BasicSoftStarterPrinciples

ThePrinciplesofFixedSpeedInductionMotorControl
Sinceitsinventiononehundredyearsago,thestandard3phaseinductionmotorhasbecomeone ofthemostfamiliaritemsofindustrialequipmenteverknown.Duetoitssimplicityofconstruction, lowcost,reliabilityandrelativelyhighefficiency,itislikelytoremaintheprimesourceof

mechanicalenergyforindustrialapplications. Introduction
Theconversionofenergyfromtheelectricalsupplytorotatingmechanicalenergyistheprimary purposeofallmotors.Toregulateenergyflow,mostmotorcircuitsrequireamechanismtoconnect anddisconnectthemfromtheirelectricalpowersourceand,electromechanicalswitches,knownas 'Contactors',arethestandardmeansofachievingthiscontrol.Eventoday,morethanonehundred yearsaftertheirintroduction,contactorbasedsystemsremainthemostwidelyusedmethodof motorcontrol.Nevertheless,thereisadefinitetrendtowardsmoresophisticatedelectronic systemsofcontrolbeingappliedtofixedspeedmotordrivesandherewediscussthenewestform ofcontrolnamely,electronic,microprocessorcontrolled,optimisingsoftstarters.

TheInductionMotor
Inordertoappreciatethebenefitsofusinganelectroniccontroller,itisimportanttohavesome understandingofthecharacteristicsandlimitationsoftheinductionmotorandtheelectro mechanicalsystemscurrentlyusedtocontrolthem. Thestandard,fixedspeedinductionmotorhastofulfiltwobasicrequirements: Toaccelerateitselfanditsloadtofullspeed(orspeedsinthecaseofmultispeedmotors) Tomaintaintheloadatfullspeedefficientlyandeffectivelyoverthefullrangeofloadings. Duetotheconstraintsofmaterialsanddesign,itcanbedifficulttoachievebothobjectives effectivelyandeconomicallyinonemachine.

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So,howdoesamotorstartinthefirstplace?
Asmentionedearlier,motorsconvertelectricalenergydrawnfromthepowersupplyintoa mechanicalform,usuallyasashaftrotatingataspeedfixedbythefrequencyofthesupply.The poweravailablefromtheshaftisequaltothetorque(moment)multipliedbytheshaftspeed(rpm). Fromaninitialvalueatstandstill,thetorquealters,upordown,asthemachineaccelerates, reachingapeakatabouttwothirdsfullspeed,finallytobecomezeroatsynchronousspeed.This characteristicmeansthatinductionmotorsalwaysrunatslightlylessthansynchronousspeedin ordertodeveloppowertheslipspeedand,hencethetermasynchronous.Thegraphbelow, whichshowsaninductionmotortorque/speedcurve,illustratesthismostimportantcharacteristic.

Torque/Speedcurvefortheinductionmotor
Asforeachtypeofmotor,soeachloadcoupledtoaninductionmotorhasitsownspeed/torque curve:

Torque/SpeedCurveCoupledload

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Theaccelerationofamotorloadsystemiscausedbythedifferencebetweenthedevelopedtorque (motor)andtheabsorbedtorque(load)andisshownbytheshadedareainthenextfigure:

Torque/SpeedCurveAcceleratingTorque
Obviously,thelargerthedifference,thefastertheaccelerationandthequickerfullspeedisreached and,coincidentally,thegreaterthestressesexperiencedbythesupplyanddrivesystemsduring theaccelerationprocess.An"ideal"startwouldacceleratetheloadwithjustsufficientforceto reachfullspeedsmoothlyinareasonabletime,andwithminimumstresstothesupplyanddrive mechanisms. Broadlyspeaking,themotorspeed/torquecharacteristiciscontrolledbytherotorresistancea motorwithhighrotorresistancecangenerateitspeaktorque(pullouttorque)atstandstillgiving thehighbreakawaytorquecharacteristic,whichreducessteadilyasthespeedincreasesand becomingzeroatsynchronousspeed.Attheotherendofthescale,amotorwithaverylowrotor resistancewillproducealowstartingtorquebutwillgenerateitspeaktorqueclosertothe synchronousspeed.Consequentlythistypeofmotorrunsatfullpowerwithhigheroperating efficiencyandlowslipspeed.Increasingly,moderninductionmotorstocombinethetwin requirementsofhighstartingtorqueandefficientfullspeedoperationwithinasinglemotorby techniquessuchasdoublecageordeepbardesign,andthismotorcharacteristicisidealforuse withsoftstartercontrol.

