Flight Instructors Guide

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Revised June 2003

Available from 0800 GET RULES (0800 438 785)

The Theory
Introduction
Information Processing Definition of Learning Characteristics of Learning

1
1
1 2 2

Chapter 1Learning theory

Learning components How adults learn Perception Insights Motivation Levels of learning Learning a skill Transfer of learning Forgetting and retention theories of forgetting

5
5 6 6 8 8 9 10 13 13

Chapter 2Human behaviour

Human needs Defence mechanisms The instructors role in human relations

15
15 17 17

Chapter 3Effective communication

Basic elements of the communication process The source Symbols Receiver Barriers to effective communication Lack of a common core of experience Confusion between the symbol and the thing symbolised Use of abstractions

19
19 19 20 20 20 21 21 21

Chapter 4The teaching process

Preparation Presentation Application Review and evaluation

23
23 25 25 25

Chapter 5Teaching methods

Organising material Lecture method Guided discussion method Demonstration-performance method Programmed instruction

27
27 29 32 36 37

Chapter 6Evaluation
Observations Oral Questioning Written Tests Effective Question Writing Principles of Effective Question Writing Performance Tests

39
39 40 42 48 48 48

Chapter 7Instructional aids

Reasons for using them Guidelines for their use Types Computer-based instruction Future developments

51
51 51 52 54 54

Chapter 8Role modelling

Professionalism Sincerity Personal appearance and habits Safety and accident prevention Self improvement

55
55 55 55 56 56

The Lessons
Pre-Flight Briefings Taxiing Effects of Primary Controls Effects of Ancillary Controls Straight-and-Level Climbing Descending Climbing and Descending Medium Turns Basic Stalling Advanced Stalling Circuit Introduction Circuit Considerations Engine Failure After Takeoff Flapless Circuit Crosswind Circuit The Standard Overhead Join Vacating and Joining the Circuit Radio Failure Forced Landing Without Power The Pattern Forced Landing Without Power Considerations Glide Approach

59
61 69 75 83 89 97 109 115 123 131 141 149 161 169 179 185 193 199 203 209 221 231

Steep Turns Maximum Rate Turns Wing-Drop Stalling Compass Turns Short-Field Takeoff Short-Field Landing Low Flying Introduction Low Flying Consolidation Precautionary Landing Instrument Flying Introduction Instrument Flying Limited Panel Instrument Flying Unusual Attitudes Map-Reading Acknowledgments References

237 245 253 259 269 277 285 293 301 307 315 321 327 335 337

Acknowledgements

This Flight Instructors Guide has been prepared for the Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand by John Parker (Flight Testing Officer), with the assistance of CAA staff members Michael Tucker and Murray Fowler. Input on behalf of the Royal New Zealand Aero Club Inc was provided by Robin Porter (Auckland Aero Club), Wayne Harrison (New Plymouth Aero Club), John Penno (Otago Aero Club), and Andrew Buttle (North Shore Aero Club). On behalf of the Aviation Industry Association of New Zealand Inc Flight Training Division, input was provided by Gordon Vette and Mark Carter (Flightline Aeronautical College), Russell Jenkins (Associated Flying School), and Andy Smith (Nelson Aviation College). Input from Aviation Services Limited was provided by Paul Collard-Scruby and Alan Daley (Auckland Examiners), Graham Leach (Wellington Examiner), and Peter Dixon (Christchurch Examiner). Comments were received from Bruce Farquhar (author of a New Zealand student flight training manual, Airborne the Complete Pilot, 1995), and Harold Bennett (friend and consultant to the CAA of New Zealand). Preparation of the draft copies was carried out by Ted Fletcher, and the pre-flight briefings were primarily drawn from the Ardmore Flying School, with the invaluable computer skills of Michael Berghan. The total presentation has been overseen by Dr Lynn Hunt (Massey University, School of Aviation). Where no other reference is cited, this document draws heavily on the information provided in the Australian Civil Aviation and US Federal Aviation Administration Flight Instructor Handbooks, and their permission to reproduce that information is gratefully acknowledged. This guide is to be used, not in isolation, but in conjunction with the recommended texts and an appropriate course of flight instructor training. Footnote, June 2003 edition: The above acknowledgements were omitted from the 1999 edition. They appear here substantially as drafted in 1999; persons places of employment will have since changed in many instances.

The Theory

Introduction
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Information Processing
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Definition of Learning
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Characteristics of Learning
Learning comes from experience
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Learning must have relevance

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Learning outcomes are multiple

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Learning is an active process

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Chapter 1Learning theory

Learning components
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Relevance
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Rewards, reinforcement or conditioning

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How adults learn

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Perception
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Goals and values

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Self-concept
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Motivation
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Motivation
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Perform the skill

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Chapter 3Effective communication

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Chapter 4The teaching process

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The Title
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Objective
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Principles of Flight or Considerations

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Aircraft Management
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Air Exercise
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Patter
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Aircraft Control
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The Debriefing
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OBJECTIVE: To manoeuvre the aircraft on the ground at a constant speed (appropriate to the conditions), stopping at a nominated point. 1. Moving off
- Lookout - check wingtip clearances - Close throttle - Release park brake power to overcome inertia - Close throttle Test Brakes

TAXIING
EXERCISE:

CONSIDERATIONS:

Factors affecting taxi speed and stopping distance - Inertia more power to get started, less as the A/C begins to move - Slope - Surface (Grass, long, short - wet or dry / Concrete) - Wind tailwind, headwind - Power

Braking through differential brakes on main wheels.

2. Maintaining constant speed

- Anticipate power required - Taxi at fast walking pace (maximum) - Avoid using power against brake

Park brake operation (as applicable to type)

3. Maintaining constant direction

- Look well ahead, not just over the nose

Directional control Rudder pedals have dual purpose - To turn the aircraft through nosewheel steering (natural sense) & braking - Wind weathercock tendency

Control positioning (use diagram from A/C flight manual)

4. Turning

- Lookout - Rudder pedals only (wide radius) - Power as required

Steering Braking OHP Recommended

5. Turning in confined spaces

- Lookout - Use full rudder - Then differential braking (radius smaller) - Power as required

A/C MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:

Disorientation - VFG & VTC - Give way rules - Know W/V

6. Stopping - Lookout and anticipate (nominated point)

- Close throttle - Apply even pressure on brake pedals - Once stopped, park brake on - Idle at rpm

Vision - Lookout - Clean windscreen - Blindspots

Seat adjusted and secured Ts and Ps - suitable Avoid using carb heat Brake check - speed check Avoid using power and brake together Wing tip clearances Slipstream - considerations Cross rough ground at an angle -caution gravel Instrument checks Stop into wind (aids cooling)

7. Brake Failure
- Close throttle and steer away from obstacles - Collision imminent FMI and Master OFF

Info Processing - Checklists - Record ATIS and clearances - Situational awareness, mental 3D picture

OBJECTIVES: AIR EXERCISE:

1. Before takeoff
Revise taxiing

EFFECTS OF PRIMARY CONTROLS

1. To observe and experience the first effects of moving the aircraft primary control surfaces in flight. 2. To observe the further (or secondary) effects of moving the aircraft primary controls on their own, in flight.

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT:
2. Effects of Primary Controls
Control
- Camber (shape) - Angle of Attack - Airspeed
Elevator C/C back C/C forward C/C left C/C right Pedal left Pedal right

Bernoullis Theorem

LIFT

V
Input 1st Effect
Pitch up Pitch down Roll left Roll right Yaw left Yaw right

2nd Effect
Nil

Use
Attitude A/S Slip Yaw Direction

RAF
Aileron

Control Functioning Elevator

Rudder

Skid Roll

Balance

Aileron Rudder

3. Airspeed
Low airspeed - Controls light & less effective, large movements required High airspeed - Controls firm & effective, smaller movements required

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT: HUMAN FACTORS:

Throttle

LOOKout - BLINDSPOTS
Memory limits - checklists Orientation - Local landmarks I'm Safe

4. After Landing
Revise taxiing and Idle Cut Off (ICO) on shutdown

______ to increase Power ______ to decrease Power Mixture Push in to enrichen Pull fully out to ICO Carb heat ___hot ___cold Ts and Ps Range (green/red) I/You have control - follow me through

Clear of cloud

Effects of Primary Controls

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EFFECTS OF ANCILLARY CONTROLS

AIR EXERCISE:
1. Observe training area boundaries
OHP Recommended

OBJECTIVE:

To experience the effects of operating the A/Cs ancillary controls in flight.

