCC communication, the carrier wave is generally transmitted with two side bands. This enables the use of very simple equipment and offers broadband transmission facility. Emergency Control It is closed-loop control that automatically actuates load shedding (or generation reduction) to cope with overloads (or underloads) to restore generation load balance. Emergency control prevents disruption of normal grid operation and deterioration of quality of power. It may be automatic or manual based on assessment of situation by the operator. Emergency control may be needed when the system frequency decreases due to tripping of transmission lines or generators. It is also needed in case of sudden reactive power deficits due to tripping of compensators or generators. Quantity Tolerance

Frequency 0.5% Voltage (Transmission level) 3% Voltage (Subtransmission level) 5% Once the system frequency decreases beyond 0.5%, hydro and pumped storage power plants pressed into service to give their peak outputs. If frequency fall is beyond 0.1%, automatic start up of some quick start generators (gas turbine) is initiated. Beyond a frequency decline of 0.3%, load shedding is applied. Usually 10% of peak demand is shed. If frequency decreases further, load shedding may be 15% or more. For effective emergency control Load shedding is spread through the system and it is initiated in steps Attempts are to be made at regular intervals to restore the system Load shedding is automatically carried out by present relays and is a function of frequency and time df/dt relay is superior and has the advantage of anticipating shedding action. It is installed at points of interconnection such that if frequency declines below 5%, the generating units are separated from the network automatically. The best way to maintain system voltage is to keep primary voltage regulation low and by keeping the reactive power compensators at strategic locations. If the voltage decreases beyond 3% in the HV transmission network (primary network), under voltage relays become active and load shedding is implemented. In case the receiving end voltage decreases further, it is recommended to shed some major loads at the receiving end. Secondary voltage regulation is adopted in some systems. The actual voltage at some strategic nodes is measured and compared to the scheduled value. The difference is used to initiate a voltage regulator that will correct the voltage to nominal value.

SCADA is not a specific technology, but a type of application. SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition any application that gets data about a system in order to control that system is a SCADA application. A SCADA application has two elements: The process/system/machinery you want to monitor a control this can be a power plant, a water system, a network, a system of traffic lights, or anything else. 4. A network of intelligent devices that interfaces with the first system through sensors and control outputs. This network, which is the SCADA system, gives you the ability to measure and control specific elements of the first system.
3.

You can build a SCADA system using several different kinds of technologies and protocols. Where is SCADA Used? You can use SCADA to manage any kind of equipment. Typically, SCADA systems are used to automate complex industrial processes where human control is impractical systems where there are more control factors, and more fast-moving control factors, than human beings can comfortably manage. Around the world, SCADA systems control:

Electric power generation, transmission and distribution: Electric utilities use SCADA systems to detect current flow and line voltage, to monitor the operation of circuit breakers, and to take sections of the power grid online or offline. Water and sewage: State and municipal water utilities use SCADA to monitor and regulate water flow, reservoir levels, pipe pressure and other factors. Buildings, facilities and environments: Facility managers use SCADA to control HVAC, refrigeration units, lighting and entry systems. Manufacturing: SCADA systems manage parts inventories for just-in-time manufacturing, regulate industrial automation and robots, and monitor process and quality control. Mass transit: Transit authorities use SCADA to regulate electricity to subways, trams and trolley buses; to automate traffic signals for rail systems; to track and locate trains and buses; and to control railroad crossing gates.

Traffic signals: SCADA regulates traffic lights, controls traffic flow and detects out-oforder signals.

SCADA is used in nearly every industry and public infrastructure project anywhere where automation increases efficiency. Whats the Value of SCADA to You? Real-Time Monitoring and Control Increases Efficiency and Maximizes Profitability Here are few of the things you can do with the information and control capabilities you get from a SCADA system:

Access quantitative measurements of important processes, both immediately and over time Detect and correct problems as soon as they begin Measure trends over time Discover and eliminate bottlenecks and inefficiencies Control larger and more complex processes with a smaller, less no. of specialized staff.

A SCADA system gives you the power to fine-tune your knowledge of your systems. You can place sensors and controls at every critical point in your managed process (and as SCADA technology improves, you can put sensors in more and more places). As you monitor more things, you have a more detailed view of your operations and most important, its all in real time. So even for very complex manufacturing processes, large electrical plants, etc., you can have an eagle-eye view of every event while its happening and that means you have a knowledge base from which to correct errors and improve efficiency. With SCADA, you can do more, at less cost, providing a direct increase in profitability.

How SCADA systems work? A SCADA system performs four functions:

5. 6. 7. 8.