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Torque/SpeedCurveHighstartingtorque/Highefficiencymotor

StartingInductionMotors
Startingademagnetisedinductionmotorfromstandstillisademandingandcomplexprocess.At theinstantofswitchingalltheenergynecessarytomagnetisethemotor,toprovidethe accelerationforce,andtosupplythekineticenergyoftherotorandload,mustbepresenttogether withtheenergytoovercomethemechanicalandelectricallosses.Todosoatfullsupplyvoltage placesconsiderablestressesonthesupply,themotorwindings,andtheironcoresofthestatorand rotor.Excessiveaccelerationofarotorwhenthemechanicalloadissmallcanproducetorque oscillationsintheshaftcausingsevereweartotransmissions,gearsanddrives.Excessive accelerationwhentheloadinertiaishighsuchasincentrifugalfanscausesbeltstoslipinthe pulleys,producingrapidwearandearlyfailure.

ElectroMechanicalMethodsofStarting MethodA:DirectonLine/Acrosstheline
Thesimplestmeansofcontrollingenergyflowtoaninductionmotoristointerruptthepower supplybyasingle,solenoidoperated,3phaseswitch,knownasacontactor.Verywidelyapplied, themethodisknownvariouslyas"directonline","acrosstheline","direct"etc.,andistheusual formofcontrolwherelowcostisthefirst,andmostimportantconsideration.Asaresult,itismost oftenusedonsmallermotorsizes(7.5upto22kW),orwherethesupplyisstrongenoughto withstandtheinrushandstartingcurrentsurgeswithoutcausingunacceptablevoltagedrops.The harsh,damagingeffectsdescribedearlierareallimposedbydirectonlinestartingand,asacontrol method;itisthemostdestructiveofequipment.Itssimplicityandapparentlowcost,although

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attractiveatfirstsight,hidelargecostpenaltiesintheshapeofincreasedmaintenance,reduced transmissionequipmentlifeandhigherriskofmotorfailure,particularlywhenfrequentstopping andstartingisneeded.Inlargersizedmotorsspecialstrengtheningisnecessary,athighercost, beforetheycanbesafelyusedwithdirectonlinestarting.However,theshortcomingsofthedirect onlinestarterhavebeenrecognisedeversincemotorshavebeenusedandalternativesystems havebeendevelopedovertheyearstoreducethedamagingeffectsofthisformofcontrol.

MethodB:StarDeltaandotherReducedVoltageStartingSystems
Reducedvoltagestartingmakesuseofthefactthatmotortorqueisproportionaltothesquareof theterminalvoltageandthemostfamiliartypeofreducedvoltagestarteristhestardeltaorwye deltastarter.Consistingofthreecontactorsandatimeswitch(whichcanbemechanical, pneumatic,electricalorelectronic),thestardeltastarterchangesthemotorwindingconfiguration fromaninitialstarconnectiontoadeltaasthemotoraccelerates. Thechangeoverortransitionpointiscontrolledbythetimeswitchandisusuallyarrangedtobeat 80%offullspeed.Theeffectofstartinginstaristoalterthevoltageacrosseachstatorwindingto 58%ofnormal.Thisreducesthestartingtorquetoathirdoflockedrotortorque(LRT)witha consequentreductioninstartingcurrentsandaccelerationforces.Althoughanapparent improvementoverthedirectsystem,significantdisadvantagesstillremain. Thetransferfromstartodeltamomentarilyremovesthemotorfromthesupply.Duringthistime themotorisunderthemechanicalinfluenceoftherotatingloadand,attheinstantof disconnection,currentwillstillflowintherotorbarsduetothetimedelaynecessaryforthe magneticfluxtodieaway.Therefore,thereisaresidualflux"frozen"onthesurfaceoftherotating rotor,whichcutsthestatorwindings,generatingavoltagewhosefrequencydependsontherotor speed.Iftheloadinertiaissmall,suchasinapump,orifthefrictionishigh,therecouldbea significantlossofspeedduringthetimethesupplyisdisconnected.Inthiscase,whenthe reconnectiontodeltaismade,alargephasedifferentialcanexistbetweenthesupplyandtherotor fluxes. Thiscangiverisetoverylargecurrentsurges(asmuch,ormorethanfullvoltagelockedrotor current),togetherwithmassivetransienttorqueoscillations.(Theseoscillationscanbeasmuchas fivetimesfullloadtorque.)Althoughtheeffectsdescribedareonlypresentforaveryshortperiod oftime(aboutonefifthofasecond),theyaresourcesofgreatstressanddamagetothewhole drivesystem,andwherefrequentstartingisnecessary,invokehighmaintenancecosts.Thereare methodsofcontrol,forexample,theclosedtransitionstarter,whicheliminateorreducethe reconnectiontransients.However,suchstartersareexpensiveandhavereliabilityimplications;for thesereasonstheyarenotwidelyapplied.Thestardeltastarteralsohasdisadvantagesduetothe restrictedstartingtorqueavailable(ifyouneed40%LRTtobreakaway,youcanonlyincreasethe motorsize,orreverttodirectonline).Combinedwiththesevereeffectsofthereswitchingsurges,

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andtheadditionalcostsofbringingsixconductorsfromthemotortothestarterinsteadofonly three,stardeltaonlyoffersanimperfectsolutiontotheproblemofstartingtheinductionmotor.