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT:
2. Slipstream
High power - Elevator & Rudder more effective Low power - Elevator & Rudder less effective Ailerons unaffected by slipstream

Slipstream

3. Power
Increase power - Nose pitches up, yaws left Decrease power - Nose pitches down, yaws right

4. Flaps
Lowering flaps - Nose pitches ______ Raising flaps - Nose pitches ______ Note: The change in pitch is relative to A/C type

Flaps - change wing shape and angle of attack

White arc - flap operating range

Lift & Drag increase

5. Elevator trim
Holding forward - Trim forward Holding back - Trim back

Trim - is a device to relieve flight control pressures

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:

6. Rudder and aileron trim (if applicable) 7. Cabin heater, demister and fresh air vents.

Clock code - high - level - low

Throttle - Smooth operation Mixture - fuel/air mix,when training - full rich Carb heat - why ice forms, symptoms, cure & prevention at low rpm (OHP) Ts and Ps NORMAL (green range) Flap limits (white arc) Cabin heat & air operation. Training area boundaries VFR below 3000 amsl or 1000 agl Clear of cloud, in sight of ground/water, with 5000m visibility Pre-flight inspection

Situational Awareness re VFR & Training area Im Safe

Straight-and-Level
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OBJECTIVES: AIR EXERCISE:

APT

STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL
Attain
Level - from climb - ref point (altitude,anticipate)
climb
S&L

1. To enter S & L from the climb and descent. 2. To fly the A/C at a constant speed in a constant direction, at a constant altitude and in balance. 3. To develop a scan technique and an awareness of the pilots visual limits. A - with elevator, set & hold level attitude, maintain wings level with aileron & keep straight with rudder pwr _____rpm

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT:

Equilibrium - constant direction, constant airspeed. L=W T=D

T C of P

L T - trim to relieve c/c pressure (fwd)

P - power, thru ___kts (balance) D

Tailplane & elevator

T+D

C of G

Maintain
2300 rpm +

T
Large moment arm balances couples

Power + Attitude = Performance As shown = S+L at 90 kts

If balance ball out to one side - Stand on the Ball

(OHP use recommended)

L+W

Power + Attitude = Performance

- lookout scan, traffic, ref point, cloud - attitude hold - instruments, confirm performance - trim as required.
Descent

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:

Attain

PAT

Situational awareness - fuel - training area

Level - from descent S&L - ref point (altitude, anticipate) P - Carb Ht cold, Pwr ______rpm maintain wings level with aileron balance with rudder A - Attitude, with elevator set & hold level attitude T - Trim to relieve c/c pressure (fwd)

Throttle:- Recommended cruise rpm Smooth, positive movements Mixture: - Full rich for training Carb heat :- Hot below ______rpm Fuel Management Temps & pressures - normal S.A.D.I.E. VFR In sight of land / water Clear of cloud with 5000 metres vis. Orientation - local landmarks

Lookout - blindspots - sectored scan 2 sec per 20 degrees Im Safe

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OBJECTIVES: AIR EXERCISE:

R2

CLIMBING
Entry
Lookout, Ref Point, Ref altitude (cloud, airspace)
RAF T D
o

1. To enter the climb from straight and level. 2. To climb at a constant A/S and constant rate, in a constant direction and in balance. 3. To revise S&L by levelling off at a pre-selected altitude. L Power Attitude Trim

P A T

Revise APT

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT:
T >D T = D + RCW W1

Factors affecting the climb - Power & Altitude

RCW

- mixture rich, full power, keep straight - with elevator, set and hold climb attitude - with aileron maintain wings level - use rudder to balance (stand on ball) - relieve control column pressure (back)

- Weight

- RCW

ROC & angle

Maintaining

- Flaps down - Drag

L<W
RCW W R1

ROC & angle

Power + Attitude = Performance ____rpm + ____kts = ____ft/min (ROC)

- Wind affects angle & range only Climb path after 1 min - ht = 500 L A I

ROC is the same

- lookout - Lower nose every 500 ft - attitude - Hold (change, check, hold, trim) - instruments - Confirm performance

Shallower

Steeper

WIND

Climb performance depends on power available

Range

G/S

Range G/S

A Best angle - _____kts, full power, no flap B Best rate - _____kts, full power, no flap C Cruise - _____kts, _____rpm, no flap Recommended - _____kts, ______rpm, no flap (if applicable)

Exit
Anticipate by 10% ROC Attitude - smoothly select straight & level Power - through ___ kts power to ____ rpm Trim - as required to relieve c/c pressure Best rate, best angle and cruise (as applicable) - Note: attitude and ROC Effect of flap on climb performance - Note: Lower nose attitude and decreased ROC

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:

Throttle - Full Power or max continuous Mixture - Rich above 75% power, cooling Carb Heat - Cold (as hot performance) Temps & Press - Normal (for cooling lower nose to increase A/S as req.) Climb restrictions: oxygen, airspace, 5-1-1

Altitude - sinuses, diving Vision - Empty sky myopia Lookout - Lower nose 500 (S turn) Noise - hearing loss, protection Situational Awareness - Training area - VFR Im Safe

  

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OBJECTIVES:
1. Revise S & L from the climb 2. The Powered Descent
Entry - Lookout, Ref point, Ref altitude (not below minimums)

DESCENDING
AIR EXERCISE:

1. To enter the descent from straight and level. 2. To descend at a constant airspeed and constant rate, in a constant direction, R and in balance. 3. To level off at a pre-selected altitude.

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT:
FCW RAF W
Trim - Relieve C/C pressure Range Wind G/S Range Maintaining

Forces in a glide descent

Power - mixture rich, Carb heat Hot, pwr to _____ rpm - keep straight & hold level - as A/S approaches ____ kts. Attitude - with elevator select and hold descent attitude - with aileron maintain wings level - with rudder maintain balance S&L PAT S&L

Factors affecting the descent

- Power - ROD ROD

Range

Angle

- Weight - FCW

A/S

ROD

Angle/Range unaffected

- Flap down - Drag

requires

FCW to maintain A/S

- Wind - ROD unaffected

G/S Range

500

Power + Attitude = Performance ____ rpm ____ kts ______ ft/min (ROD)

Lookout - gentle S turns (prolonged descent) Attitude - hold (change, check, hold, trim) Instruments - confirm performance

Glide Powered Cruise

- Propeller windmilling, no flap, ______kts. - 1500 rpm, flap as required, ______kts. - _____ rpm (within green range), no flap, _____kts.

Altitude - Trapped gases Exit - Anticipate by 100 feet, Carb Heat Cold and at 10% ROD Power: Disavantages of power off, - Appropriate ROD Power - pwr to _____ (cruise rpm, balance) advantages of power on - valsalva Attitude - smoothly select S & L attitude Mixture: Full rich Disorientation Trim - as required to relieve C/C pressure - Situational Awareness Carb Heat: correct use of (see air exercise) (TA boundaries, VFR) Effect of Power on Descent Performance Ts & Ps: Normal Vision - Contrast At constant A/S (70 kts) power affects ROD, angle and range Minimum Heights: not less than 500 AGL over - Clean windscreen unpopulated areas. Not less than 1000 AGL - Sectored scan over populated area AND sufficient to glide - Gentle S turns (as req.) Effect of Flap on Descent Performance Im Safe At constant A/S flap affects ROD, angle and range clear. (Club minimum, if applicable)

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:

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CLIMBING AND DESCENDING

OBJECTIVES:

R2

1. To enter the climb and descent from straight and level. 2. To climb and descend at a constant A/S and constant rate, in a constant direction and in balance. 3. To revise S&L by levelling off at a pre-selected altitude.

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT:
L

RAF

T >D

FCW RAF

RCW

T = D + RCW

Climb performance depends on power available Powered descent _____rpm _____kts, flap as required.

