22.

05 Reactor Physics - Part Eighteen

Group Theory and the Four Factor Formula1

1. Background:

Group Theory can be used to provide rigorous definitions of the factors developed
in life cycle analysis. Thus far, the energy spectrum of an infinite homogeneous
medium has been identified. As part of that analysis, it was shown that, provided
the reactor contains some fissionable material, a real positive value of λ exists
which is the ratio of the neutron production rate to the neutron absorption rate.
This number, λ, is the k-infinity of the medium. For a reactor finite size (i.e.,
leakage exists) it would be k-effective.

It is not possible to measure k∞. However, k∞, can be factored as:

k ∞ = εpfη

And each of these factors can be measured through careful experiment. These
types of measurements were first done in the late 1950s and early 1960s as a
design tool for Generation I and II reactors including those used for Pu production
(large D2O or graphite moderated reactors) and some of the early power
production reactors. These were not homogeneous mediums of infinite
dimension. Rather, they were repeating arrays of fuel rods embedded in a
moderator. Such arrays are called a “lattice.” Two terms are defined for each
repeating section of the lattices:

Cell: This is the fuel rod and its surrounding moderator.

Fuel: This is the fuel rod.

We previously defined λ (same as k∞) as:

Σ Gg =1νΣ fg Φ g
k∞ =
Σ Gg =1Σ ag Φ g

for G energy groups. This can be rewritten as an integral:

1
Material in this section follows that of Henry, pp. 102-112. Portions that are verbatim are indicated by
quotations.
 ∞
∫ 0 νΣ f (E)Φ(E)dE
k∞ = ∞
∫ 0 Σ a (E)Φ(E)dE

Now, we introduce spatial as well as energy dependence. So, the cross-section

and flux become functions of position and energy. Thus, for a given cell:

∞
∫cell dV ∫ 0 dE νΣ f (r, E)Φ(r, E)
k∞ =
∞
∫cell dV ∫ 0 dE Σ a (r, E)Φ(r, E)

There is no fuel in the moderator. So, the numerator of the above expression
could also be written as an integral over the fuel region alone. We do this in the
expansion of k∞ that is given below.

The above relation can be expanded to yield:

∞ E
∫fuel dV ∫ 0 dE νΣ f (r, E)Φ (r, E) ∫fuel dV ∫ 0 2 dE νΣ f (r, E)Φ (r, E)
= E
⋅ E fuel
⋅
∫fuel dV ∫ 0 2 dE νΣ f (r, E)Φ (r, E) ∫fuel dV ∫ 0 2 dE Σ a (r, E)Φ (r, E)

E fuel E
∫fuel dV ∫ 0 2 dE Σ a (r, E)Φ (r, E) ∫cell dV ∫ 0 2 dE Σ a (r, E)Φ (r, E)
E
⋅ ∞
∫cell dV ∫ 0 2 dE Σ a (r, E)Φ (r, E) ∫cell dV ∫ 0 dE Σ a (r, E)Φ (r, E)

The energy E2 is the division, approximately 1.0 eV, that separates the thermal
region from the epithermal one.

In words, the above equation approximates to:

⎛ Fast and Thermal Fission ⎞ ⎛ Thermal Fission ⎞

⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅
⎝ Thermal Fission ⎠⎝ Thermal Absorption in Fuel ⎠
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
⎜ Thermal Absorption in Fuel ⎟ ⎜ Thermal Absorption in Fuel and Moderator ⎟
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎜⎜ Thermal Absorption in Fuel ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ Fast and Thermal Absorption in Fuel ⎟⎟
⎝ and Moderator ⎠⎝ and Moderator ⎠
2. Fast Fission Factor:

This factor is denoted as ε and is defined as:

∞
∫fuel dV ∫ 0 dE νΣ f (r, E )Φ (r, E )
ε≡
E
∫fuell dV ∫ 0 2 dE νΣ f (r, E )Φ (r, E )

It is the ratio of the total (fast and thermal because the energy integral in the
numerator is from 0 to ∞) production rate of neutrons to the production rate from
thermal fission alone. (Note: The quantity ν could be canceled.) Measurements
of ε are done by irradiating two foils of fissionable material (U-235, Pu-239, Th-
233). For the first foil, irradiate it by itself so it responds to both fast and thermal
fissions. For the second, cover the foil with cadmium. Cadmium has a huge
(7500 barns) thermal absorption resonance that ends abruptly at 0.5 eV. So, the
Cd-covered foil responds only to fast fission. Then,

B
ε≡
B−C

Where B and C and the counts from the bare and covered foils respectively.

For natural uranium, ε is about 1.05. It decreases with enrichment (less U-238
which undergoes a fast fission).

3. Thermal Reproduction Factor:

This factor is denoted by η and is defined as:

∫fuel dV ∫ 0 2 dE νΣ f (r, E)Φ (r, E)

E
η≡ E fuel
∫fuel dV ∫ 0 2 dE Σ a (r, E)Φ (r, E )

It is the ratio of the rate of neutron production from thermal fission to the rate of
thermal neutron absorption in the fuel.