Data acquisition Networked data communication Data presentation Control

These functions are performed by four kinds of SCADA components: Sensors (either digital or analog) and control relays that directly interface with the managed system.
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Remote telemetry units (RTUs). These are small computerized units deployed in the field at specific sites and locations. RTUs serve as local collection points for gathering reports from sensors and delivering commands to control relays. 7. SCADAmaster units. These are larger computer consoles that serve as the central processor for the SCADA system. Master units provide a human interface to the system and automatically regulate the managed system in response to sensor inputs. 8. The communications network that connects the SCADA master unit to the RTUs in the field.
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The Worlds Simplest SCADA System The simplest possible SCADA system would be a single circuit that notifies you of one event. Imagine a fabrication machine that produces widgets. Every time the machine finishes a widget, it activates a switch. The switch turns on a light on a panel, which tells a human operator that a widget has been completed. Obviously, a real SCADA system does more than this simple model. But the principle is the same. A full-scale SCADA system just monitors more stuff over greater distances. Lets look at what is added to our simple model to create a fullscale SCADA system: Data Acquisition First, the systems you need to monitor are much more complex than just one machine with one output. So a real-life SCADA system needs to monitor hundreds or thousands of sensors. Some sensors measure inputs into the system (for example, water flowing into a reservoir), and some sensors measure outputs (like valve pressure as water is released from the reservoir). Some of those sensors measure simple events that can be detected by a straightforward on/off switch, called a discrete input (or digital input). For example, in our simple model of the widget fabricator, the switch that turns on the light would be a discrete input. In real life, discrete inputs are used to measure simple states, like whether equipment is on or off, or tripwire alarms, like a power failure at a critical facility. Some sensors measure more complex situations where exact measurement is important. These are analog sensors, which can detect continuous changes in a voltage or current input. Analog sensors are used to track fluid levels in tanks, voltage levels in batteries, temperature and other factors that can be measured in a continuous range of input. For most analog factors, there is a normal range defined by a bottom and top level. For example, you may want the temperature in a server room to stay between 60 and 85 degrees Fahrenheit. If the temperature goes above or below this range, it will trigger a threshold alarm. In more advanced systems, there are four threshold alarms for analog sensors, defining Major Under, Minor Under, Minor Over and Major Over alarms.

Data Communication In our simple model of the widget fabricator, the network is just the wire leading from the switch to the panel light. In real life, you want to be able to monitor multiple systems from a central location, so you need a communications network to transport all the data collected from your sensors. Early SCADA networks communicated over radio, modem or dedicated serial lines. Today the trend is to put SCADA data on Ethernet and IP over SONET. For security reasons, SCADA data should be kept on closed LAN/WANs without exposing sensitive data to the open Internet. Real SCADA systems dont communicate with just simple electrical signals, either. SCADA data is encoded in protocol format. Older SCADA systems depended on closed proprietary protocols, but today the trend is to open, standard protocols and protocol mediation. Sensors and control relays are very simple electric devices that cant generate or interpret protocol communication on their own. Therefore the remote telemetry unit (RTU) is needed to provide an interface between the sensors and the SCADA network. The RTU encodes sensor inputs into protocol format and forwards them to the SCADA master; in turn, the RTU receives control commands in protocol format from the master and transmits electrical signals to the appropriate control relays. Data Presentation The only display element in our model SCADA system is the light that comes on when the switch is activated. This obviously wont do on a large scale you cant track a lightboard of a thousand separate lights, and you dont want to pay someone simply to watch a lightboard, either. A real SCADA system reports to human operators over a specialized computer that is variously called a master station, an HMI (Human-Machine Interface) or an HCI (Human-Computer Interface). The SCADA master station has several different functions. Themaster continuously monitors all sensors and alerts the operator when there is an alarm that is, when a control factor is operating outside what is defined as its normal operation. The master presents a comprehensive view of the entire managed system, and presents more detail in response to user requests. The master also performs data processing on information gathered from sensors it maintains report logs and summarizes historical trends. An advanced SCADA master can add a great deal of intelligence and automation to your systems management, making your job much easier.

Control Unfortunately, our miniature SCADA system monitoring the widget fabricator doesnt include any control elements. So lets add one. Lets say the human operator also has a button on his control panel. When he presses the button, it activates a switch on the widget fabricator that brings more widget parts into the fabricator. Now lets add the full computerized control of a SCADA master unit that controls the entire factory. You now have a control system that responds to inputs elsewhere in the system. If the machines that make widget parts break down, you can slow down or stop the widget fabricator. If the part fabricators are running efficiently, you can speed up the widget fabricator. If you have a sufficiently sophisticated master unit, these controls can run completely automatically, without the need for human intervention. Of course, you can still manually override the automatic controls from the master station. In real life, SCADA systems automatically regulate all kinds of industrial processes. For example, if too much pressure is building up in a gas pipeline, the SCADA system can automatically open a release valve. Electricity production can be adjusted to meet demands on the power grid. Even these real-world examples are simplified; a full-scale SCADA system can adjust the managed system in response to multiple inputs.

Prepared by P.Venkatesh , Siddhartha Engineering College