Chapter 1

Kinematics of a Particle
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Position, Velocity, and Acceleration
The position of a particle P relative to a given reference frame with origin O is given
by the position vector r from point O to point P, as shown in Fig. 1.1. If the particle
r(t + t)
P(t + t)
r(t + t) r(t)
O
P(t)
r(t)
path

Fig. 1.1 Position of a particle P

P is in motion relative to the reference frame, the position vector r is a function of
time t, Fig. 1.1, and can be expressed as
r = r(t).
The velocity of the particle P relative to the reference frame at time t is dened by
v =
dr
dt
= r = lim
t0
r(t +t) r(t)
t
, (1.1)
1
2 1 Kinematics of a Particle
where the vector r(t +t) r(t) is the change in position, or displacement of P,
during the interval of time t, Fig. 1.1. The velocity is the rate of change of the
position of the particle P. The magnitude of the velocity v is the speed v =|v|. The
dimensions of v are (distance)/(time). The position and velocity of a particle can be
specied only relative to a reference frame.
The acceleration of the particle P relative to the given reference frame at time t
is dened by
a =
dv
dt
= v = lim
t0
v(t +t) v(t)
t
, (1.2)
where v(t +t) v(t) is the change in the velocity of P during the interval of
time t, Fig. 1.1. The acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of P at
time t (the second time derivative of the displacement), and its dimensions are
(distance)/(time)
2
.
1.1.2 Angular Motion of a Line
The angular motion of the line L, in a plane, relative to a reference line L
0
, in the
plane, is given by an angle , Fig. 1.2. The angular velocity of L relative to L
0
is
dened by
=
d
dt
=

, (1.3)
and the angular acceleration of L relative to L
0
is dened by
=
d
dt
=
d
2

dt
2
= =

. (1.4)

L
0
L
Fig. 1.2 Angular motion of line L relative to a reference line L
0
1.1 Introduction 3
The dimensions of the angular position, angular velocity, and angular acceleration
are [rad], [rad/s], and [rad/s
2
], respectively. The scalar coordinate can be positive
or negative. The counterclockwise (ccw) direction is considered positive.
1.1.3 Rotating Unit Vector
The angular motion of a unit vector u in a plane can be described as the angular
motion of a line. The direction of u relative to a reference line L
0
, is specied by the
angle in Fig. 1.3(a), and the rate of rotation of u relative to L
0
is dened by the
angular velocity
=
d
dt
=

.
u(t + t)
n
u

(t)
L
0
u(t)
L
0
u
du
dt

(a)
(b)
u
Fig. 1.3 Angular motion of a unit vector u in plane
4 1 Kinematics of a Particle
The time derivative of u is specied by
du
dt
= lim
t0
u(t +t) u(t)
t
.
Figure 1.3(a) shows the vector u at time t and at time t +t. The change in u
during this interval is u = u(t +t)u(t), and the angle through which u rotates is
=(t +t) (t). The triangle in Fig. 1.3(a) is isosceles, so the magnitude of
u is
|u| = 2|u| sin(/2) = 2sin(/2).
The vector u is
u =|u|n = 2sin(/2)n,
where n is a unit vector that points in the direction of u, Fig. 1.3(a). The time
derivative of u is
du
dt
= lim
t0
u
t
= lim
t0
2sin(/2)n
t
= lim
t0
sin(/2)
/2

t
n =
lim
t0
sin(/2)
/2

t
n = lim
t0

t
n =
d
dt
n,
where lim
t0
sin(/2)
/2
= 1 and lim
t0

t
=
d
dt
.
So the time derivative of the unit vector u is
du
dt
=
d
dt
n =

n = n,
where n is a unit vector that is perpendicular to u, n u, and points in the positive
direction, Fig. 1.3(b).
1.2 Rectilinear Motion
The position of a particle P on a straight line relative to a reference point O can
be indicated by the coordinate s measured along the line from O to P, as shown in
Fig. 1.4. In this case the the reference frame is the straight line and the origin of the
r u
s
O P
s
Fig. 1.4 Straight line motion of P
1.3 Curvilinear Motion 5
the reference frame is the point O. The reference frame and its origin are used to
describe the position of particle P. The coordinate s is considered to be positive to
the right of the origin O and is considered to be negative to the left of the origin.
Let u be a unit vector parallel to the straight line and pointing in the positive s,
Fig. 1.4. The position vector of the point P relative to the origin O is
r = su.
The velocity of the particle P relative to the origin O is
v =
dr
dt
=
ds
dt
u = su.
The magnitude v of the velocity vector v = vu is the speed (velocity scalar)
v =
ds
dt
= s.
The speed v of the particle P is equal to the slope at time t of the line tangent to the
graph of s as a function of time.
The acceleration of the particle P relative to O is
a =
dv
dt
=
d
dt
(vu) =
dv
dt
u = vu = su.
The magnitude a of the acceleration vector a = au is the acceleration scalar
a =
dv
dt
=
d
2
s
dt
2
.
The acceleration a is equal to the slope at time t of the line tangent to the graph of v
as a function of time.
1.3 Curvilinear Motion
The motion of the particle P along a curvilinear path, relative to a reference frame,
can be specied in terms of its position, velocity, and acceleration vectors. The di-
rections and magnitudes of the position, velocity, and acceleration vectors do not
depend on the particular coordinate system used to express them. The represen-
tations of the position, velocity, and acceleration vectors are different in different
coordinate systems.
6 1 Kinematics of a Particle
1.3.1 Cartesian Coordinates
Let r be the position vector of a particle P relative to the origin O of a cartesian
reference frame, Fig. 1.5. The components of r are the x, y, and z coordinates of the
particle P
r = x +yj +zk. (1.5)
The velocity of the particle P relative to the reference frame is
v =
dr
dt
= r =
dx
dt
+
dy
dt
j +
dz
dt
k = x + yj + zk. (1.6)
The velocity in terms of scalar components is
v = v
x
+v
y
j +v
z
k, (1.7)
Three scalar equations can be obtained
v
x
=
dx
dt
= x, v
y
=
dy
dt
= y, v
z
=
dz
dt
= z. (1.8)
The acceleration of the particle P relative to the reference frame is
a =
dv
dt
= v = r =
dv
x
dt
+
dv
y
dt
j +
dv
z
dt
k = v
x
+ v
y
j + v
z
k = x + yj + zk.
Expressing the acceleration in terms of scalar components
a = a
x
+a
y
j +a
z
k, (1.9)
three scalar equations can be obtained
O
r
P (x, y, z)

