Chemical Engineering Operations

Solvent extraction (liquid-liquid extraction)

Dr. Anand V. Patwardhan
Professor of Chemical Engineering
Institute of Chemical Technology
Nathalal M. Parikh Road
Matunga (East), Mumbai-400019
[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]
Liquid-Liquid Extraction / Solvent Extraction
Separation of constituents of liquid solution by contact
with another insoluble liquid provided components of with another insoluble liquid, provided components of
original solution distribute differently between the two
liquids liquids.
Two major differences between LEACHING and Two major differences between LEACHING and
EXTRACTION:
1. Carrier phase is a liquid, not a solid, so the physical
separation techniques change, p q g ,
2. Two distinct liquid phases develop, hence non-
2
q p p,
uniformity of resulting solutions.
Driving force: chemical differences, not the vapor
press re differences and hence can be sed hen pressure differences, and hence can be used when
distillation is impractical.
For example: to separate materials with similar boiling
points mixtures containing temperature sensitive points, mixtures containing temperature sensitive
compounds.
Common applications: separation and purification of
lube oils, separation of penicillin fromfermentation lube oils, separation of penicillin from fermentation
broth, etc.
3
Distillation and evaporation generally produce
finished prod cts; liq id e traction generall does not finished products; liquid extraction generally does not.
The products must be separated to obtain final The products must be separated to obtain final
products.
Secondary separation: by distillation or evaporation.
The overall process cost thus must be considered
Extraction may become economical for dilute aqueous
solutions when evaporation would require p q
vaporisation of very large amounts of water.
4
Terminology
Feed: solution to be treated.
Solvent: liquid used in contacting.
Extract: enriched solvent product.
Raffinate: depleted feed.
Process: single stage, multistage crosscurrent, or
countercurrent.
5
A typical ternary diagram
6
Plait point:
Located near the top of the
two-phase envelope, at the p p ,
inflection point.
It t diti It represents a condition
where the 3-component
mixture separates into two mixture separates into two
phases, but the phases have
identical compositions identical compositions.
(analogous to azeotropic
mixture of liquid and
vapor.)
7
2 main classes of liquid-liquid equilibrium:
Class I system: 1 immiscible pair of compounds.
Class II system: 2 immiscible pairs leading to Class II system: 2 immiscible pairs, leading to
triangular diagram.
Solvent Selection:
Selectivity: equilibriumratio of solute in each phase Selectivity: equilibrium ratio of solute in each phase.
Distribution coefficients: y/x at equilibrium; large
f values preferable.
Insolubility: should not be soluble in carrier (feed) y ( )
liquid.
8
Recoverability: constraints such as azeotropes.
Density: must be different phases can be separated by
settling.
Interfacial tension: if too high, liquids will be difficult
to mix to mix.
Chemical reactivity: solvent should be inert and stable.
Viscosity, Vapor pressure, Freezing point: low values
make storage easier. make storage easier.
Safety: toxicity, flammability.
Cost:
9
Calculations:
1. Number of stages needed to make a separation.
2. Amount of solvent needed to make a separation.
3. Liquid-Liquid equilibrium is not available as
arithmetic hence iterative or graphical computations arithmetic, hence iterative or graphical computations.
Choice of graphical approaches:
i. McCabe-Thiele approach: if y versus x data is
available (mass fraction of solute in E-phase versus ( p
mass fraction in R-phase). The curve begins at the
origin and ends with the plait point composition.
10
g p p p
ii. Hunter-Nash method: Equilateral triangle
diagram: constr ction can be done directl on the diagram: construction can be done directly on the
triangle.
iii. Rectangular equilibrium diagrams.
11
Solvent-to-Feed Ratio:
For a given feed mixture, required degree of