W1

L<W

RCW

Recommended or normal climb ______rpm, _____kts, no flap

W
Mixture: Full rich Carb Heat: Prior to descent rpm below _____ Ts & Ps Normal Minimum Heights: 500 AGL or 1000 AGL over pop. area. VFR: below 3000 AMSL or within 1000 AGL

R1

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

Full Power or max continuous Mixture - Rich above 75% power. Carb Heat - Off Temps & Press Normal (for cooling lower nose to increase A\S as req.) Climb restrictions: oxygen, airspace (TA if applicable), 5-1-1

HUMAN FACTORS:

Altitude - diving. Vision - Empty sky myopia, Lookout - Lower nose 500. Noise - protection. Im Safe (prior to leaving home)

AIR EXERCISE:

Altitude: - Trapped gases, valsalva Disorientation: - Situational Awareness (TA boundaries, VFR) Vision: - Contrast, Clean windscreen, Sectored scan (S-turns as required)

Entry Lookout, Ref Point, Ref altitude (cloud, airspace) Power - mixture rich, full power, keep straight Attitude - with elevator, set and hold climb attitude - with aileron maintain wings level - use rudder to balance(stand on ball) Trim - relieve control column pressure (back) Maintaining Lookout - Lower nose every 500 ft Attitude - Hold (change, check, hold, trim) Instruments - Confirm performance

Entry - Lookout, Ref point, Ref altitude (not below minimums) Power - mixture rich, Carb heat Hot, pwr to _____ rpm - keep straight & hold level - as A/S approaches ____ kts. Attitude - with elevator select and hold descent attitude - with aileron maintain wings level - with rudder maintain balance Trim - Relieve C/C pressure Maintaining Lookout Attitude - Hold (change, check, hold, trim) Instruments - Confirm performance Power + Attitude = Performance ____rpm + ____kts = ____ft/min

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MEDIUM TURNS
AIR EXERCISE:
Demonstrate: Adverse yaw (refer CFI) Medium Level Turns:
Entry

OBJECTIVES:

1. To turn the aircraft through 360 degrees at a constant rate at 30 degrees angle of bank while maintaining constant altitude and in balance. 2. To enter a medium turn from the climb and the descent.

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT:
HCL VCL VCL= W Maintain - Lookout - Attitude - Instruments 10 20 30 60 L - Ref Alt, Ref point, Lookout - Roll in with Aileron (smoothly) - Balance with Rudder - Set Attitude with Elevator ( BP) - Check at 30 degree A of B

A of B = 0 Deg

A of B = 30 Deg

L= W

Coordinate

Adverse Yaw: L
Upgoing

In a turn we must

Lift, so we

A/A until VCL = W

Roll

Yaw

A of A

Downgoing

L/H

R/H

Use Attitude Window or OHP Dont trim in a manoeuvre Exit: - Anticipate Ref point by 1/2 bank angle - Roll out with Aileron (smoothly) - Balance with Rudder BP with Elevator

Balance with rudder

Overbanking: Outer wing travels faster, Lift. Aircraft wants to continue rolling into turn. Maintain A of B with aileron (Hold off)

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:

SADIE TA boundaries - vertical & lateral - drift Pax. Safety brief Taxi - instrument checks Takeoff brief VFR - controlled airspace 5-1-1

Disorientation - Large ref.point. Situational Awareness - look, listen Vision - Lookout prior and during Clear opposite, ahead and into turn. Stress - discomfort - resisting bank

Considerations:

}
Climbing turn - maintain attitude for ______ kts - limit bank angle to 20 degrees max. - tendency to overbank Descending turn - maintain attitude for ______ kts - tendency to underbank

Coordinate

Basic Stalling
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OBJECTIVES: AIR EXERCISE:

Entry - Decreasing airspeed HASELL / HELL checks complete Reference point (DI) Carb heat on, smoothly close throttle Keep straight and maintain altitude At kts (or stall warning), carburettor heat off

BASIC STALLING

1. To recognise the symptoms of an approaching stall, experience the stall itself & to recover with minimum height loss. [Smooth Air < 150 ft] 2. Through improved situational awareness, prevent the inadvertent stall from occurring. A/A PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT: L A/S

L=W

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Symptoms

A/A

15

High nose attitude Low airspeed - Less effective Control Quiet Stall warning - Buffet

At the stall: Lift decreases and the A/C sinks, the centre of pressure moves rapidly rearwards causing the nose to pitch down Recovery

At the stall - The A/C sinks and the nose pitches down - To unstall - Control column centrally forward - Note height loss (about 300 feet)

CL

OHP Recommended

To unstall the A/C we must decrease angle of attack, so we check centrally forward on the control column

(Critical Angle)

15

A/A

- To minimise height loss - Full power (Keep straight, right rudder) - Smoothly raise the nose to the horizon - Note height loss (about 100 feet) - At _____kts Climb to reference height & regain S & L (reference point if required) (If a wing drops, control yaw with opposite rudder, keep ailerons neutral) Stall prevention through situational awareness - At the onset (symptom of the approaching stall recognised) - C/C centrally forward Co-ordinate with practice - Full power

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT: HUMAN FACTORS:

Hasell / Hell checks (OHP) Throttle - smooth but positive Carb Heat: Hot below _____ rpm Cold at ____ kts (or stall warning) Pre-flight - loose articles check No Pax.

Situational awareness - Recognise symptoms - Hazardous thoughts - Decision making Stress - Overlearning - Initial recovery - Desensitise - discomfort

- Note height loss (about 50 feet; less with early recognition)

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OBJECTIVE: AIR EXERCISE:

1) Student practice - Basic Stall
- Basic Stall (recovery at onset) Note: Nose Attitude and Vs

ADVANCED STALLING

1. To revise the basic stall. 2. To see the effect of power/flap on the A/Cs speed & attitude at the stall. 3. To improve situational awareness through early stall recognition and recovery.

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT:
2) Instructor Demo - Stall with Power
Note: Nose Attitude and Vs - Stall with Full Flap No Power Note: Nose Attitude and Vs

The aircraft stalls at an angle of attack (the critical angle). The aircrafts speed (Vs) when this angle is reached varies. For this A/C (from level flight) - ___ Knots Clean, no power - ___ Knots Full Flap, no power

Factors Affecting Vs
at stall at stall at stall at stall at stall Symptoms

3) Stall in the Approach Configuration

Weight:

W requires

lift at any A/A, therefore A/S is

Loading:

G requires

lift therefore A/S is

Ice or Damage: requires

lift therefore A/S is

Power/Slipstream: requires lift therefore A/S is aircrafts nose attitude is higher

Flap: increases lift and changes wing shape therefore A/S is aircrafts nose attitude is lower

- Approach power OHP Recommended (recovery at onset - stall warning) - Full Flap Entry - Hasell/Hell checks, Ref point - Carb Heat Hot, power as required Keep Straight- Maintain height through BP - Below Kts (white arc), Full Flap - Through Kts (or stall warning) Carb Heat Cold

Although flap

Lift, it also

Drag

Drag:

rapidly when more than

degrees is extended

- Decreasing airspeed - Less effective controls - Stall warning (later or at a lower A/S) - Buffet (more noticeable or unchanged) NOTE Nose Attitude

Any use of flap will reduce the L/D ratio

IF the aircraft stalls, height will be lost - nose pitches down.

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT: HUMAN FACTORS:

HASELL / HELL Checks Carb Heat - (if applicable) Hot < rpm Kts or stall warning Cold at

Situational Awareness - Stalling Cues - Instinctive Recognition - Desensitise

Recovery - To Unstall: control column centrally forward - To Minimise Height Loss: Full Power (Keep Straight) - Smoothly raise nose to horizon (Wings level) - Reduce from full flap setting (as appropriate for A/C type) - At a safe height, through kts, with a positive ROC - Raise remaining flap gradually - At kts (nominated climb speed) select climb attitude - Climb to ref altitude (regain ref. point if required)

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CIRCUIT INTRODUCTION
AIR EXERCISE:
Cross-wind 3
OHP OHP

Wind
500 ft AGL (Minimum) 2

OBJECTIVE:
1. Takeoff, Line up Checks Reference Points 2. After takeoff checks SEPARATION 3. Check track & Lookout 4. Call D/W (touch & go etc) 5. Downwind checks 6. Check & note spacing 4
OHP OHP

To fly an orderly pattern around the aerodrome circuit in accordance with NZAIP procedures using the most suitable runway.

CONSIDERATIONS:
1000 ft AGL Downwind

Allow for drift

Climb Out

Takeoff 1. Swing on T/O (if relevant, refer CFI) - OHP Recommended Slipstream (L) - Torque (L) Keep straight on ref. Pt 2. Wind - Crosswind - A/C tends to weathercock - Headwind - Shorter ground roll Use - Steeper angle of climb OHP - Better obstacle clearance - Tailwind - greatly increased ground roll, shallow climb 3. Power - use FULL power for all takeoffs 5 6
OHP

Lookout
OHP

7. Base Turn Carb. Heat Hot Power to _____ Level turn White Arc - Flap Attitude for ___kts

1 Approx 45 degrees
Allow for drift

8. On Base Check track Flap as required Attitude for ___Kts

10
OHP

Final 8 7
OHP

Use Landing OHP 1. Into wind - Shorter ground roll - Steeper descent angle - Better obstacle clearance 2. Flap - Increased Lift Vs and landing speed = Shorter ground roll - Increased Drag gives lower nose attitude for same A/S = Steeper approach better forward visibility & obstacle clearance 3. Power - Controls ROD (improves elevator/rudder effectiveness) 9. Anticipate - centre line - 500 AGL Attitude - Maintain ___Kts Power - As required (ROD)

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:

Base

Disorientation - Situational awareness

Right Of Way Rules (ROW) A/C landing have ROW over A/C taking off A/C in circuit have ROW over A/C joining Follow at a safe distance do not overtake or cut in front of other A/C All turns in circuit direction Circuit height 1000 AGL (unless otherwise stated in the VFG)

- Lookout & Listenout - Pre-flight preparation (VFG, W/V) Vision - Landing cues - Runway perspective

10. On Final - Full flap - attitude for ___Kts - Power for ROD - Carb. Ht Cold

Information Processing

- Mnemonics - Checklists - Plateau Stress - Overlearning, Visualisation

Landing: a) Round Out - Power off During round out - Level off transfer sight from aim pt to look well ahead at ref. point

b) Hold Off - Adjust BP to control sink rate - Land on main wheels - Gently lower nose wheel - Maintain centreline - Brakes as required

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1. To use the terms & procedures for deviating from the normal circuit. 2. To revise circuits using the touch and go procedure (if applicable). 3. To revise circuits and carry out the go-around procedure. 1. Touch & Go (if applicable) After touchdown (lower nose wheel) - Raise flaps to takeoff setting - Apply full power (keep straight) - Normal take-off 2. Go-Around Carb heat Cold - Full power BEWARE PITCH UP Nose to level flight attitude Reduce from full flap setting (as appropriate for A/C type) - positive acceleration Raise nose to horizon - safe height (obstacles) - safe speed (through __ kts) - positive ROC Raise remaining flap gradually At ___ kts select climb attitude (example 70 kts ) - Trim Advise ATC/ traffic --- going around Keep runway in sight but remain clear of traffic Request early turn (if required) back into circuit

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1. Touch and Go - runways of more than adequate length 2. Go-Around Reasons for a go around - Runway length inadequate - Bounced landing - Landing path blocked - Pilot discretion - Approach too high or too fast - ATC instructed - Wind direction change - Too close to A/C ahead 3. Orbit - 360 degree medium level turn 4. Extend Downwind - to improve separation, adjust base turn and power as needed 5. Dumb-Bell Turn - used to reposition for landing on runway of T/O - AVOID 6. Repositioning - preferred method of runway change 7. Low Level - 500 AGL circuit 8. Wind Gradient - gradual change of wind speed due to surface friction 9. Wind Shear - sudden change of wind speed or direction - increase approach and threshold speed - arrest sink with positive power increase - maintain airspeed with (lower) attitude 10. Wake Turbulence - slipstream and vortices

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AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

Aviate - Navigate - Communicate

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A V IA T E

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ENGINE FAILURE AFTER TAKE OFF

AIR EXERCISE:
1. Takeoff Safety Brief 2. Aborted Takeoff
- Close throttle, keep straight - Brakes as required - Advise ATC - If over run likely - F M I - Keep cabin intact

OBJECTIVE:

To adopt the recommended procedure in the event of engine failure at low level.

CONSIDERATIONS:

Probable causes Fuel contamination (something in fuel) Fuel starvation (fuel not feeding) - engine driven fuel pump failure Fuel exhaustion (no fuel on board) Carb. ice

3. EFATO
Initial actions

May be avoided by Sampling fuel - colour, type, smell Systems knowledge - checklists Electric fuel pump or gravity backup Pre-flight planning & situation awareness Pre take-off run up - situation awareness - cycle carb heat on line up Pre-flight inspection Pre-flight inspection - pre take-off run up

AVIATE - lower nose and close throttle NAVIGATE - Follow takeoff safety brief - Choose landing site (ahead) - Within easy reach - Avoid MAJOR obstacles - Keep the cabin intact - Use flap as required

Carb. air filter blockage Mechanical failure Aborted T/O (during T/O roll) Check for normal readings early in take-off Abort if engine runs rough or if instructed by ATC EFATO Low airspeed - high nose attitude - low altitude - little time! Landing Site Selection Choose anything in the windscreen Within easy reach - into wind - avoid major obstacles Keep cabin intact Do not attempt to turn back to the runway (the impossible turn ) Before Take-Off Safety Brief Engine failure during the take-off: Close throttle, keep straight and use brakes as required Engine failure after take-off: - Assess wind (situational awareness) - Visualise possible landing sites into wind - Modify plan based on local knowledge

IF TIME PERMITS
Trouble Checks (red = touch check) - Adopt best glide - carb. heat hot - Fuel pump on, change tanks, primer locked - Mixture rich - Ignition on both - Check for power Shutdown Checks F Fuel selector off M Mixture idle cut off I Ignition off Mayday call Transponder 7700 Master OFF (flap)

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

Fuel system - systems knowledge Loose articles - pre-flight check EFATO simulation commences - simulating & partial power Touch checks in red - simulation ends with go-around Smooth, positive throttle use NO SOLO PRACTICE Instructor advises ATC/traffic

HUMAN FACTORS:

Situational awareness Info processing - pre take-off brief, checks Stress - Overlearn - Regular practice - Competency - Automatic reactions Command decision making

Flapless Circuit
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FLAPLESS CIRCUIT
AIR EXERCISE:
1. Simulated flap failure at base turn - go-around
Avoided by Pre-flight inspection - actuating rods, hinges SADIE Never exceed Vfe

OBJECTIVE:

To approach and land without the use of flap.

CONSIDERATIONS:
2. Downwind - systems check

- nominate approach/threshold speed - consider runway length (divert) - normal radio call, landing checks and assess spacing - approaching 45 deg extend downwind slightly power as required (less than normal circuit) - turn onto base, at ___kts - select attitude & trim

Probable causes Manual (PA 38) - mechanical linkage Electric (C-152) - servo linkage - flap motor failure - master off - circuit breaker - alternator failure - flat battery? Flap over-speed - Visual check flap selector - flap position - Asymmetric?

3. Base

- maintain ___ kts - trim - anticipate centre-line - lookout - descending turn onto finals Attitude + Power = Performance ___kts ROD Approach Path

Effects of not using flap on approach and landing - Vs : approach & landing speeds higher (B737 +55 kts) - longer ground roll - consider runway length (divert?) - less drag : requires lower power setting - shallower descent 70 k - reduced visibility ts

4. Finals 5. Landing

-W

I TH

75 kts N

FL A P

O FLAP

- anticipate less round out - fly on in slightly nose-high attitude (nosewheel) - lower nosewheel - brakes as required (keep weight off nosewheel)

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT: HUMAN FACTORS:

4 3 2

Systems Knowledge - Flap - Electrical

Drag - Small power changes - Reduced visibility

Situational Awareness - Systems knowledge - SADIE Information Processing - Checklists - Priorities (go-around - plan) - Visual landing cues changed Stress - Regular practice

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AIR EXERCISE:
Line up - Select a suitable high reference point - Hold elevator neutral or slightly forward - Ailerons into wind

OBJECTIVES:

1. To correctly position the aircraft controls during taxiing. 2. To compensate for drift throughout the circuit. 3. To take-off and land in crosswind conditions. Take Off

CONSIDERATIONS:
Climb out - Crab into wind - Wings level - In balance - Check track made good - Drift correction - Anticipate turn onto final - Crab into wind - Use a reduced flap setting

Control positioning while taxiing (refer A/C Flight Manual) - OHP recommended.

Maximum Demonstrated X-Wind Component - as per Flight Manual

- Reduce aileron deflection as A/S increases - Maintain some weight on nosewheel - At ___ kts positive rotatation - Gentle turn into wind (Ref. Pt.)

Methods for Calculation of X-Wind Component (runway & W/V known) Wind 240/20 1) Vector Diagram Circuit Base Approach 10 kts Landing 20 kts

2) Flight Manual Graph

20

3) Navigation Computer

5) Windsock

6) Formula X/Wc = V x Sin

Head-Wind

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10

7) Tower

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10

20

30

40

Sin

.20

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.50

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AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT: HUMAN FACTORS:

During the round out - Straighten up with rudder (squeeze) - Aileron into wind to prevent drift (wing down) - Windward wheel will touch down first - Increase aileron into wind as speed decreases - Lower nose wheel (elevator neutral -wheelbarrowing) - Maintain directional control (A/C wants to weathercock into wind)

Rudder effectiveness

Weathercocking - flap

Runway - suitability

Crab approach on final

Wing-tip assistance

Situational Awareness Wind - X/W calculation - Characteristics (gusts etc) - Circuit Adjustments - A/C Configuration Stress - Personal Limits, in doubt Goaround - Currency Decision Making

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Airborne Sequence
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OBJECTIVE: AIR EXERCISE:

1) Radio call - between 10 & 5 nm 2) Approach - (A/Cs lefthand side) at not less than 1500 AAL 3) Determine runway in use - all subsequent turns made in that direction Note: Example diagram is for a left hand circuit If runway in use cannot be determined, orbit overhead in a left hand turn until it can be.