j
k
x
y
z
v
path
Fig. 1.5 Position vector of a particle P in a cartesian reference frame
1.3 Curvilinear Motion 7
a
x
=
dv
x
dt
= v
x
= x, a
y
=
dv
y
dt
= v
y
= y, a
z
=
dv
z
dt
= v
z
= z. (1.10)
Equations (1.8) and (1.10) describe the motion of a particle relative to a cartesian
coordinate system.
1.3.2 Normal and Tangential Coordinates
The position, velocity, and acceleration of a particle will be specied in terms of
their components tangential and normal (perpendicular) to the path. The particle P
is moving along a plane, curvilinear path relative to a reference frame, Fig. 1.6. The
O

s
r(t)
s
r
u
r(t + t)
O
P(t)
starting point
path
t
u
Fig. 1.6 Particle P moving along a plane, curvilinear path
position vector r species the position of the particle P relative to the reference point
O. The coordinate s measures the position of the particle P along the path relative
to a point O

on the path. The velocity of P relative to O is

v =
dr
dt
= lim
t0
r(t +t) r(t)
t
= lim
t0
r
t
, (1.11)
where r = r(t +t) r(t), as shown in Fig. 1.6. The distance traveled along the
path from t to t +t is s. On can write Eq. (1.11) as
v = lim
t0
s
t
u,
where u is a unit vector in the direction of r. In the limit, t approaches zero, the
magnitude of r equals ds because a chord progressively approaches the curve. For
the same reason, the direction of r approaches tangency to the curve, u becomes a
unit vector, u
t
, tangent to the path at the position of P, as shown Fig. 1.6
8 1 Kinematics of a Particle
v = vu
t
=
ds
dt
u
t
. (1.12)
The tangent direction is dened by the unit tangent vector u
t
(or ), which is a path
variable parameter
dr
dt
=
ds
dt
u
t
,
or
u
t
=
dr
ds
. (1.13)
The velocity of a particle in curvilinear motion is a vector whose magnitude equals
the rate of change of distance traveled along the path and whose direction is tangent
to the path.
To determine the acceleration of P, the time derivative of Eq. (1.12) is taken
a =
dv
dt
=
dv
dt
u
t
+v
du
t
dt
. (1.14)
If the path is not a straight line, the unit vector u
t
rotates as P moves on the path,
and the time derivative of u
t
is not zero. The path angle denes the direction of
u
t
relative to a reference line shown in Fig. 1.7. The time derivative of the rotating
tangent unit vector u
t
is
du
t
dt
=
d
dt
u
n
,
where u
n
is a unit vector that is normal to u
t
, and points in the positive direction
if d/dt is positive. The normal unit vector u
n
(or ) denes the normal direction
to the path. Substituting this expression into Eq. (1.14), the acceleration of P is
obtained
O

s
r(t)
O
P(t)
reference line
path

t
u
n
u
Fig. 1.7 Path angle and normal and tangent unit vectors to the path
1.3 Curvilinear Motion 9
a =
dv
dt
u
t
+v
d
dt
u
n
. (1.15)
If the path is a straight line at time t, the normal component of the acceleration
equals zero, because in that case d/dt is zero.
The tangential component of the acceleration arises from the rate of change of
the magnitude of the velocity. The normal component of the acceleration arises from
the rate of change in the direction of the velocity vector.
Figure 1.8 shows the positions on the path reached by P at time t, P(t), and at
time t +dt, P(t +dt). If the path is curved, straight lines extended from these points
+ d
P
d
ds