extraction operating pressure and temperature and extraction, operating pressure and temperature, and
choice of solvent, there exists a minimum solvent-to-
feed ratio (corresponding to infinite stages) feed ratio (corresponding to infinite stages).
This is called feed pinch point since this represents an This is called feed pinch point, since this represents an
extract phase in equilibrium with the entering feed.
A theoretical upper limit or maximum solvent-to-feed
ratio also can be determined. The maximum solvent-
to-feed ratio is thus that which puts the mixture on the
phase boundary, or single phase.
12
p y, g p
Extraction equipment selection
Design constraints:
(1) Maximise area of mass transfer,
(2) Adjust flow feeds for maximum solute recovery.
3 main types of extractors:
Mixer-settlers: when only one equilibrium stage is
needed. The two phases are added and mixed. p
Separation based on density differences.
Disadvantage: requires large-volume vessel and a high
13
g q g g
solvent demand.
Contacting columns: packed / tray / spray column. In
case of packed col mn the packing material sho ld be case of packed column, the packing material should be
wetted by the continuous phase. The flow in a column
should always be countercurrent should always be countercurrent.
Centrifugal contractors: Ideal for systems where Ap is Centrifugal contractors: Ideal for systems where Ap is
less than 4%. Also, it can offer multiple stages.
14
Advantages and disadvantages of the various extractor types
Unit Advantages Disadvantages
Efficient
Low head room
L fl
Mixer-
Settler
ow e d oo
Induces good
contacting
Can handle any
Large floor
High setup costs
High operation costs
Can handle any
number of stages
Columns
( itho t
Small investment costs
High head room
Diffic lt to scale p fromlab (without
Agitation)
Low operating costs
Difficult to scale up from lab
Less efficient than mixer-settler
Columns
Good dispersion
Difficult to separate small density Columns
(with
Agitation)
Low investment costs
Can handle any
number of stages
Difficult to separate small density
differences
Does not tolerate high flow ratios
Centrifugal
Extractors
Can separate small
density differences
Short holding time
High setup cost
High operating and maintenance
costs
15
Extractors Short holding time
Small liquid inventory
costs
Cannot handle many stages
Rotating Disc Contactor
16
Rotating Disc Contactor
Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium
Chemical potential of both liquid phases must be equal,
L L L L L L
1 2 1 1 2 2
x x
i i i i i i
u = u =
For a multi-component system, the UNIQUAC equation
for the liquid phase activity coefficient is represented as: for the liquid phase activity coefficient is represented as:
( ) ( )
combinatorial ln ln l residual n
i i i
= +
i i i
17
Activity coefficient models for finding mole fractions:
UNIFAC (UNIquac Functional group Activity
Coefficient) Coefficient)
UNIQUAC (UNIversal QUAsiChemical) UNIQUAC (UNIversal QUAsiChemical)
NRTL(non-randomtwo liquid) NRTL (non random two liquid)
Combinatorial and residual activities: based on
statistical mechanical theory and compositions are
computed from the size and energy differences
between the molecules in the mixture. The
relationships for these two activities are available.
18
Theory Ternary Phase Diagram
General principles:
Sumof the perpendicular distances from any point Sum of the perpendicular distances from any point
within the triangle to the three sides equals the altitude
of the triangle of the triangle.
Each apex of triangle represents one pure component.
Any point of a side of the triangle represents a binary
mixture. mixture.
Lines may be drawn parallel to the sides of the
il t l t i l f th l tti f th equilateral triangle for the plotting of the
compositions.
19
Phase diagram for a three component system
20
Ternary phase diagram: directly from experimental
data data.
Saturation curve (miscibility boundary) JDPEK: Saturation curve (miscibility boundary), JDPEK:
experimentally by a cloud point titration.
For example, a solution containing Aand C with
some composition is made and then component B some composition is made, and then component B