THE STANDARD OVERHEAD JOIN

To join an uncontrolled circuit in accordance with the standard overhead join procedure.

CONSIDERATIONS:

1. Reasons for a standard circuit rejoin - Unattended aerodrome - To check aerodrome layout, circuit in use and other traffic

2. Flight guide (Aerodrome chart) - Elevation - Runways available - length - Circuit directions - Windsock positions - Magnetic North 4
21

3
NON -TRAFFIC SIDE TRAFFIC SIDE

Terminate flight plan after landing at unattended aerodrome with ATC.

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:
5
03

120 Kts. Maximum circuit speed

Situational Awareness - chart, W/V

Landing light on

Vision - Lookout & Listen-out

Lookout

Plan Ahead - rejoin checks - pre-landing checks

Info Process - attention, perception 4) Descend non-traffic side Commence powered descent on non-traffic side 5) Cross upwind threshold at circuit height LOOKout!! - Drift & traffic separation - Pre-landing (downwind) checks 6) Downwind call - Complete normal circuit 1 RT 5-10 nm

All turns in circuit direction

Aircraft in circuit have right of way

Stress - systems knowledge - rule based procedure - regular practice

Vacating and Joining the Circuit

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A clearance to join downwind, base, or final does not absolve the pilot from giving way to other aircraft already established in the circuit.

Aircraft Management
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VACATING & JOINING THE CIRCUIT

AIR EXERCISE:
1) Vacating uncontrolled aerodrome (Left Traffic Circuit) To 1500 AGL 2) Vacating controlled aerodrome

OBJECTIVE:

To vacate and join the circuit at either an uncontrolled or controlled aerodrome in accordance with the various applicable procedures.

CONSIDERATIONS:

Uncontrolled aerodromes Vacating the circuit - From any of the circuit legs or overhead - Or maintain runway heading to 1500 AGL

Joining the circuit - Preferred method is via the Standard Overhead Join - Can join from any leg

Left Hand Circuit

Controlled aerodromes Vacating the circuit - Can be done from any leg - Always need ATC approval

Joining the circuit - Can request overhead rejoin - Join on downwind, base or final in accordance with ATC clearance

3) Joining at a controlled aerodrome

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT: HUMAN FACTORS:

Below 120 Kts prior to joining

Plan Ahead - rejoin checks - pre-landing checks

Left Hand Circuit

Aircraft in circuit have R.O.W

Vision - Blind spots - Closure rates Info Processing - Mental models Situational awareness Stress - Rule based procedure - Regular practice

Radio Failure
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OBJECTIVE: AIR EXERCISE:

1) Radio failure confirmed refer to VFG Emergency section for procedures to follow - transmit blind - squawk 7600 - turn on all lights - use a cell phone if available 2) Aviate - Navigate Remain clear of controlled airspace while possible cause investigated 3) Proceeding to an uncontrolled aerodrome Carry out Standard Overhead Join Transmit blind Lookout 4) Proceeding to a controlled aerodrome

RADIO FAILURE

To join at a controlled or uncontrolled aerodrome in the event of a radio failure.

CONSIDERATIONS:

Causes of radio failure - wrong frequency selected - ON/OFF switch - faulty headset connection - circuit breaker - range - alternator failure - comm box switches - radio loose - avionics master off

Can you return to airfield? - ATC will generally allow the return - If need to divert - where do you go?

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:

Need to know light signals Enter control zone Carry out Standard Overhead Join Watch for light signals and respond Report comm failure to ATC once on the ground

120 Kts. Maximum circuit speed

Situational Awareness - chart W/V

Landing light on

Vision - Lookout & Listen-out

Plan Ahead - rejoin checks - pre-landing checks

Info Process - attention, perception

All turns in circuit direction

Stress - systems knowledge - rule based procedure - regular practice

Aircraft in circuit have right of way

Terminate flight plan after landing

Forced Landing Without Power The Pattern

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Introduction
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AIR EXERCISE:
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OBJECTIVE:

To carry out the recommended procedure in the event of a total or partial engine failure (above 1000 AGL). 1500 AGL Area 1. Initial Actions 2. Plan Approach 4. Spacing (example)

CONSIDERATIONS:

CAUSES (OHP) Fuel - contamination, starvation, exhaustion Carburettor icing, blockage Mechanical failure

AVOID BY Pre-flight checks, Run up, In flight management, SADIE, Situational awareness, Systems knowledge

Clear engine every 1000 minimum

3. NAVIGATE 2. 1. AVIATE 1/3 Aim point 1000 AGL Area

Airspeed Best glide speed ___ kts (flaps up, prop windmilling) Best lift / drag ratio - Max range in still air conditions 3. Initiate Plan Am I confident of reaching the 1500 area at ___ yes/no? 4. Assess Spacing

Wind Direction - at ground level - smoke, dust, crops, wind lanes/shadow - at upper levels - cloud shadows, forecasts, drift - through local knowledge - windsock, known take-off direction Field Selection - 6 `S + the big E Size, Shape, Slope, Surface, Surrounds, Sun, Elevation

MAINTAIN SITUATIONAL AWARENESS 5.

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT: HUMAN FACTORS:

6.

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Simulated - by closing throttle Allow Ts and Ps to stabilise Carb Heat - Hot - Cycle Clear engine every 1000 min. Touch Checks Go-around - ends simulation No Pax when practicing Not below 500 AGL solo

Disorientation - Prominent landmarks Info Processing - Improved by Situational awareness - w/v, elev, terrain - Inhibited by Stress - Procedural response - Regular practice - Overlearning

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FORCED LANDING WITHOUT POWER - THE CONSIDERATIONS

AIR EXERCISE: 1. Initial Actions
OHP 2. Plan App. 1500 AGL Area 6. Wind

OBJECTIVES:

1. To carry out the recommended procedure in the event of a total or partial engine failure, incorporating the appropriate checklists. 2. To implement aeronautical decision making (ADM) as a result of a partial power failure. 3. Initiate Plan 4. Trouble Checks OHP OHP Assess the approach 5. Communicate - MAYDAY (OHP) - 7700 Assess the approach 6. Passenger Brief OHP OHP Assess the approach 7. Secure the A/C OHP Assess the approach NEVER EXTEND 1000 FT AREA DOWNWIND
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5. COMMUNICATE 4. 3.

Engine failure causes and avoidance (OHP)

Range: Airspeed.

Best L/D

Hi A/S

Low A/S

Spacing
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Range Height: Sky above is useless - Never fly lower than you must!

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Wind:

Into Wind

Downwind

1. AVIATE 1/3 Aim Point

Range

Partial Power Considerations: Suitability of landing sites - and the amount of power available The terrain to be crossed - and the cause of the failure (if known) ALTITUDE - Never fly lower than you must!

1000 AGL Area

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT: HUMAN FACTORS:

CONSIDERATIONS:
The touchdown point will be adjusted with flap - then master OFF Use maximum braking - consider a ground loop - keep the cabin intact After Landing Checks: Attend to Pax. Notify ATC, Secure A/C, Dont admit liability. NEVER ATTEMPT TO TAKE-OFF AGAIN. OHP

Simulated - by closing throttle Allow Ts and Ps to stabilise Clear engine every 1000 min. Touch Checks Pre-flight passenger brief Go-around - ends simulation Not below 500 AGL No Pax when practicing No Right of Way

Disorientation - Prominent landmarks - Dont fixate on checks Info Processing - Improved by Situational awareness & checklists - Inhibited by Stress - Procedural response - Regular practice - Pre-flight planning

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AIR EXERCISE:
1. Downwind
1. - Check spacing - Nominate 1/3 aim point - Normal downwind checks

OBJECTIVE:

1. To revise the forced landing approach from the 1000 AGL area, descending to about 500 AGL, aiming 1/3 into the runway. 2. To adjust the touchdown point to have the maximum possible runway length available for landing. Best L/D Low G/S
example only

CONSIDERATIONS:
2. Late Downwind
Higher A/S-G/S - Carb heat hot - Reduce some power (2000 rpm?) - Maintain height - Trim 2.

Strong Headwind on Final: Lower nose to increase A/S & G/S

1/3

5. 1/3 Aim Point

Wind Shear on Final: Lower nose to increase A/S

3. At 1000 (AGL) Area

- Throttle closed - Commence turn to base - Assess approach, aiming 1/3 in

3.

1000 Area AGL

y ar cess f ne st i Adju

20 kt

5 kt

1/3

NEVER EXTEND 1000 AREA DOWNWIND

4.