C
P(t)
(t + t)
t
u
n
u
Fig. 1.8 Instantaneous radius of curvature
P(t) and P(t +dt) perpendicular to the path will intersect at C as shown in Fig. 1.8.
The distance from the path to the particle where these two lines intersect is called
the instantaneous radius of curvature of the path.
If the path is circular with radius a, then the radius of curvature equals the radius
of the path, = a. The angle d is the change in the path angle, and ds is the
distance traveled, from t to t +t. The radius of curvature is related to ds by,
Fig. 1.8
ds =d.
Dividing by dt, one can obtain
ds
dt
= v =
d
dt
.
Using this relation, one can write Eq. (1.15) as
a =
dv
dt
u
t
+
v
2

u
n
.
For a given value of v, the normal component of the acceleration depends on the
instantaneous radius of curvature. The greater the curvature of the path, the greater
the normal component of acceleration. When the acceleration is expressed in this
10 1 Kinematics of a Particle
way, the normal unit vector must be dened to point toward the concave side of
the path, Fig. 1.9. The velocity and acceleration in terms of normal and tangential
P
P
P
P
t
u
n
u
n
u
n
u
n
u
t
u
t
u
t
u
Fig. 1.9 Direction of the normal unit vector u
n
P
s
s
P
v = v
(a)
(b)
a
a
n
a
t
t
u
t
u
t
u
t
u
n
u
n
u
n
u
Fig. 1.10 (a) Velocity and (b) acceleration in terms of normal and tangential components
components are, Fig.1.10
v = v u
t
=
ds
dt
u
t
, (1.16)
a = a
t
u
t
+a
n
u
n
, (1.17)
where
a
t
=
dv
dt
, a
n
= v
d
dt
=
v
2

. (1.18)
1.3 Curvilinear Motion 11
If the motion occurs in the x y plane of a cartesian reference frame, Fig. 1.11, and
is the angle between the x axis and the unit vector , the unit vectors and are
related to the cartesian unit vectors by
x
y
P

j
t
u
n
u
Fig. 1.11 and in a cartesian reference frame
u
t
= cos +sinj,
u
n
=sin +cosj. (1.19)
If the path in the xy plane is described by a function y =y(x), it can be shown that
the instantaneous radius of curvature is given by
=
_
1+
_
dy
dx
_
2
_
3/2

d
2
y
dx
2

. (1.20)
1.3.3 Circular Motion
The particle P moves in a plane circular path of radius R as shown in Fig. 1.12. The
distance s is
s = R, (1.21)
where the angle species the position of the particle P along the circular path. The
velocity is obtained taking the time derivative of Eq. (1.21)
v = s = R

= R, (1.22)
where =

is the angular velocity of the line from the center of the path O to the
particle P The tangential component of the acceleration is a
t
= dv/dt and the
a
t
= v = R = R, (1.23)
12 1 Kinematics of a Particle
a
t t
u
P
O

s
R
O
R
'
t
u
n
u
a
a
n n
u
t
u
v
Fig. 1.12 Circular path of radius R
where = is the angular acceleration. The normal component of the acceleration
is
a
n
=
v
2
R
= R
2
. (1.24)
For the circular path the instantaneous radius of curvature is = R.
1.3.4 Polar Coordinates
A particle P is considered in the x y plane of a cartesian coordinate system. The
position of the point P relative to the origin O may be specied either by its carte-
sian coordinates x, y or by its polar coordinates r, as shown in Fig. 1.13. The polar
coordinates are dened by:
the unit vector u
r
, that points in the direction of the radial line from the origin O
to the particle P;
the unit vector u

that is perpendicular to u
r
, and points in the direction of in-
creasing the angle .
The unit vectors u
r
and u

are related to the cartesian unit vectors and j by

u
r
= cos +sinj,
u

=sin +cosj. (1.25)

The position vector r from O to P is
r = ru
r
, (1.26)
1.3 Curvilinear Motion 13

x
y
O
P r(t)
u
r
u

du
r
dt
=
d
dt
u

du

dt
=
d
dt
u
r
d
dt

j
Fig. 1.13 Polar coordinates r and
where r is the magnitude of the vector r, r =|r|.
The velocity of the particle P in terms of polar coordinates is obtained by taking the
time derivative of Eq. (1.26)
v =
dr
dt
=
dr
dt
u
r
+r
du
r
dt
. (1.27)
The time derivative of the rotating unit vector u
r
is
du
r
dt
=
d
dt
u

=u

, (1.28)
where = d/dt is the angular velocity.
Substituting Eq. (1.28) into Eq. (1.27), the velocity of P is
v =
dr
dt
u
r
+r
d
dt
u

=
dr
dt
u
r
+ru

= ru
r
+ru

, (1.29)
or
v = v
r
u
r
+v

, (1.30)
where
v
r
=
dr
dt
= r and v

= r. (1.31)
The acceleration of the particle P is obtained by taking the time derivative of
Eq. (1.29)
a =
dv
dt
=
d
2
r
dt
2
u
r
+
dr
dt
du
r
dt
+
dr
dt
d
dt
u

+
14 1 Kinematics of a Particle
r
d
2

dt
2
u

+r
d
dt
du

dt
(1.32)
As P moves, u

also rotates with angular velocity d/dt. The time derivative of the
unit vector u

is in the -u
r
direction if d/dt is positive
du

dt
=
d
dt
u
r
. (1.33)
Substituting Eq. (1.33) and Eq. (1.28) into Eq. (1.32), the acceleration of the particle
P is
a =
_
d
2
r
dt
2
r
_
d
dt
_
2
_
u
r
+
_
r
d
2

dt
2
+2
dr
dt
d
dt
_
u

.
Thus the acceleration of P is
a = a
r
u
r
+a

, (1.34)
where
a
r
=
d
2
r
dt
2
r
_
d
dt
_
2
=
d
2
r
dt
2
r
2
= r r
2
,
a

= r
d
2

dt
2
+2
dr
dt
d
dt
= r +2
dr
dt
= r +2 r. (1.35)
The term
=
d
2

dt
2
=

is called the angular acceleration.