Values of η can be determined exponentially using the following apparatus:

 Detector
Fuel Sample

Neutron
Beam Mn Salt in H2O

The manganese-bath experiment for measuring η

A fuel sample is placed in the center of a tube which in turn is immersed in a bath of
dissolved manganese salt. A detector is positioned to measure the neutrons emerging
from the tube. The difference between the number of neutrons emerging from the tube
and those entering the tube equals the number that were either: 1) absorbed in the fuel;
or 2) scattered by the fuel. The latter is small and can often be ignored (or else a minor
correction made). Thus, this measurement gives the denominator of the expression for
η . To repeat, it is the number of neutrons absorbed in the fuel that result either in
fission or U-236 production.

The second measurement is made by sampling the Mn bath and counting the
radioactivity of the activated Mn. This measurement is a function of the production of
fission neutrons in the fuel because those neutrons are emitted into the bath where they
are absorbed by the Mn nuclei, thereby producing radioactivity. Thus, we obtain the
numerator of the expression for η . (Note: The thermal (0.25 eV) cross-section for Mn
and H2O are 136b and 0.664b respectively. So, most of the fission neutrons do cause
transmutation of the Mn.)

The value of η for natural uranium fuel is about 1.34.

4. Thermal Utilization:

This factor is denoted by f and is defined as:

fuel
∫fuel dV ∫ 0 2 dE Σ a (r, E )Φ (r, E)
E
f ≡ E
∫cell dV ∫ 0 2 dE Σ a (r, E )Φ (r, E )
 It is the ratio of the rate at which thermal neutrons are absorbed in the fuel to the
total rate at which they are absorbed in the cell (fuel plus moderator). Flux shape
is important in the measurement of f because, unlike ε and η , the thermal
utilization involves two different regions: the fuel and the moderator.
Measurements are made by performing fuel irradiations throughout the lattice.
The value of f in a natural uranium reactor is about 0.90.

5. Resonance Escape:

This factor is denoted by the symbol p and is defined as:

∫cell dV ∫ 0 2 dE Σ a (r, E)Φ (r, E)

E
p≡ ∞
∫cell dV ∫ 0 dE Σ a (r, E)Φ (r, E)
∞
∫cell dV ∫ E 2 dE Σ a (r, E)Φ (r, E)
= 1− ∞
∫cell dV ∫ 0 dE Σ a (r, E)Φ (r, E)

“It is the ratio of the rate of thermal-neutron absorption throughout the cell to the
rate of absorption at all energies throughout the cell. It is thus the fraction of all
neutrons absorbed in the cell that are absorbed thermally. Hence it is the
probability that a neutron will escape capture at energies above thermal. Finally,
since, in natural or slightly enriched uranium lattices, most non-thermal capture is
in the resonance part of the slowing-down region, it is the “resonance-escape
probability.” (Henry, p. 110)

Measurements of p are challenging because (1) the entire lattice is involved and
(2) the cross-sections vary sharply as a function of neutron energy. In general,
measurements can only be made by assembling large mockups of the actual fuel
cells that are proposed.

For a homogenized medium, the value of p for natural uranium is about 0.70.
However, larger values exist for the heterogeneous case. This is because of a
phenomenon called “spatial self-shielding.” The idea is to keep the fuel and
moderator separate. Neutrons slow down in a stepwise manner. Some collisions
will cause neutrons to “jump” over the energies that correspond to the U-238
resonances. Others will result in neutrons with energies that correspond to a
resonance. What happens to these neutrons? Suppose a neutron has an energy
close to that of a U-238 resonance. If a neutron scatters off U-238 it will lose
only a small amount of energy. If it scatters off moderator (neutron mass equal to
that of hydrogen) it will lose a lot of its energy. In the first case, the neutron is
left near the resonance energy. In the second it is removed from that energy.
What then is the effect of homogeneous or heterogeneous fuel? If the fuel and
moderator are separate and the neutron is in the moderator, chances are it will
collide with another moderator atom and be scattered out of the resonance region.
So, heterogeneous arrangements favor resonance escape. In contrast, if the fuel
and moderator are infinitely mixed (homogeneous) or if the fuel rod/moderator
volumes repeat on small scales with dimensions less than a diffusion length, the
next collision may again be with fuel and the neutron will be absorbed.
Heterogeneous arrays are sometimes called “lumped” meaning that the fuel and
moderator are separate, widely spread entities.

It should be noted that if one separates the fuel and moderator (large amounts of
moderator between fuel rods), one decreases the thermal utilization. For f to be
large, one seeks to maximize absorption in the fuel and hence minimize spatial
self-shielding which could lead to absorption in the moderator. Thus, there is a
tradeoff between f and p. Both depend on the moderator-to-fuel volume ratio.
Optimal designs have both f and p at about 0.9.