4. At about 500 (AGL) able to reach 1/3 area easily without flap
- Modify the touchdown point 1. Flap 2. Push down 3. S-turn 4. Sideslip (if permitted)

L/D Ratio is Reduced by: 1. Flap 2. Airspeed - increase (push down) 3. S-Turn 4. Sideslip (if permitted)

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:

Vision - depth perception - Anticipate round out

Simulated - by closing throttle, power is available if required due under or overshoot. No Right Of Way (R.O.W) No Pax when practicing Max flap speed - white arc

Effects of slope (OHP)

5. After Landing or During Go-around

- Consider options - Maximum braking - KEEP THE CABIN INTACT

1/3

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STEEP TURNS
AIR EXERCISE:
Steep level turns (left & right )
Entry

OBJECTIVES:

1. To change direction quickly (through 360) at a constant rate, maintaining a constant altitude and balance using 45 degrees angle of bank. 2. To become familiar with the sensations of high bank angles & rates of turn. 3. To turn at steep angles of bank whilst gliding. Ref point, ref alt & lookout Roll in - aileron Balance - rudder Set attitude - elevator ( back pressure ) Through 30 pwr to ____rpm Check AOB at 45 - balance

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT: Forces acting on the A/C in a turn

L Maintain Lift doubled

coordinate

VCL=W

CFF 60 deg
When pointer (half way) 45`

HCL=CPF

Lookout Attitude - maintain height with BP provided AOB correct Instruments - A/H, Ball, Altimeter

LF

30 deg

W 45 deg

Angle of Bank
15` 45` When wing bars aligned

Load Factor

% increase in stall speed

New stall speed

50

45

1.4

20

60

Assume Vs 50 kts. Insert figures for your aircraft. OHP Exit A/S
Airspeed OHP Power sandwich Stall Speed

60

40

70

75

100

100

Effect on attitude of side by side seating

In level turn

lift by A/A drag L/D Increase power to oppose drag Considerations when turning 1. Steep gliding turn - Increase airspeed 2. Adverse yaw - Balance with rudder

Anticipate ref point (1/2 bank angle - 20 degrees approx.) Roll out - aileron Balance - rudder coordinate Set attitude S & L - elevator (ease off back pressure ) Through ___kts pwr ____ rpm (cruise)

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:

Considerations:

Out of Balance - As rudder applied maintain correct angle of bank with aileron - Maintain attitude with back pressure for constant height Spiral Dive - Caused by Overbanking - Symptoms - High AOB, increasing A/S, high ROD & G - Recovery - Close throttle, level wings, ease out of dive Steep Gliding Turn airspeed through 30 degrees with AOB

Min Alts (if applicable) Power with bank angle (Max. RPM) SADIE Drift - TA boundaries VFR (as applicable)

Disorientation - High rate of turn - Prominent ref point Vision - LOOKout prior and during - Effects of G loading Stress - Motion sickness - Speak up - Carry sickbags

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MAXIMUM RATE TURNS

AIR EXERCISE:
Maximum Rate Level Turns Left and Right
Entry

OBJECTIVE:

CONSIDERATIONS:
- Very prominent ref point, ref altitude - Lookout - Above _____ kts (Vs + 40%) and below Va - Positive entry (aileron & rudder) - Smoothly increase power to full power - Increase back pressure to stall warning - Check AoB approx 60 degrees - Lookout - Attitude - maintain height with AoB (+ 5) - maintain stall warning with BP - Instruments A/H, Ball, Altimeter

To change direction through 360 at the maximum rate while maintaining constant altitude and in balance.

Reasons for a max rate turn

Definition: Maximum degrees turned through Time

Obstacle avoidance - Aircraft - Terrain - Weather Maintain

Co-ordination exercise - 360 degrees - 180 degrees

Requirements

Maximum Lift - Max CL - Critical angle - Stall warning - Max A/S - Va (for weight)

But Rate = 1091 x tan req highest AoB at lowest sustainable airspeed V Limitations Maximum AoB > 0 but < 90 degrees

1) Structural limits: A/S

+3.8g to +4.4g at 70 to 75 deg AoB (approx) At 60 deg AoB approx +2g (OHP)

60 degrees

2) Aerodynamic Limits:

As AoB

Drag

For this A/C at 60 deg AoB As AoB A/S

At same time Vs Vs = __ knots (Vs + 40%)

3) Power Limits: Power available to oppose Drag:

A/S

Power Sandwich

Limited to 60 Deg AoB (approx) Exit 5 - 6 g Black-out

Vs

4) Pilot Limits: Ability to Sustain G 3 - 4 g Grey-out

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:

- Anticipate reference point by 30 degrees - Smooth exit (aileron & rudder) - Relax BP - Above ___ knots power to ____ rpm (cruise) - Confirm wings level and in balance

Va at AUW - ______ Empty ______ Full Power - RPM limit Normal & Utility Category Min Alt

Disorientation - prominent ref point - practice 360 (180) Vision - effects of G - high rate of turn Stress - practice - situational awareness

Considerations

Airspeed above Va - Roll in smoothly delay power till Va Airspeed at or about Vs + 40% - Lead with power

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OBJECTIVES: AIR EXERCISE:

1. Revise power and flap stall, recovery at onset 2. Wing drop stall - ____ rpm - _____ Flap
Entry - Hasell/ Hell Checks - Ref pt - Carb ht Hot - Power to ____ rpm Keep straight - Below ___ knots, Lower ____ flap - Maintain height and direction - At ___ knots or stall warning Carb Ht Cold - (Pilot fails to maintain direction - if necessary)

WING-DROP STALLING

1. To revise stalling with power & flap, recovery at onset. 2. To carry out the wing-drop stall from straight-and-level flight or in the turn, recovering with minimum height loss. 3. To improve situational awareness by recovering at the stall onset.

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT:

The A/C stalls at the critical angle, regardless of airspeed. Factors Which May Cause a Wing Drop Turning out of balance Ice/damage Weight imbalance Turbulence Rigging Slipstream Flap Symptoms

If we use aileron to raise the down going wing we increase A/A and aggravate the wing drop. KEEP AILERONS NEUTRAL The effect on both up and down going wings at the stall Roll L Recovery To unstall

- Low and decreasing airspeed - Controls light and less effective - Stall Warning - Buffet At the stall the A/C sinks, the nose pitches down and one wing drops.

A/A Wing B D USE OHP CL, CD vs A/A

Yaw

Check centrally forward Preventing further yaw with rudder

Wing A

A/A

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3. Recovery at onset
Note: No stall No height loss No wing drop MAINTAIN SITUATIONAL AWARENESS

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT: HUMAN FACTORS:

HASELL - HELL Checks Power: ____ rpm Flap: ______ full flap Carb Heat: Hot below ____ rpm Cold prior to the stall

Situational Awareness - Aircraft attitude & airspeed - A/C configuration & flight phase - Symptoms

To minimise height loss Full Power Level the wings & centralise rudder Smoothly raise the nose to horizon Reduce from full flap setting Safe height, speed & +ve ROC Raise remaining flap gradually At ___kts Climb to ref alt, regain ref point

Symptom Recognition

Stress - Regular practice - Desensitise - Overlearn for info processing

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AIR EXERCISE:
1) Demo Acceleration Errors - maintain reference point 2) Demo Turning Errors 3) Corrections for turns onto compass Hdgs (L and R)
Prior to turns - 4 Questions

OBJECTIVE:

To turn accurately onto and maintain compass headings, compensating for known errors in the aircrafts magnetic compass.

CONSIDERATIONS:

Errors of the Magnetic Compass

1) Variation: Difference between True N and Magnetic N (use OHP)

2) Deviation: Difference between Magnetic Hdg and Compass Hdg Due to magnetic fields within the cockpit. 3) Dip: A magnet horizontal over Equator, dips down at the poles. DIP ANGLE 300 10 270 0 10 240 210 Exit - Roll out smoothly at pre-selected hdg. - Ref point on horizon - Let compass settle (liquid swirl) - In level balanced flight - read the compass 20 1. Turn which way Left or Right? 2. Overturn or Underturn? 3. By how much? 330 4. What is the roll out hdg? 20

000 30

030 20 060

EQUATOR

4) Acceleration Errors: SAND Maximum on 090 and 270 - Nil on 000 and 180 (dip only)

SOUTH POLE

ON US
30 180 20

10 0 10 120 150 090

5) Turning Errors: ONUS Maximum on 000 and 180 - Nil on 090 and 270

To correct for turning error, turns must be Rate One - Balanced - Level - Without pitch changes. Angle of bank required for Rate One = TAS / 10 + 7

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:

Check Compass for: deviation card, fluid leaks bubbles, discolouration metal or electrical objects Taxi Check & Rwy Hdg Turn Coordinator - (flag) Vacuum System (4.5 - 5.2Hg)

Disorientation Situational awareness Information Processing Remove unreliable information Stress Practice & procedure Beware degradation of Lookout

To Adjust Heading Turn which way? When to roll out? (Rate 1 = 3 degrees/second or select new reference pt.) Maintain balanced level flight on reference point.