The radial component of the acceleration r
2
is called the centripetal accelera-
tion. The transverse component of the acceleration 2 (dr/dt) is called the Coriolis
acceleration.
1.3.5 Cylindrical Coordinates
The cylindrical coordinates r, , and z describe the motion of a particle P in the
xyz space as shown in Fig. 1.14 . The cylindrical coordinates r and are the polar
coordinates of P measured in the plane parallel to the xy plane, and the unit vectors
u
r
, and u

are the same. The coordinate z measure the position of the particle P
perpendicular to the xy plane. The unit vector k attached to the coordinate z points
in the positive z axis direction. The position vector r of the particle P in terms of
cylindrical coordinates is
r = ru
r
+zk. (1.36)
1.3 Curvilinear Motion 15
x
d
dt
u

O
r
P
r
x
z
u
r
u
k
y
k
z

u
r
u

Fig. 1.14 Cylindrical coordinates r, , and z

The coordinate r in Eq. (1.36) is not equal to the magnitude of r except when the
particle P moves along a path in the x y plane.
The velocity of the particle P is
v =
dr
dt
= v
r
u
r
+v

+v
z
k
=
dr
dt
u
r
+ru

+
dz
dt
k
= ru
r
+ru

+ zk, (1.37)
and the acceleration of the particle P is
a =
dv
dt
= a
r
u
r
+a

+a
z
k, (1.38)
where
a
r
=
d
2
r
dt
2
r
2
= r r
2
,
a

= r +2
dr
dt
= r +2 r,
a
z
=
d
2
z
dt
2
= z. (1.39)
16 1 Kinematics of a Particle
1.4 Relative Motion
Suppose that A and B are two particles that move relative to a reference frame with
origin at point O, Fig. 1.15. Let r
A
and r
B
be the position vectors of points A and
O
r
A
r
B
r
AB
A
B
x
y
z
Fig. 1.15 Relative motion of two particles A and B
B relative to O. The vector r
BA
is the position vector of point A relative to point B.
These vectors are related by
r
A
= r
B
+r
BA
. (1.40)
The time derivative of Eq. (1.40) is
v
A
= v
B
+v
AB
, (1.41)
where v
A
is the velocity of A relative to O, v
B
is the velocity of B relative to O,
and v
AB
= dr
AB
/dt = r
AB
is the velocity of A relative to B. The time derivative of
Eq. (1.41) is
a
A
= a
B
+a
AB
, (1.42)
where a
A
and a
B
are the accelerations of A and B relative to O and a
AB
=dv
AB
/dt =
r
AB
is the acceleration of A relative to B.
1.5 Frenets Formulas 17
1.5 Frenets Formulas
The motion of a particle P along a three-dimensional path is considered, Fig. 1.16
(a). The tangent direction is dened by the unit tangent vector (|| = 1)

ds
d
d
dt
=
1

ds
dt

osculating plane
C
=
P(s)
P(s +ds).
d
(s + ds)
(s)
(s + ds)
(s)

path
(s)
(s)
90

d
2
(a)
d
(b)
Fig. 1.16 Frenets reference frame
18 1 Kinematics of a Particle
=
dr
ds
. (1.43)
The second unit vector is derived by considering the dependence of on s, =(s).
The dot product gives the magnitude of the unit vector , i.e.
= 1. (1.44)
Equation (1.44) can be differentiated with respect to the path variable s
d
ds
+
d
ds
= 0 =
d
ds
= 0. (1.45)
Equation (1.45) means that the vector d/ds is always perpendicular to the vector
. The normal direction, with the unit vector is , is dened to be parallel to the
derivative d/ds. Because parallelism of two vectors corresponds to their propor-
tionality, the normal unit vector may be written as
=
d
ds
, (1.46)
or
d
ds
=
1

, (1.47)
where is the radius of curvature.
Figure 1.16(a) depicts the tangent and normal vectors associated with two points,
P(s) and P(s +ds). The two points are separated by an innitesimal distance ds
measured along an arbitrary planar path. The point C is the intersection of the normal
vectors at the two positions along the curve, and it is the center of curvature. Because
ds is innitesimal, the arc P(s)P(s +ds) seems to be circular. The radius of this
arc is the radius of curvature. The formula for the arc of a circle is
d = ds/.
The angle d between the normal vectors in Fig. 1.16(a) is also the angle be-
tween the tangent vectors (s +ds) and (s). The vector triangle (s +ds), (s),
d =(s +ds) (s) in Fig. 1.16(b) is isosceles because |(s +ds)| =|(s)| = 1.
Hence, the angle between d and either tangent vector is 90

d/2. Since d is
innitesimal, the vector d is perpendicular to the vector in the direction of . A
unit vector has a length of one, so
|d| = d|| =
ds