MethodC:PrimaryResistanceStarter
Ithaslongbeenrecognisedthatthetransitionstepinthestardeltasystemwasasourceof problemssuchasweldedcontactors,sheareddriveshaftsetc.,andformanyyearsamethodofstep lesscontrolhasbeenavailableintheformoftheprimaryresistancestarter.Thistypeofcontroller insertsaresistanceinone,ormoreoftenineach,ofthephaseconnectionstothestatoratstartup, afterwhichitisprogressivelyreducedandshortedoutattheendoftheaccelerationprocess. Frequently,theresistancesaremovablebladesthataregraduallyimmersedinanelectrolyteliquid. Themechanismisusuallylargeandexpensive,bothtopurchaseandtomaintain,andconsiderable heatiscreatedbythepassageofcurrentthroughtheelectrolyteresistor.Thislimitsthestarting frequency(becausetheelectrolytehastocondensebacktoliquidbeforeanewstartcanproceed), andtheserestrictionspreventthisstarterfrombeingapopularoptionwhenselectingacontrol system.However,ithasthedistinctionofbeingthesmoothestandleaststressfulmethodof acceleratinganinductionmotoranditsload.

MethodD:OtherElectroMechanicalSystems
Othercontrolmethodssuchasautotransformerstarting(popularinNorthAmerica),primary reactancestartingetc.,areemployedtoagreaterorlesserextent,tocompensateforsomeofthe disadvantagesofeachtypeofstarterdiscussed.Nevertheless,thefundamentalproblemsof electromechanicalstartersremain,anditisonlyinthelastdecadeortwothattheirdominancehas beenchallengedbytheintroductionofpowersemiconductorscontrolledbyelectronics.

TheSemiconductorMotorController
Duringthe1950's,mucheffortwasputintothedevelopmentofafourlayertransistordevicewhich hadthepowertoswitchlargecurrentsathighvoltageswhentriggeredbyaverysmallpulseof current.Thisdevicebecameknownasthesiliconcontrolledrectifier(SCR),orinEurope,the Thyristor;itisthebasisonwhichallsoftstartingsystemsarebuilt.Thecharacteristicofmost interestistheabilityofthethyristortoswitchrapidly(inabout5millionthsofasecond)from"OFF" to"ON"whenpulsed,andtoremain"ON"untilthecurrentthroughthedevicefallstozero,which conveniently,happensattheendofeachhalfcycleinalternatingcurrentsupplies.Bycontrolling theswitchonpointofathyristorrelativetothevoltagezerocrossingineachhalfwaveofan alternatingcurrent,itispossibletoregulatetheenergypassingthroughthedevice.Thecloserthe turnonpointistothevoltagezerocrossingpoint,thelongertheenergyisallowedtoflowduring thehalfcycle.Conversely,delayingtheturnonpointreducesthetimefortheenergytoflow. Puttingtwothyristorsbacktoback(orantiparallel)ineachofthephaseconnectionstoamotor,

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andbypreciselycontrollingtheirturnonpoints,anelectronicsoftstartercontinuouslyadjuststhe passageofenergyfromthesupplysothatitisjustsufficientforthemotortoperformsatisfactorily. So,forinstance,bystartingwithalargedelaytotheturnonpointineachhalfcycle,and progressivelyreducingitoveraselectedtimeperiod,thevoltageappliedtothemotorstartsfroma relativelylowvalueandincreasestofullvoltage.Duetothemotortorquebeingproportionaltothe squareoftheappliedvoltage,thestartingtorquefollowsthesamepatterngivingthecharacteristic smooth,steplessstartofthesoftstarter.

RunningInductionMotors
Onceastarthasbeencompletedthemotoroperatingefficiencybecomesofinterest.When workingatornearfullload,thetypical3phaseinductionmotorisrelativelyefficient,readily achievingefficienciesof85%to95%.However,asshownbelow,motorefficiencyfallsdramatically whentheloadfallstolessthan50%ofratedoutput.