  

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AIR EXERCISE:
Plan Prior to Line Up Adequate runway length proven, Vr, Vtoss & obstacle clearance altitude (OCA) nominated for conditions. Decision - Go, No Go? Takeoff brief (EFATO).

OBJECTIVES:

1. To ensure by calculation that there is adequate runway length for take-off in accordance with the aircrafts performance data. 2. To apply ADM principles before adopting the recommended procedure for take-off from a runway of minimal length. 3. To operate the aircraft in accordance with the manufacturer's recommended short-field techniques in order to obtain the best possible takeoff performance

CONSIDERATIONS:

Why Rwy group number unavailable or less than A/C group number

1) Use full runway length Flap (as required) Full power against brakes (static rpm, Ts and Ps) Elevator neutral Release brakes, keep straight (more rudder req.) Take weight off nosewheel with back pressure Check acceleration normal 2) At ___ kts (refer A/C manual), rotate 3) Airborne, lower nose & accelerate to ___kts (Vx) 4) At ___kts (Vx) climb (more rudder req.) 5) Above OCA, accelerate (reduce rudder) If flap was selected for T/O When above OCA, accelerating, with a positive rate of climb Raise flap 6) Accelerate to ___ knots, climb at best rate (Vy)

Takeoff Affected by Use a Temperature Density Altitude proforma to Pressure Altitude compile this Weight information Surface (Note: Grass means - short dry grass) Slope Headwind Component Is the distance required, available? If so, what safety margin is available?

Takeoff Distance Required Is Based on A/C, engine, propellor combination A climb to 50 feet Takeoff safety speed at 50 ___kts Full power prior to brakes release Flap setting as appropriate (refer A/C flight manual)

Soft Field Takeoff Flap is often recommended to reduce the ground roll (refer A/C flight manual).

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:
Cross-reference Instruments Vx 1 Vr 2 3 4
OCA

Static RPM: achieved Carb ice? Instrument error? Propellor condition? Continue or Abort? Density Altitude - Lean Mixture?

6 Vy

Prior to T/O - Check Ts and Ps

Vision - Orientation High nose attitude, High ref pt Personal Limits Information Processing - Decision Making Add increment for wind shear, Go or Abort? EFATO - immediately and positively lower nose Stress Will reduce with regular practice

Estimate lift-off point.

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SHORT-FIELD LANDING
AIR EXERCISE:
1) Downwind Asses the conditions Nominate approach and target threshold speeds (Vtt) Nominate decision altitude and aim point Extend downwind 2) Turn to Base Use normal power, flap and approach airspeed 3) On Base 4) On Final Full flap Adjust attitude to Trim Select additional flap (if applicable) Maintain approach speed - trim airspeed to Vtt at decision alt. (200)

OBJECTIVES:

1. To ensure (by calculation) that there is adequate runway length for landing in accordance with the aircrafts performance data. 2. To apply ADM principles before adopting the recommended approach procedure for a runway of minimal length. 3. To operate the aircraft in accordance with the manufacturer's recommended shortfield techniques safely complete the approach and landing and stop within the distance calculated

CONSIDERATIONS:

Why Rwy group number unavailable or less than A/C group number Use a proforma to compile this information

Landing Affected by Elevation/Pressure Altitude Weight Surface (Note: Grass means - short dry grass) Slope Headwind Component Is the distance required available? If so, what safety margin is available? 5) Decision Altitude

Monitor the approach path by reference to the aim point Power as required to maintain a steady rate of descent If the A/C is correctly trimmed, power adjustments will be very small. - On Approach - On Centreline - On Speed

If not, Go-around - Flare to reduce ROD to zero on touchdown - Close throttle - Lower nosewheel - Braking as required, keep weight off nosewheel

Landing Distance Required Is Based on A/C threshold crossing speed and flap setting Threshold speed ___kts. Full Flap A threshold crossing height of approximately 50 feet 6) Landing

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:
6 5 4

Fly 3 circuit legs

Select aim point

Vision Terrain, False Horizon Runway width & length Personal Limits

Nominate target threshold speed

Info Process - Decision Making Add increment for wind shear, Go or Abort?
1

Stress Will reduce with regular practice

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Aircraft Management
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LOW FLYING - INTRODUCTION

AIR EXERCISE:
1) Familiarisation of the LFA Boundaries
Complete HASELLL checks Enter LFA using powered descent

OBJECTIVE:

To compensate for the effects of inertia, visual illusions and stress when operating the aircraft in close proximity to the ground.

CONSIDERATIONS:
2) Demonstration of Inertia
Regain S&L at 500 AGL in normal cruise Note reaction time required and turn radius

Inertia - Lag in response of the aircraft to pilot input - Very noticeable at low level - Anticipate

Wind Optical illusions in straight and level

3) Poor Visibility Configuration

___ knots Recommended flap setting ___ degrees Power as required to maintain nominated S&L airspeed approx ___ rpm

Headwind - Low G/S avoid lowering nose or increasing power

Downwind - High G/S avoid raising nose or decreasing power

4) Visual Illusions

Crosswind - Drift, avoid crossed controls, select ref point, offset drift Slip in

Illusions during turning

Skid out

Crosswind Note drift (crab angle) Ensure balanced flight

Calm Water

May cause lack of depth perception

Upwind Downwind Turning High Groundspeed

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:
Apparent Skid

Vision Wires, birds, background Apparent Slip Low Groundspeed

Info Processing Inhibited by stress

LFA Boundaries (OHP) Min Alt (refer C.F.I.) 200 AGL Over water - Wind > 10 knots (Life Jackets?) Report entering, duration & leaving LFA Poor visibility configuration for this A/C is ___ kts, ___ flap, pwr as required Explain the benefits of: Low A/S, Flap setting and Power HASELLL

Stress Fight or Flight - Affects performance - Narrows attention - May cause hyperventilation - Maintain situational awareness

Avoid need for low flying

Use instrument/visual scan and ensure balanced flight

Low Flying Consolidation

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Objectives
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Map Reading
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LOW FLYING - CONSOLIDATION

AIR EXERCISE:
1) Medium Turn - Slightly increase power to maintain airspeed
____kts

OBJECTIVES:

1. To compensate for inertia, visual illusions and stress when operating the aircraft in close proximity to the ground. 2. To carry out various level turns in the poor-visibility configuration in response to deteriorating weather.

CONSIDERATIONS:

2) Steep Turn

Map Reading Terrain in profile rather than plan view Obscured or false horizon - cross reference instruments

Sloping Terrain Optical illusion in straight and level - cross reference instruments

X
- 180 degree steep turn

- Maximum of 45 degrees AOB - Roll in - Increase power to maintain airspeed ___kts - Maintain height with backpressure If airspeed and height cannot be maintained - Reduce angle of bank/increase power if necessary Use instrument/visual scan to ensure balanced flight - Anticipate roll out - Reduce power to keep airspeed constant

3) Obstacle Avoidance Turn 4) Coastal Reversal Turn

Cross - Assess wind - Turn away from coast - Sufficient to complete turn - Keep reference in sight - Commence steep turn - Reduce AOB as soon as possible

Turbulence More pronounced at low level Avoid lee of hills or obstacles Fly on upwind side of hills or updraught side of valleys

Crossing Obstacles Cross wires at the pylons Cross ridges at an oblique angle

High Ground

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:
Illusions caused by drift Cross reference instruments

HUMAN FACTORS:

5) Constant Radius Turn

- AOB increases & decreases with G/S W/V increasing AOB 20 Max G/S Max AOB AOB 15 decreasing decreasing AOB 15 AOB 10 increasing Min G/S Min AOB

Vision

LFA Boundaries (OHP) Min. Height? Solo? Over water - Wind > 10 knots (if applicable) HASELLL Report entering, duration & leaving LFA Poor visibility configuration for this A/C is ___ kts, ___ flap, pwr as required Frequent SADIE checks

Stress Maintain situational awareness Avoid need for low flying

Precautionary Landing
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PRECAUTIONARY LANDING
AIR EXERCISE:
Precautionary Forced Landing (in LFA) descend to 500 AGL. Adopt Poor Visibility Configuration 1) Decision 2) Establish wind 3) Select field 4) Carry out procedure

OBJECTIVE:

To learn a procedure to adopt in the event of an off aerodrome landing becoming necessary.