.
Any vector may be expressed as the product of its magnitude and a unit vector
dening the sense of the vector
1.5 Frenets Formulas 19
d =|d| =
ds

. (1.48)
Note that the radius of curvature is generally not a constant.
The tangent () and normal () unit vectors at a selected position form a plane, the
osculating plane, that is tangent to the curve. Any plane containing , is tangent
to the curve. When the path is not planar, the orientation of the osculating plane
containing the , pair will depend on the position along the curve. The direction
perpendicular to the osculating plane is called the binormal, and the corresponding
unit vector is . The cross product of two unit vectors is a unit vector perpendicular
to the original two, so the binormal direction may be dened such that
=. (1.49)
Next the derivative of the unit vector with respect to s in terms of its tangent,
normal, and binormal components will be calculated. The component of any vector
in a specic direction may be obtained from a dot product with a unit vector in that
direction
d
ds
=
_

d
ds
_
+
_

d
ds
_
+
_

d
ds
_
. (1.50)
The orthogonality of the unit vectors and , , requires that
= 0. (1.51)
Equation (1.51) can be differentiated with respect to the path variable s

d
ds
+
d
ds
= 0,
or

d
ds
=
d
ds
=
_
1

_
=
1

. (1.52)
Because = 1 one may nd that

d
ds
= 0. (1.53)
The derivative of the binormal component is
1
T
=
d
ds
, (1.54)
or
d
ds
=
1
T
, (1.55)
20 1 Kinematics of a Particle
where T is the torsion. The reciprocal is used for consistency with Eq. (1.47). The
torsion T has the dimension of length.
Substitution of Eqs. (1.52)(1.53) and (1.54) into Eq. (1.50) results in
d
ds
=
1

+
1
T
. (1.56)
The derivative of
d
ds
=
_

d
ds
_
+
_

d
ds
_
+
_

d
ds
_
. (1.57)
may be obtained by a similar approach.
Using the fact that , and are mutually orthogonal, and Eqs. (1.47)(1.56), yields
= 0 =
d
ds
=
d
ds
=
1

= 0, (1.58)
= 0 =
d
ds
=
d
ds
=
1
T
,
= 1 =
d
ds
= 0.
The result is
d
ds
=
1
T
. (1.59)
Because is a unit vector, this relation provides an alternative to Eq. (1.55) for the
torsion
1
T
=

d
ds

. (1.60)
Equations (1.47), (1.56), and (1.59) are the Frenets formulas for a spatial curve.
Next the path is given in parametric form, the x, y, and z coordinates are given in
terms of a parameter . The position vector may be written as
r = x() +y()j +z()k. (1.61)
The unit tangent vector is
=
dr
d
d
ds
=
r

()
s

()
, (1.62)
where a prime denotes differentiation with respect to and
r

= x

+y

j +z

k.
1.5 Frenets Formulas 21
Using the fact that || = 1 one may write
s

= (r

)
1/2
= [(x

)
2
+(y

)
2
+(z

)
2
]
1/2
. (1.63)
The arclength s may be computed with the relation
s =
_

o
[(x

)
2
+(y

)
2
+(z

)
2
]
1/2
d, (1.64)
where
o
is the value at the starting position. The value of s

found from Eq. (1.63)

may be substituted into Eq. (1.62) to calculate the tangent vector
=
x

+y

j +z

k
_
(x

)
2
+(y

)
2
+(z

)
2
. (1.65)
From Eqs. (1.62),(1.47) the normal vector is
=
d
ds
=
d
d
d
ds
=

s

_
r

(s

)
2
_
=

(s

)
3
(r

). (1.66)
The value of s

is given by Eq. (1.63) and the value of s

is obtained differentiating
Eq. (1.63)
s

=
r

(r

)
1/2
=
r

. (1.67)
The expression for the normal vector is obtained by substituting Eq. (1.67) into
Eq. (1.66)
=

(s

)
4
[r

(s

)
2
r

(r

)]. (1.68)
Because = 1 the radius of curvature is
1

=

(s

)
4
|[r

(s

)
2
r

(r

)]|
=

(s

)
4
[r

(s

)
4
2(r

)
2
(s

)
2
+r

(r

)]
1/2
.
which simplies to
1

=
1
(s

)
3
[r

(s

)
2
(r

)
2
]
1/2
. (1.69)
In the case of a planar curve y = y(x) ( = x) Eq. (1.69) reduces to Eq. (1.20).
The binormal vector may be calculated with the relation
22 1 Kinematics of a Particle
= =
r