is added until the onset of cloudiness (haze) due to
formation of a immiscible second phase occurs. formation of a immiscible second phase occurs.
Then the composition can be plotted onto the
ternary phase diagram. y p g
21
Tie lines: Join points (equilibrium) on miscibility
bo ndar boundary.
Tie lines may be presented in ternary phase diagram Tie lines may be presented in ternary phase diagram
from an experiment
For example, A mixture may be prepared with
composition that of point H (40%A 40%C 20% composition that of point H (40% A, 40% C, 20%
B). If we allow it to equilibrate, then we can
chemically analyse final extract (E) phase and the chemically analyse final extract (E) phase and the
raffinate (R) phase.
22
Point F: feed; Point S: solvent.
Point H: composition of feed and solvent at
equilibrium equilibrium.
Point H: determined by summing feed (F) and solvent Point H: determined by summing feed (F) and solvent
(S) compositions for each component
Points R and E: compositions of Raffinate and
Extract and line joining them forms tie line. Extract and line joining them forms tie line.
Point P: plait point: At this point, only one liquid p p p , y q
phase exists and the compositions of two effluents are
equal.
23
q
Curve JRDPEK: equilibrium between all three
components components.
Area under JRDPEK: region where two liquid phases Area under JRDPEK: region where two liquid phases
will exist.
Area above JRDPEK: only one liquid phase.
Operating line: FE and SR.
Equilibrium constraint: chemical potential
E R E E R R E R E E R R
x x
A A A A A A
u = u =
24
Separation factor
y
E
x
| =
x
R
Solute fluxes in Raffinate and Extract:
i
Extract:
i
N K A x x
E E E
i
=
Raffinate:
i
N K A x x
R R R
=
where where,
K
E
= overall mass transfer coefficient on Extract side
K = overall mass transfer coefficient on Raffinate side K
R
= overall mass transfer coefficient on Raffinate side
A = total available mass transfer area
x
i
= solute concentration at interface on Extract side x
E
= solute concentration at interface on Extract side
x
i
R
= solute concentration at interface on Raffinate side
25
A= carrier solvent B = solvent used for extraction C = component to be extracted
26
The figure gives a general ternary diagram for a
desired sol te (C) an e tracting sol ent (B) and a desired solute (C), an extracting solvent (B) and a
carrier solvent (A) from which the solute is to be
extracted extracted.
Assume: feed (F) contains components Aand C Assume: feed (F) contains components A and C.
Solvent (S) is introduced in such a way that it will Solvent (S) is introduced in such a way that it will
extract C from feed.
The Raffinate composition (R) is specified with respect
to the recovery of C. y
27
Stream Components
Composition
i ?
Flow rate
i ?
Stream Components
given? given?
F A and C YES YES
S B
YES, usually pure
OR
l ti l B
NO, obtained
from
l l ti relatively pure B calculation
B with
NO, obtained
NO, obtained
from
E
B with
large C
from
calculation
from
component
balance ba a ce
R
A with
YES, recovery
amount
NO, obtained
from
R
small C of solute C
needed
component
balance
28
Calculation of Pmin and Calculation of Pmin, and
determination of the
minimum solvent-to-feed
ti (S/F) ratio (S/F)
min
29
Step 1: Determine the minimum solvent-to-feed ratio
(S/F) This is needed to find o t E1 (e tract (S/F)
min
. This is needed to find out E1 (extract
composition)
Procedure:
1. Draw an operating line from S to R that extends
beyond the boundaries of triangular diagram.
2. Each tie line is considered to be a pinch point, and line
f i i i i i 1 drawn from each tie line to operating line is named P1,
, Pn.
3. The Pinch Point farthest away from R is called Pmin.
30
4. After Pmin is established, a line is drawn from Pmin,
thro gh F (feed composition) to the other side of through F (feed composition), to the other side of
equilibrium curve. This point will represent E1.
5. After E1 is known, a mass balance around the system
gives the mixing point M(cross of SF and E1R) gives the mixing point M(cross of SF and E1R)
6 F + Smin = R + E1 = M 6. F + Smin R + E1 M
31
Solving for (Smin/F), we get,
x x
S
A A
min F M