CONSIDERATIONS:

Situations requiring a precautionary landing

Avoid By

- Bad weather

- Met briefing - Situational awareness - Divert / return - ADM

- Lost

- Route preparation

First Pass - 500 AGL - Check 6 Ss - Note DI heading - Extend downwind - Choose reference points - Check spacing

- Low Fuel

- Pre-flight planning - In-flight monitoring

Second Pass - Extend base through centreline - On final - Descend to 200 AGL - Detailed surface inspection - Initiate climb 2/3 field length Climb to 500 AGL - Downwind checks - Brief passengers - Make short-field approach
First pass 500 AGL

- Evening Civil Twilight (E.C.T)

- Land 30 minutes prior

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT: HUMAN FACTORS:

Climb to 500 AGL

Second pass 200 AGL

Brief passengers Security checks

Mayday - 7700

Frequent SADIE checks

Stress Situational awareness Command decision making Hazards, Risks (Personality) Mental workload Arousal/performance

Downwind 500 AGL extend for short-field approach

Min Alt (refer C.F.I.) 200 AGL

Disorientation Landing illusions, rain Runway perspective's

CONSIDERATIONS:

Use maximum braking, avoid major obstacles Keep the cabin intact After landing checks

  

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INSTRUMENT FLYING - INTRODUCTION

AIR EXERCISE:
1) Appreciate the unreliability of vestibular and muscular senses without visual reference. 2) Selective Radial Scan (SRS).

OBJECTIVES:

1. To experience sensory illusions as a result of being deprived of visual references. 2. To maintain straight and level flight by sole reference to the aircraft instruments. Power + Attitude = Performance ASI, ALT, DI, TC, VSI Entering S&L - Select attitude (approximately) and power.

AI - Master Instrument

CONSIDERATIONS:
ALT Height Pitch RPM RPM Power/Pitch cable static

RPM BASIC T

AI

ASI Airspeed Pitch

AI Pitch/Bank Airspeed

pitot/static

vacuum

TC Rate of Turn Bank/Balance static

DI Heading Bank

VSI ROC/ROD Pitch

electric Source (black)

vacuum

S & L (Maintaining) Dont fixate on instruments - Keep scan going All turns are Rate One When making changes

Primary Secondary

Direct information (red)

Indirect information (green)

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:

Trust Your Instruments

Safety Pilot - Min PPL - Type rated Briefing - Calls:Clear Left or Right I have control (if evasive action required) Vacuum system Pitot/Static system Set AI bar Taxi & SADIE checks

Vestibular - Sensory organs in the inner ear detect angular acceleration - linear acceleration, head tilt. Muscular - Nerve receptor system (Skin pressure, muscle, limb position). Visual - Horizon and familiar ref points must be replaced with instruments. Orientation conflicts may occur Trust Instruments!! Stress - Performance vs Arousal

Change

Check

Hold

Adjust

Trim

Instrument Flying Limited Panel

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INSTRUMENT FLYING - LIMITED PANEL

AIR EXERCISE:
1) Vacuum System Failure.
PITCH BANK YAW Ball ASI, VSI, ALT & RPM Turn Coordinator (balanced) & Compass

OBJECTIVES:

1. To maintain straight and level flight by sole reference to a limited flight instrument panel. 2. To carry out rate one level turns onto compass headings.

CONSIDERATIONS:
2) Selective Radial Scan (SRS)
Maintain S&L (Instrument cover) N 30 20 W 10 10 20 30 S ON US 20 20 10 E 10

Power source failures

Pitot/Static

- Altimeter - VSI - Airspeed

Suction

- Attitude Indicator - Direction Indicator

Electrical

- Turn Coordinator

Cable

- RPM

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT: HUMAN FACTORS:

Safety Pilot Briefing

Turn Coordinator Electrical

} CBs

Primary

Secondary

Pitot/Static - Pitot Heat - Alternate

3) Level Turns (all turns are rate one) onto Compass Headings.
NOTE: When making changes

Suction - Vacuum gauge

Taxi & SADIE checks

Trust Instruments!! Orientation conflicts may occur Remove unreliable information from the scan - use instrument covers Stress - Performance vs arousal - Dont fixate on instruments - Keep the scan going Avoid inadvertent flight into cloud! Change

Check

Hold

Adjust

Trim

Instrument Flying Unusual Attitudes

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Introduction
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Aircraft Management
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INSTRUMENT FLYING - UNUSUAL ATTITUDES

AIR EXERCISE:
Unusual Attitude Recognition Low & decreasing airspeed - Increasing altitude ROC - Decreasing RPM High & increasing airspeed - Decreasing altitude ROD - Increasing RPM High & increasing airspeed - Decreasing altitude High rate of turn High & increasing G - High ROD - Increasing RPM Nose High

OBJECTIVE:

To recognise and recover to straight-and-level from a nose-high or nose-low unusual attitude.

CONSIDERATIONS:
Nose Low

Trust Your Instruments

Reasons for loss of control

Interrupted instrument scan Spiral Dive

Disorientation

Distraction Fixation Cockpit workload Recovery Nose High

Leans Night flying Poor visibility

Recover to Straight and Level

Identifying the horizon (limited panel only)

Change - pull (nose low) or push (nose high) Until the altimeters big hand stops Check Hold Adjust Trim (should not be required)

Nose Low - Full power - Level wings - Change - push to horizon - Check - Hold - At normal cruise speed - Set cruise power - Adjust - Trim (if required) Spiral Dive

- Reduce power - Level wings - Change - pull to horizon - Check - Set cruise power - Hold - Adjust - Trim (if required)

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:

Safety Pilot - Min PPL - Type rated Briefing - Calls:Clear Left or Right I have control (if evasive action required)

Situational Awareness - through systematic scan Disorientation - orientation conflicts may occur - trust instruments!!

Limiting speeds Va Vno Vne

Limiting RPM

Stress - performance vs arousal - fixation - avoid situation entirely

- Close throttle - Level wings - Change - ease out of the dive - Check at horizon - Set cruise power - Hold - Adjust - Trim (if required)

(beware Va)

Map-Reading
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Introduction
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MAP- READING
AIR EXERCISE:
1. Choose chart 2. Draw route 3. Prepare chart

OBJECTIVE:

To read, prepare and use aeronautical charts as an aid to navigation.

CONSIDERATIONS:

as appropriate to your organisation

4. Fly the route reading from map to ground 5. Compare map symbols with ground features 6. Note time between two positions for later G/S calculations

Select an appropriate chart Ground features confirm position

Contours and layer tinting Spot heights and obstructions (AMSL) Water features - lakes, rivers, coastline Cultural features - road, railway, dam, lighthouse, aerodrome Built up or forestry areas - shape

Line features confirm track made good

OR

Time/distance confirm G/S and ETA

Fix
0940

Fix - a positively identified position and time

DR position - estimated from constant heading (allowing for drift) maintained for a known time at an estimated groundspeed

Chart preparation - fold the chart for easy cockpit reference

Chart use - read from the map to the ground

AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT:

HUMAN FACTORS:

CRM: Attach pencil to kneeboard or clipboard. Have spares Use pax to hold or find info and assist with lookout. Lean mixture Fuel management Compass & SADIE checks

Stress - Performance vs Arousal - Cockpit workload - Mindset Affects - Information processing - Decision making

Careful pre-flight planning is essential

  

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Approach Perspectives

OHP USE RECOMMENDED

APPENDIX A

LOW

CORRECT

HIGH

  

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PRESSURE ALTITUDE

Known Quantities (examples only)

Elev P Alt Slope Wind T Var Wind M Rwy H/wind X/wind Distance required Distance available

ISA

1013

Minus QNH

Departure

Temp

Result

- 20 15 max

Destination

Ft / hPa

X 27

Result

Airfield Elevation
Time Litres Weight

FUEL
Weight A/C Empty Weight
As approp 19 30

Weight and Balance

Arm Moment Maximum

PA

A-B

10% Cont.

CONVERSION FACTORS

Reserve

Pilot and pax Fuel Bags Area 1

39 42 64 140

APPENDIX B

Litres to lbs

X 1.58

US Gal to lbs
6

X6

Dep/App Allow

IMP Gal to lbs

X 7.2

Unusable

140
Bags Area 2 T/O Total Burn Off Ldg Weight 42 1670 84 20 1670

}
Known Quantities (examples only)

Lbs to Kg

X 0.453592

Min Fuel Reqd

Inches to cm

X 2.54

Dipped Fuel

Cm to inches

X 0.3937

Burn Off

Feet to metres

X 0.3048

Note: Unusable fuel included in A/C empty weight

AIRCRAFT TYPE
(Date of last revision)

Metres to feet

X 3.2808

Acknowledgments
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References
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