(s

)
4
[r

(s

)
2
r

(r

)] (1.70)
=

(s

)
3
r

.
The result of differentiating Eq. (1.71) may be written as
d
ds
=
1
s

d
d
=
1
s

d
d
_

(s

)
3
_
(r

) +

(s

)
4
(r

). (1.71)
The torsion T may be obtained by applying the formula
1
T
=
d
ds
=

(s

)
4
[r

(s

)
2
r

(r

)]
_
1
s

d
d
_

(s

)
3
_
(r

) +

(s

)
4
(r

)
_
.
The above equation may be simplied and T can be calculated from
1
T
=

2
(s

)
6
[r

(r

)]. (1.72)
The expressions for the velocity and acceleration in normal and tangential directions
for three-dimensional motion are identical in form to the expressions for planar mo-
tion. The velocity is a vector whose magnitude equals the rate of change of distance,
and whose direction is tangent to the path. The acceleration has a component tan-
gential to the path equal to the rate of change of the magnitude of the velocity, and a
component perpendicular to the path that depends on the magnitude of the velocity
and the instantaneous radius of curvature of the path. In three-dimensional motion
is parallel to the osculating plane, whose orientation depends on the nature of the
path. The binormal vector is a unit vector that is perpendicular to the osculating
plane and therefore def
1.6 Examples 23
1.6 Examples
Example 1.1
A particle is moving along a straight line OABC starting from the origin O when
t = 0, as shown in Fig. E1.1(a), and has no initial velocity. For the rst segment
OA the motion has a constant acceleration. The velocity of the particle after t
1
=1 s
at the point A is V=1 m/s. For the segment AB, the velocity of the particle remains
constant for the next t
2
=1 s . For the last segment BC the particle is decelerating with
a constant acceleration until it comes to a complete stop at C. It takes the particle
t
3
=3 s to go from point B to point C.
Determine and plot the acceleration, velocity and position versus time of the
particle for the segment OC.
Solution.
1. Segment OA.
For the segment OA the acceleration is constant a=constant
x(t) = a
1
.
The velocity equation is obtained taking the integral of the acceleration
x(t) =
_
a
1
dt = a
1
t +c
1
.
The constant c
1
is obtained from the initial condition for the velocity at O
t = 0 x(0) = 0 or c
1
= 0.
The constant acceleration a
1
is calculated from the fact that the velocity is V at A
when t =t
1
.
t =t
1
x(t
1
) = 0 or a
1
t
1
=V.
The acceleration is
a
1
=
V
t
1
=
1 m/s
1 s
= 1 m/s
2
.
The velocity equation is
x(t) =
V
t
1
t = t for t [0; t
1
] .
The position is obtained taking the integral of the velocity
x(t) =
V
t
1
_
t dt =
V
t
1
t
2
2
+c
2
.
From the initial condition for displacement at O, the constant c
2
is obtained
t = 0 x(0) = 0 or c
2
= 0.
24 1 Kinematics of a Particle
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
1
2
3
x

(
m
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
0.5
1
1.5
v

(
m
/
s
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
1
0
1
2
t (s)
a

(
m
/
s
2
)
O
t
1
=1 s t
2
=1 s
t
1
+t
2 t
1
+t
2
+t
3
d
V =1 m/s
(a)
x C B A
t
1
a=constant
a=constant
(b)
t
3
=3 s
Fig. E1.1 Example 1.1
The distance equation for the rst segment OA is
x(t) =
V
2t
1
t
2
=
t
2
2
for t [0; t
1
] .
The distance d
1
= OA for this segment is
d
1
= x(t
1
) =
V t
1
2
=
1(1)
2
=
1
2
m.
1.6 Examples 25
In Fig. E1.1(b) are represented the position, velocity, and acceleration as a function
of time for the rst segment.
2. Segment AB.
For the segment AB the velocity of the particle is constant V
x(t) =V for t [t
1
; t
1
+t
2
] ,
where t
2
=1 s is the time interval for the particle to travel the segment AB.
The acceleration is obtained differentiating the velocity
x(t) =
d
dt
V =
.
V= 0 or x(t) = 0 for t [t
1
; t
1
+t
2
] .
The position equation for the segment AB is obtained integrating the velocity
x(t) =
_
V dt =V t +c
3
.
At the moment t =t
1
the displacement is d
1
=
V t
1
2
, and the constant c
3
is calculated
from
t =t
1
x(t
1
) =V t
1
+c
3
=
V t
1
2
,
or
c
3
=
V t
1
2
=
1
2
.
The position function of time is
x(t) =V t
V t
1
2
=t
1
2
for t [t
1
; t
1
+t
2
] .
For the second segment the distance traveled by the particle is d
2
= AB
t =t
1
+t
2
x(t
1
+t
2
) = d
1
+d
2
or V (t
1
+t
2
)
V t
1
2
=
V t
1
2
+d
2
,
and d
2
= V t
2
= 1(1) =1 m. The distance s
2
= OB = d
1
+d
2
= V t
1
/2 +V t
2
is
s
2
= 0.5+1.5 =1.5 m.
3. Segment BC.
For the segment BC the acceleration is constant and negative because the particle
stops at C
x(t) =a
3
for t [t
1
+t
2
; t
1
+t
2
+t
3
] ,
where a
3
is the constant acceleration of the particle for the last segment. The velocity
equation is given by
x(t) =
_
a
3
dt =a
3
t +c
4
.
26 1 Kinematics of a Particle
At the moment t =t
1
+t
2
the velocity is V
t =t
1
+t
2
x(t
1
+t
2
) =V or a
3
(t
1
+t
2
) +c
4
=V or c
4
=V +a
3
(t
1
+t
2
).
The velocity equation is
x(t) =a
3
t + V +a
3
(t
1
+t
2
),
or
x(t) = V a
3
[t (t
1
+t
2
)].
For t =t
1
+t
2
+t
3
at C the velocity is zero
x(t
1
+t
2
+t
3
) =V a
3
[t
1
+t
2
+t
3
(t
1
+t
2
)] =V a
3
t
3
= 0.
The magnitude of the acceleration for the last segment is
a
3
=
V
t
3
=
1
3
m/s
2
.
The velocity equation for the last segment will be
x(t) =V
V
t
3
[t (t
1
+t
2
) = 1
1
3
(t 2)] =
1
3
t +
5
3
.
The position equation is
x(t) =
_
x(t)dt =
V
2t
3
t
2
+V
(t
3
+t
1
+t
2
)
t
3
t +c
5
.
At the moment t =t
1
+t
2
at B the displacement is d
1
+d
2
t =t
1
+t
2
x(t
1
+t
2
) = d
1
+d
2
or

