3

Nonlinear and Variable Stiffness Systems: Preloading

3.1

DEFINITIONS

Since stiffness is the ratio of the force to the displacement caused by this force, the load-deection plot (characteristic) allows one to determine stiffness as a function of force. It is much easier to analyze both static and dynamic structural problems if the displacements are proportional to the forces that caused them, i.e., if the load-deection characteristic is linear. However, most of the loaddeection characteristics of actual mechanical systems are nonlinear. In many cases the degree of nonlinearity is not very signicant and the system is considered as linear for the sake of simplicity. A signicant nonlinearity must be considered in the analysis, especially for analysis of dynamic processes in which nonlinearity may cause very specic important, and frequently undesirable, effects [1]. At the same time, there are many cases when the nonlinearity may play a useful role by allowing adjustment and controlling the stiffness parameters of mechanical systems. There are two basic types of nonlinear load-deection characteristics as presented in Fig. 3.1. Line 1 represents the case when the rate of increase of deection x slows down with increasing force P. If the local (differential) stiffness is dened as ratio between increments of force (P) and deection (x), then
k P/x (3.1)

and the stiffness along the line 1 is increasing with the increasing load
k 1 P /x 1 1 k 1 P /x 1 1 (3.2a)

This is called the hardening load-deection characteristic.

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Figure 3.1 (1) Hardening and (2) softening nonlinear load-deection characteristics.

The rate of increase of deection x accelerates with increasing force P along line 2, thus the local stiffness along line 2 is decreasing with the increasing load
k 2 P /x 2 2 k 2 P /x 2 2 (3.2b)

This is called the softening load-deection characteristic. Both types of nonlinear load-deection characteristics allow for varying the actual stiffness by moving the working point along the characteristic. This can be achieved by applying a preload force to the system that is independent from actual process forces (payload). If the preload force is not constant but changing with changing operational conditions of the system, then there is a potential for creating a system with controlled or self-adaptive stiffness.

3.2

EMBODIMENTS OF ELEMENTS WITH NONLINEAR STIFFNESS

Nonlinear stiffness is specic for: a. Elastic deformations of parts whose material is not exactly described by Hookes law. There are many materials that exhibit nonlinear deformation characteristics. Deformations of cast iron and concrete components are characterized by softening load-deection characteristic. Stiffness of rubber components is increasing with load (hardening) if the component is loaded in compression; stiffness is decreasing with load (softening) if the component is loaded in shear.

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Chapter 3

Very peculiar load-deection characteristics are observed for wire mesh, felt, and other brous mesh elements. Their static stiffness is described by the hardening load-deection characteristic, while their behavior under vibratory conditions (dynamic stiffness) is typical for systems with the softening load-deection characteristic (discussed below). Deformations of brous mesh-like materials are caused by slippages in contacts between the bers, deformations of the ber material itself (natural or synthetic polymer bers, steel, bronze, etc.) are relatively small. Static stiffness of the brous mesh components in compression is of a strongly hardening nonlinear type (stiffness is approximately proportional to the compression load, like in constant natural frequency vibration isolators described below). However, their dynamic stiffness k dyn is much higher than static stiffness k st
k dyn K dyn k st (3.3)

where K dyn 120 is the dynamic stiffness factor. Both k dyn and K dyn strongly depend on amplitude of vibrations as shown in Fig. 3.2 [2]. It is known that in a

Figure 3.2 Amplitude dependence of damping () and dynamic stiffness coefcient (K dyn ) for mesh-like materials: 0 wire mesh, low specic load; same, high specic load; X thin-ber felt; x thick-ber felt; open symbols K dyn ; solid symbols .

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vibratory system mass mnonlinear spring k, its natural frequency (thus, effective stiffness) is increasing with increasing amplitudes of excitation for hardening nonlinearity of the spring and decreasing with increasing amplitudes for softening nonlinearity [1]. Fig. 3.2 shows that dynamic (vibratory) stiffness of meshlike materials is decreasing with increasing amplitudes (softening nonlinearity), while for the static loading the nonlinearity is of the hardening type. Thus, the brous mesh-like materials have dual nonlinearity. Figure 3.2 also shows amplitude dependency of internal damping of the mesh-like materials. b. Contact deformations. Joints loaded perpendicularly to the contact surfaces are characterized by a hardening nonlinearity due to increase of effective contact area with the increasing load. Tangential contact deformations may exhibit a softening nonlinearity. Characteristics of contact deformations are described in Chapter 4. c. Changing part/system geometry due to large deformations or due to a special geometry designed in order to obtain changing stiffness. Typical examples of components having nonlinear stiffness due to changing geometry are: Coil springs with variable pitch and/or variable coil diameter Thin-layered rubber-metal laminates Rubber elements with built-in constraining Elastic elements with contact surfaces shifting with load Figure 3.3a shows a conventional helical compression spring having constant pitch and constant diameter along its length. These design parameters result in a linear load-deection characteristic. Variable coil diameter coil springs are shown in Fig. 3.3bd; variable pitch/constant diameter coil spring is shown in Fig. 3.3e. 3.2.1 Nonlinear Elements with Hardening Characteristics Deformation pattern of a variable coil diameter spring is shown in Fig. 3.4. Since axial compression of a coil is proportional to the third power of its diameter, the larger coils would deform more than the smaller coils and thus would eventually atten and reduce the effective number of coils. As a result, stiffness of the spring increases with load (hardening characteristic). In some designs, each coil can t inside the preceding larger coil, so that the spring would become totally at at its ultimate load. In a variable pitch spring in Fig. 3.3e, coils with the smaller pitch gradually touch each other and thus reduce the effective number of coils, while the coils with the larger pitch are still operational. The result is also a hardening loaddeection characteristic. Figure 3.3f shows a nonlinear coil spring 1 loaded in torsion. The applied torque causes reduction of its diameter, and variable diameter core 2 allows one

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Chapter 3

Figure 3.3 Coil springs with (a) linear and (bg) nonlinear characteristics: a cylindrical spring with constant pitch and constant diameter; b, c, d variable diameter springs (b conical; c barrel; d hourglass); e constant diameter/variable pitch spring; f nonlinear torsion spring; g nonlinear at spring having a shaped support surface.