=
F x x
A A
M S
=

Let (S/F)
actual
= z (S/F)
min
(1 < z < 2, generally).
The new mixing point (M) is determined by moving
along the FS line until the new ratio point is reached.
(FM )
(MS)
'
=
'
l
l(MS) l
32
33
Step 2: Determine E (extract composition)
Procedure:
1. A line is drawn from the raffinate composition (R),
through the new mixing point (M) and to the other through the new mixing point (M) and to the other
side of the equilibrium line.
2. This is the extract (solute-rich solvent) composition
(E). (E).
34
Step 3: Determine Operating Point P
Procedure:
1. Operating point is a graphical point that represents
the difference in overall flow the difference in overall flow.
2 Draw a line connecting the solvent (S) and raffinate 2. Draw a line connecting the solvent (S) and raffinate
(R) points on diagram (operating line)
3. Draw a line connecting extract (E) and feed (F). The
point at which these two lines intersect (P) is operating p ( ) p g
point P.
35
Determination of the Determination of the
extract (E) composition
36
Step 4: Number of stages
Procedure:
1. Follow tie line from E to the other side of equilibrium
curve to get intermediate composition of a raffinate curve to get intermediate composition of a raffinate
stage.
2. Another operating line drawn from operating point P,
through this intermediate point, ends at point E. This through this intermediate point, ends at point E . This
is an equilibrium stage of the system.
3. This procedure is repeated until stages have been
constructed to R, the raffinate composition.
37
, p
Step 5: Calculation of unknown flow rates
Procedure:
1 This involves mass balance on individual components 1. This involves mass balance on individual components.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
x F x S x R x E
AF AS AR AE
+ = +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
x F x S x R x E
BF BS BR BE
+ = +
x
A
s and x
B
s = fractions of Aand B for the specified
streams.
F, S, R, and E = flow rates of feed, solvent, raffinate,
and extract and extract.
R and E = unknowns.
38
Step 6: Determination of Extraction Column Diameter
Procedure:
1. Diameter of extraction column must be enough to
permit two phases flowing countercurrently without permit two phases flowing countercurrently without
flooding.
2. Estimation of column diameter for L-L contacting
devices is far more complex and uncertain than L-V devices is far more complex and uncertain than L V
contactors due to larger number of important
variables.
39
3. Variables necessary for calculating column diameter
incl de: include:
Flow rates of both phases Flow rates of both phases
Density differences between two phases Density differences between two phases
Interfacial tension Interfacial tension
Direction of mass transfer Direction of mass transfer
Viscosity and density of continuous phase y y p
Geometry of internals
40
y
4. Column diameter may be best determined through
scale p of laborator test r ns: scale up of laboratory test runs:
i Laboratory or pilot plant test unit with D > 1 i. Laboratory or pilot plant test unit with D
P
> 1.
ii Superficial velocities in each phase are measured ii. Superficial velocities in each phase are measured.
iii The sumof these velocities may be assumed to hold iii. The sum of these velocities may be assumed to hold
constant for larger scaled up commercial units.
iv. The superficial velocity data will be used to
calculate the column diameter through the g
following correlation derivation:
41
5. u
D
= Actual average velocity of dispersed (droplet)
phase phase.
u
C
= Actual average velocity of the continuous phase.
U
D
= Superficial velocity of dispersed phase.
U
C
= Superficial velocity of continuous phase.
C
p y p

D
= Volume fraction of dispersed phase in column
A erage droplet rise elocit relati e to contin o s u
r
= Average droplet rise velocity relative to continuous
phase
C C i f i C = Capacity Parameter for the extraction column
C
D
= Drag Coefficient

D
,
C
= Densities of dispersed and continuous phases

M
= Density (volumetric mean)
42

M
Density (volumetric mean)
{1
D
} = Factor which accounts for hindered rising
effect of other droplets effect of other droplets
u
0
= Characteristic rise velocity for a single droplet
= Viscosity (subscript will determine component)
= Interfacial tension (subscript will determine ( p
component)
A
C
= Column cross sectional area A
C
Column cross sectional area
D
T
= Column diameter
A i i g = Acceleration due to gravity
M
D
, M
C
= Mass flow rates of dispersed and continuous
phases
43
Countercurrent flows of
dispersed and continuous
liquid phases in a column
Diameter Calculation Procedure:
Step A: Determination of Column Total Capacity
The actual average velocities of each component The actual average velocities of each component
relative to the column wall are:
U UU
C D
u ; u
1
D C
D D
= =
o o
44
D D
The average droplet rise velocity relative to the
contin o s phase is the s m of these elocities (for continuous phase is the sum of these velocities (for
counter-current operation):
U U U U
C D
u
1
r
= +
o o 1
r
D D
o o
This relative velocity is also expressed in terms of
forces acting upon droplet including drag forces,
gravitational forces, and buoyancy forces. These
variables are combined into one parameter called C:
d g
4
| |
|
Capacity Paramet
g
4
P
3 C
er C
D
|
= =
|
\ .
45
D
\ .
If the droplet diameter dp is not known C may be
obtained thro gh a correlation [Seader J D ; Henle obtained through a correlation [Seader, J.D.; Henley,
E.J. Separation Process Principles, John Wiley and
Sons NewYork 1999 ] which was developed through Sons, New York, 1999.], which was developed through
experimental data from operating equipment.
11
2
1
C D
u C 1 1 2
D D
p p
| |
|
= u u
p
|
f
r D D
C
p
|
\ .
From experimental data, Gayler et al. found that the p , y
right-hand-side of the above equation may be
expressed as:
u 1 u
p
u 1
0 D
u
46
Eliminating the relative velocity (u
r
) by combining the
abo e 2 eq ations: above 2 equations:
( )
U U
C D
u 1 1
| |
+ = u
|
( )
u 1
1
0 D
D D
... 1 + = u
|
o o
\ .
This equation is a cubic in This equation is a cubic in
D
.
Agraph of U
D
/u
0
versus
D
may be generated at some A graph of U
D
/u
0
versus
D
may be generated at some
value of U
C
/u
o
.
This graph represents the holdup curve for the liquid-
liquid extraction column. q
A typical value of U
C
/u
o
may be assumed 0.1.
47
yp
C o
y
Typical holdup curve for liquid-liquid extraction
Flooding point
|
g p
U
D
|
U
C
0.1 =
u
0
u
0
D
o
48
D
At fixed U
C
, an increase in U
D
results in a increased
al e of hold p ntil the flooding point is reached value of holdup
D
until the flooding point is reached
at the maximum:
U 0 c co = U 0
D D
U
C
c co =
On the other hand, with U
D
fixed, U
C
may be increased
until the flooding point is achieved at: g p
U 0
C D
U
c co =
D
49
Inserting these derivatives into equation (1) results in
the follo ing e pression for at flooding conditions the following expression for
D
at flooding conditions.
The subscript f denotes flooding:

( )
1 2
U U
C C
1 8 3 ... 2 4 1


| | | |

| |
| |
u = +
` |
| |
\ .
( )
1 8 3 ... 2 4 1
U U
D
f
D D
u +
` |
| |
\ .

\ . \ .

)
50
Apply derivatives of Equation (1) into Equation (2), the
e pression sol ed sim ltaneo sl res lting in the expression solved simultaneously resulting in the
following Figure for the variation of total capacity as a
function of phase flow ratio: function of phase flow ratio:
Total Capacity versus Phase flow ratio
U U
D C
f
+
|
D C
f
u
00
Asymptotic limit = 0.25
51
U U
D C

Step B: Characteristic Rise Velocity calculation
Dimensionless quantity [(u
0

C

C
)/( )] may be
assumed to be ~ 0 01 as found by Olney assumed to be ~ 0.01, as found by Olney,
experimentally.
Hence, the characteristic rise velocity for a single
droplet may be expressed as: droplet may be expressed as:
( )
0.01
u
o Ap
= u
0
C C
u p
52
Step C: Calculation of the superficial velocities at
50%of flooding value 50% of flooding value
The column should be operated at 50%of flooding The column should be operated at 50% of flooding
velocity for best performance.
The sum of superficial velocities is found by reading the
total capacity fromTotal Capacity versus Phase flow total capacity from Total Capacity versus Phase flow
ratio graph., and multiplying by the characteristic rise
velocity then dividing the quantity by 2. velocity then dividing the quantity by 2.
53
Step D: Determination of the Total Volumetric Flow rate
The total ol metric flo rate is a f nction of the mass The total volumetric flow rate is a function of the mass
flow rates:
| | U U
C D
Q
0
| |
|
= +
|
p p
0
D C
|
p p
\ .
Step E: Determination of Column Cross-Sectional Area Step E: Determination of Column Cross Sectional Area
The cross-sectional area is the total volumetric flow
rate divided by the sum of the superficial velocities at y p
50% of flooding:
Q
Total
A = A
C
U U
C D
50% flooding
=
| |
+
|
\ .
54
50% ood g
Step F: Determination of Column Diameter
The column diameter may be found from the cross-
sectional area: sectional area:
1 2
D 4A
T C
| |
= t
|
\ . T C
|
\ .
55
Step 7: Determine the Height of the Column
Procedure:
HETS (Height Equivalent to a Theoretical Stage) gives
directly the column height fromnumber of stages directly the column height from number of stages.
For a well designed and efficiently operated column For a well designed and efficiently operated column,
experimental data suggest that the dominant physical
properties influencing HETS are: properties influencing HETS are:
a. Interfacial tension
b. Phase viscosities
c Densit difference bet een phases
56
c. Density difference between phases
HETS is estimated by conducting laboratory
e periments to determine the col mn diameter as experiments to determine the column diameter as
discussed in step 6.
These values are scaled to commercial size column by
assuming that the HETS varies with the column assuming that the HETS varies with the column
diameter raised to an exponent, which may vary from
0 2 to 0 4 depending on type of system 0.2 to 0.4, depending on type of system.
Generally, the exponent is arbitrarily set at 1/3. the Generally, the exponent is arbitrarily set at 1/3. the
following figure shows the HETS for columns and
rotary contactor. y
57
58
Find Value of (HETS/D
T
1/3
)
From Figure, determine the value of (HETS/D
T
1/3
) at a
specified interfacial tension for the component system specified interfacial tension for the component system.
This value of (x) is known fromabove as well as from This value of (x) is known from above as well as from
the column diameter:
HETS = (HETS/D
T
1/3
) . D
T
1/3
Total height of the column is derived from the number
of equilibrium stages (Step 4): q g ( p )
Total Height = (HETS) (Number of Equilibrium Stages)
59