V
2t
3
(t
1
+t
2
)
2
+V
(t
3
+t
1
+t
2
)
t
3
(t
1
+t
2
) +c
5
=
V t
1
2
+V t
2
.
The integration constant c
5
is
c
5
=
V
2t
3
_
(t
1
+t
2
)
2
+t
1
t
3

=
1
2(3)
_
2
2
+1(3)

=
7
6
.
The position equation is
x(t) =
V
2t
3
t
2
+V
(t
3
+t
1
+t
2
)
t
3
t
V
2t
3
_
(t
1
+t
2
)
2
+t
1
t
3

=
1
6
t
2
+
5
3
t
7
6
.
At the end of the motion t =t
1
+t
2
+t
3
the total displacement is d
t =t
1
+t
2
+t
3
d = x(t
1
+t
2
+t
3
)
1.6 Examples 27
or
d =
1
6
5
2
+
5
3
5
7
6
= 3 m.
Figure E1.1(b) shows the position, velocity, and acceleration as a function of time
for the segment OC. Next the MATLAB program for the calculations is presented.
% E.1.1
clear all; clc; close all
syms t1 t2 t3 V a1 a3 x t real
syms c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 real
list={t1, t2, t3, V};
listn={1, 1, 3, 1};
fprintf(segment OA\n); fprintf(\n)
ddx1 = a1;
fprintf(ddx1 = a1 \n)
fprintf(\n);
dx1 = int(ddx1, t) + c1;
fprintf(dx1 = %s \n,char(dx1))
dx10 = subs(dx1, t, 0);
dx11 = subs(dx1, t, t1)-V;
sol1 = solve(dx10,dx11, c1, a1);
c10 = sol1.c1;
a10 = sol1.a1;
fprintf(t=0 ; dx1=0 => c1 = %s \n,char(c10))
fprintf(t=t1; dx1=V => a1 = %s \n,char(a10))
fprintf(\n)
a1s = a10;
a1n = subs(a1s, list, listn);
fprintf(a1 = %s = %s (m/s2)\n,char(a1s),char(a1n))
fprintf(\n)
v1 = int(a10, t) + c10;
v1n = subs(v1, list, listn);
fprintf(v1 = %s = %s (m/s)\n,char(v1),char(v1n))
fprintf(\n)
x1s = int(v1, t) + c2;
fprintf(x1 = %s \n,char(x1s))
x10 = subs(x1s, t, 0);
c20 = solve(x10,c2);
fprintf(t=0; x1=0 => c2 = %s \n, char(c20))
x1 = int(v1, t) + c20;
x1n = subs(x1, list, listn);
fprintf(x1 = %s = %s (m)\n,char(x1), char(x1n))
fprintf(\n)
d1 = subs(x1, t, t1);
d1n = subs(x1n, t, 1);
fprintf(d1 = %s = %g (m)\n,char(d1), d1n)
28 1 Kinematics of a Particle
fprintf(\n)
fprintf(segment AB\n); fprintf(\n)
dx2 = V;
fprintf(dx2 = v2 = V \n)
fprintf(\n)
ddx2 = diff(dx2, t);
fprintf(ddx2 = a2 = %s \n,char(ddx2))
fprintf(\n)
x2s = int(dx2, t) + c3;
fprintf(x2 = %s \n,char(x2s));
x21 = subs(x2s, t, t1)-d1;
c30 = solve(x21,c3);
fprintf(t=t1; x2=d1 => c3 = %s \n, char(c30))
x2 = int(dx2, t) + c30;
x2n = subs(x2, list, listn);
fprintf(x2 = %s = %s (m)\n,char(x2), char(x2n))
fprintf(\n)
s2 = subs(x2, t, t1+t2);
s2n = double(subs(s2, list, listn));
fprintf(s2 = d1 + d2 = %s = %g (m)\n,char(s2),s2n)
fprintf(\n)
fprintf(segment CD\n); fprintf(\n)
ddx3 = -a3;
fprintf(ddx3 = -a3 \n);
fprintf(\n);
dx3 = int(ddx3, t) + c4;
fprintf(dx3 = %s \n,char(dx3));
dx32 = subs(dx3, t, t1+t2)-V;