EfficiencyvLoad
Infact,veryfewmotorsactuallyexperienceconsistentfullyratedoperation,thevastmajority operateatmuchlowerloadsduetoeitheroversizing(averyfrequentsituation),ornaturalload variations.ForFanandPumpingapplications,theaffinitylawswillallowtheinverterdrivetoshow veryconsiderableenergysavingsovervirtuallyallothermethodsofcontrolthroughvaryingthe speedofthemotorinresponsetochangesinload. Wheremotorspeedscannotbevaried,theoptimisingversionofthesemiconductormotor controllerwillalsoproduceenergysavingsinlightlyloadedmotors.Lesssophisticatedsystemsof softstarterremainatfullconductionandthemotorthenbehavesasifitwereconnecteddirectlyto

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themainssupply.However,atlightloadsandmainsvoltages,inductionmotorsalwayshaveexcess magneticflux,andsufferefficiencylossandpowerfactordegradationasaresult.Bydetectingthe loadatanyinstant,andadjustingthemotorterminalvoltageaccordingly,itispossibletosavesome oftheexcitationenergyandloadloss,andimprovemotorpowerfactorwhenthemotorisrunning inefficientlyatlightloads. AllFairfordsoftstartersaremicroprocessorcontrolled,andthisgivesthemanumberof advantages.Firstlybecauseofourpatentedmethod,therearenoadjustmentstobemadeforthe energysavingfunction:allcalculationsnecessarytofindthebestdegreeofphasebackofthe thyristorsforanyloadconditionismadebythemicrocomputer.Secondly,thestartalways synchroniseswiththesupplyvoltageandaspecialstructureofturnonpulsesvirtuallyeliminates theinrushcurrentsnormallyassociatedwithmotorstartup;thishappenseverytime.Lastly,there istheabsolutelysteplessstartingprocess,foundonlywiththeprimaryresistanceorreactance electromechanicalstartersbutwithoutthewastedenergy,andwiththeopportunitytocontrol themaximumcurrentallowedtoflowduringthestartingprocess.Otherfeaturessuchassoft stoppingareincluded,orareavailable,togiveconsiderablecontroloverallmodesofinduction motoroperation.

ReliabilityConsiderations
Oneaspectofelectroniccontrollersforinductionmotorswhichisofincreasingconcernisthatof reliability.Thereislittlepointininstallinganexpensiveitemofelectronicequipmenttosave potentiallyconsiderableamountsofmoneyifthedeviceisunreliabletothepointthatvital processesareconstantlyinterrupted. Thereareelectronicproductsinthemarketplacewhichappeartooffersoftstartingcheaply.They almostalwaysrelyonlessadvantageoustechnologiessuchasanaloguecontrol,orhalfcontrol, whereoneofthetwoThyristorsinthephasesisreplacedwithadiode.Therearesystemswhich onlycontroltheenergyflowinonephasewhiletheothertwoaredirectlyconnected.Owingtothe variablequalityandperformanceofmanysocalledinvertersandsoftstartersavailabletothe unsuspectingpurchaser,internationalstandardsfortheseproductshavebeen,orarebeing, developed. Aninternationalstandard,IEC6094742'ACSemiconductorMotorControllersandStarters' definesthesoftstarterineveryimportantrespect,includingthermalandoverloadperformanceas wellaselectromagneticcompatibility.Byensuringthatanymotorcontrollerequipmentpurchased conformstoIEC6094742,ausershouldbereasonablysafeguardedfromshoddyorinadequate productswhenspecifyingequipmentforfutureinstallations. Aparticularadvantageoftheuseoftheoptimisingsoftstarterisitsimpactonthemaintenance requirementsofassociatedelectromechanicalequipment.Optimisinglowersthesurface

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temperatureofthemotorbyreducingthelosseswithinthemotor.Thisprolongsthemotorlife andreducesheatingofthesurroundingatmosphereintheprocess.Iftheatmosphereissubjectto airconditioning,reducingtheheatinputwillreducetheairconditioningcosts.Reducedstartingand runningcurrentsreducescablelossesand,contactorswitchingoperationsarecarriedoutunderthe mostadvantageousconditions.Nocurrentflowsonswitchonsinceallswitchingiscarriedoutby theThyristorsvirtuallyeliminatingtheneedforcontactreplacement. Indeed,thereareagrowingnumberofinstallationswherecontactorsarenolongeremployed, beingreplacedbycontrollablecircuitbreakersorisolatorsinstead. Insummary,electroniccontrollersformostfixedspeedapplicationsareopeningnewwaysof increasingtheefficientoperationofinductionmotors,aswellasofferingsignificantbenefitsin control.Intendingusersneedtoensurethemselvesofthequalityandperformanceofanyproducts theyexpecttofitandthiscanbereasonablyexpectedifcompliancewiththeappropriateIEC standardsisdemanded.

SD0018803

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