g ( ) ( q g )
Performance of Several Types of Column Extractors
Extractor Type
1/HETS,
(m
1
)
U
D
+ U
C
,
(m/hr) ( ) ( )
Packed Column 1.5 - 2.5 12 - 30
Sieve Plate Column 0 8 - 1 2 27 - 60 Sieve Plate Column 0.8 - 1.2 27 - 60
Rotating Disk
Contactor
2.5 - 3.5 15 - 30
Contactor
Karr Column 3.5 - 7.0 30 - 40
60
Important Properties in Liquid-Liquid Extraction:
1. Temperature: smaller role in extraction than in other
separation processes separation processes.
It is only dependent upon the temperatures of the It is only dependent upon the temperatures of the
streams fed into the column.
There is no heating requirement for the process and
AH of mixing is generally insignificant. AH of mixing is generally insignificant.
For these reasons, extraction can be regarded as an , g
isothermal process.
61
2. Pressure: small role in extraction.
When combined with the temperature considerations,
it is only necessary that the mixture remain in the two it is only necessary that the mixture remain in the two-
phase liquid region.
Isothermal and isobaric condition is beneficial to
phase stability of system phase stability of system.
Phase stability is temperature- and pressure- Phase stability is temperature and pressure
dependent.
62
3. Activity coefficients: most important; determine the
miscibilit and hence the partition factor of the sol te miscibility and hence the partition factor of the solute.
For liquid liquid systems NRTLand UNIFAC models For liquid-liquid systems NRTL and UNIFAC models
are the most accurate in predicting the activities of the
liquids involved better than Van Laar or Margules liquids involved, better than Van Laar or Margules
equations.
Once a predictive model has been plotted on a
diagramit will most likely be necessary to fix the exact diagram it will most likely be necessary to fix the exact
equilibrium line experimentally for the most accurate
data.
63
4. Viscosity: affects flooding and choice of equipment.
Flooding of extraction columns is analogous to
flooding of packed gas liquid absorbers flooding of packed gas liquid absorbers.
Components having a high viscosity cannot be used in Components having a high viscosity cannot be used in
spray or packed columns.
64
COSTS INVOLVED
Economic tradeoff exists for the design:
1. At fixed solvent feed ratio, amount of solute extracted
increases with increased number of trays Thus the increases with increased number of trays. Thus, the
value of the unextracted solute is balanced against the
cost of the extraction equipment required to recover it cost of the extraction equipment required to recover it.
2. For a fixed extent of extraction, the number of stages 2. For a fixed extent of extraction, the number of stages
required decreases as the solvent rate increases. The
capacity of the equipment necessary for handling the p y q p y g
larger solvent flow increases with higher solvent rate.
Thus, the cost of the equipment passes through a
65
, q p p g
minimum.
3. As solvent rate increases the extract solutions become
more dil te Therefore the cost of sol ent remo al is more dilute. Therefore, the cost of solvent removal is
increased as well as the operating cost for increased
utilities utilities.
4 As a result of these economic balances the total 4. As a result of these economic balances the total
annualized cost (investment and operating costs) must
pass through a minimum at the optimumsolvent pass through a minimum at the optimum solvent
reflux rate.
5. Cost models have been developed for the various types
of extractor design, such as, column type extractor, g , , yp ,
mixer-settler, and continuous centrifugal extractor.
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REFERENCES
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