dx33 = subs(dx3, t, t1+t2+t3);
sol3 = solve(dx32,dx33, c4, a3);
c40 = sol3.c4;
a30 = sol3.a3;
c4n = double(subs(c40, list, listn));
a3n = double(subs(a30, list, listn));
fprintf(t=t1+t2 ; dx3=V \n)
fprintf(t=t1+t2+t3; dx3=0 => \n)
fprintf(c4 = %s = %g \n,char(c40),c4n)
fprintf(a3 = %s = %g \n,char(a30),a3n)
fprintf(\n)
a3s = -a30;
v3 = int(-a30, t) + c40;
v3n = subs(v3, list, listn);
fprintf(v3 = %s = %s (m/s)\n,char(v3),char(v3n))
fprintf(\n)
x3s = int(v3, t) + c5;
1.6 Examples 29
fprintf(x3 = %s \n,char(x3s));
x12 = subs(x3s, t, t1+t2)-s2;
c50 = solve(x12,c5);
fprintf(t=t1+t2; x3=s2 => \n)
fprintf(c5 = %s \n, char(c50))
c50n = subs(c50, list, listn);
fprintf(c5 = %g \n, double(c50n))
fprintf(\n)
x3 = int(v3, t) + c50;
x3n = subs(x3, list, listn);
fprintf(x3 = %s \n,char(x3))
fprintf(x3 = %s (m)\n,char(x3n))
fprintf(\n)
s3 = subs(x3, t, t1+t2+t3);
s3n = subs(s3, list, listn);
fprintf(s3 = %s \n,char(s3))
fprintf(s3 = %g (m)\n,double(s3n))
fprintf(\n)
% Graphic
y1=0:.01:1;
y2=1:.01:2;
y3=2:.01:5;
y1= 0:.01:1;
y2= 1:.01:2;
y3= 2:.01:5;
px1=subs(x1n,t,y1);
px2=subs(x2n,t,y2);
px3=subs(x3n,t,y3);
pv1=subs(v1n,t,y1);
pv2=double(subs(V,list,listn));
pv3=subs(v3n,t,y3);
pa1=subs(a1n,t,y1);
pa2=0;
pa3=subs(a3n,t,y3);
subplot(3,1,1),...
plot(y1,px1,b,y2,px2,k,y3,px3,r),...
ylabel(x (m)), grid,...
subplot(3,1,2),...
plot(y1,pv1,b,y2,pv2,k-,y3,pv3,r),...
ylabel(v (m/s)), grid, axis([0 5 0 1.5])
subplot(3,1,3),...
plot(y1,pa1,b,y2,pa2,k,y3,pa3,r)
xlabel(t (s)), ylabel(a (m/s2)), grid,...
axis([0 5 -1 2])
30 1 Kinematics of a Particle
segment OA
ddx1 = a1
dx1 = a1
*
t+c1
t=0 ; dx1=0 => c1 = 0
t=t1; dx1=V => a1 = V/t1
a1 = V/t1 = 1 (m/s2)
v1 = V/t1
*
t = t (m/s)
x1 = 1/2
*
V/t1
*
t2+c2
t=0; x1=0 => c2 = 0
x1 = 1/2
*
V/t1
*
t2 = 1/2
*
t2 (m)
d1 = 1/2
*
V
*
t1 = 0.5 (m)
segment AB
dx2 = v2 = V
ddx2 = a2 = 0
x2 = V
*
t+c3
t=t1; x2=d1 => c3 = -1/2
*
V
*
t1
x2 = V
*
t-1/2
*
V
*
t1 = t-1/2 (m)
s2 = d1 + d2 = V
*
(t1+t2)-1/2
*
V
*
t1 = 1.5 (m)
segment CD
ddx3 = -a3
dx3 = -a3
*
t+c4
t=t1+t2 ; dx3=V
t=t1+t2+t3; dx3=0 =>
c4 = V
*
(t1+t2+t3)/t3 = 1.66667
a3 = 1/t3
*
V = 0.333333
v3 = -1/t3
*
V
*
t+V
*
(t1+t2+t3)/t3 = -1/3
*
t+5/3 (m/s)
x3 = -1/2/t3
*
V
*
t2+V
*
(t1+t2+t3)/t3
*
t+c5
t=t1+t2; x3=s2 =>
c5 = -1/2
*
V
*
(t12+2
*
t1
*
t2+t22+t1
*
t3)/t3
1.6 Examples 31
c5 = -1.16667
x3 = -1/2/t3
*
V
*
t2+V
*
(t1+t2+t3)/t3
*
t-1/2
*
V
*
(t12+2
*
t1
*
t2+t22+t1
*
t3)/t3
x3 = -1/6
*
t2+5/3
*
t-7/6 (m)
s3 = 1/2/t3
*
V
*
(t1+t2+t3)2-1/2
*
V
*
(t12+2
*
t1
*
t2+t22+t1
*
t3)/t3
s3 = 3 (m)