Figure 3.4

Deformation of conical spring.

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to change the number of active coils while the torque is increasing, thus creating a hardening characteristic torque-twist angle. This is a typical example of an elastic element whose contact surfaces with other structural components are changing with increasing load. A similar concept is used for a nonlinear at spring shown in Fig. 3.3g, whose effective length is decreasing (and thus stiffness is increasing) with increasing deformation. Another example of achieving nonlinear load-deection characteristic by changing contact surfaces is presented by deformable bodies with curvilinear external surfaces. Frequently, rubber elastic elements are designed in such shapes that result in changing their footprint with changing load (e.g., spherical or cylindrical elements [35]). Rubber-like (or elastomeric) materials have unique deformation characteristics because their Poissons ratio 0.49 0.4995 0.5. Since the modulus of volumetric compressibility is
K G/(1 2) (3.4)

then it is approaching innity when is approaching 0.5. Materials with 0.5 are not changing their volume under compression, thus rubber is practically, a volumetric incompressible material. Change of volume of a compressed rubber component can occur only due to minor deviations of the Poissons ratio from 0.5. Accordingly, compressive deformation of a rubber component can occur only if it has free surfaces so that bulging on these free surfaces would compensate the deformation in compression. Thus, compression deformation under a compression force Pz of cylindrical rubber element 1 in Fig. 3.5a, which is bonded to metal end plates 2 and 3, can develop only at the expense of the bulging of element 1 on its free surfaces. If an intermediate metal layer 4 is placed in the middle of and bonded to rubber element 1 as in Fig. 3.5b, thus dividing it into two layers 1 and 1, the bulging becomes restricted and compression deformation under the same force Pz is signicantly reduced. For a not very thin layer, d 510h, the apparent compression (Youngs) modulus of a cylindrical rubber element bonded between the parallel metal plates can be calculated as [3]
E 3mG(1 kS 2 ) (3.5)

where S so-called shape factor dened as the ratio of loaded surface area A l to free surface areas A f of the element; G shear modulus; k and m coefcients depending on the hardness (durometer) H of rubber, with k 0.93 and m 1 at H 30, k 0.73 and m 1.15 at H 50, and k 0.53 and m 1.42 at H 70. For an axially loaded rubber cylinder having diameter d and height h
S A l /A f (d 2 /4)/dh d/4h (3.6)

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Chapter 3

Figure 3.5 ment.

Shape factor inuence on compression deformation of bonded rubber ele-

The stiffening nonlinearity of the compressed rubber elements can be enhanced if elements with cross sections varying along the line of force application are used. The most useful elements are cylindrical elements loaded in the radial direction as well as spherical and ellipsoidal elements. Such streamlined shapes result in the lowest stresses for given loads/deformations, and in reduced creep, as it was shown in [4], [5]. These features also contribute to enhancement of fatigue life of the rubber components. Stiffness of a cylindrical or spherical rubber element under radial compression (Fig. 3.6) increases with increasing load due to three effects contributing to a gradual increase of the shape factor S: increasing footprint or the loaded surface area; increasing cross-sectional area; and decreasing free surface on the sides due to reduced height. Figure 3.7a [4] shows the load-deection characteristic of a rubber cylinder L D 1.25 in. (38 mm) under radial compression (line 2). This load-deection characteristic can be compared with line 1, which is the load-deection characteristic of the same rubber cylinder (whose faces are bonded to the loading surfaces) under axial compression, in which case the contact areas are not changing. It can be shown (see Article 1) that performance of vibration isolators signicantly improves if they have the so-called constant natural frequency (CNF) characteristic when the natural frequency of an object mounted on the isolators does not depend on its weight W. The natural frequency fn of a mass (m) spring (k) system is

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Figure 3.6 Compression of spherical rubber element.

fn

1 2

k m

1 2

kg W

(3.7)

where g acceleration of gravity. Accordingly, in order to assure that fn a constant for any weight, stiffness k must increase proportionally to the weight load W on the isolator. It represents a nonlinear elastic element with a special hardening characteristic for which
P/x k AW (3.8)

where A a constant. Such a characteristic can be achieved by radial compression of cylindrical or spherical rubber elements as illustrated in Fig. 3.7b. The load range within which this characteristic occurs is described in ratio of the maximum Pmax and minimum Pmin loads of this range. For cylindrical/spherical rubber elements Pmax /Pmin 3 to 5. Although this is adequate in many applications, in some cases (such as for isolating mounts for industrial machinery), a broader range is desirable. A much broader range Pmax /Pmin in which the CNF characteristic is realized can be achieved by designing a system in which bulging of the rubber element during compression is judiciously restrained. Bulging of the rubber specimen on the side surfaces can be restrained by designing interference of two bulging surfaces within the rubber element and/or by providing rigid walls. Both approaches were used in the design of a popular nonlinear vibration isolator for industrial machinery shown in Fig. 3.8 [6] (see also Article 1). Its elastic element 3 is comprised of two rubber rings 3 (external) and 3 (internal), separated by an

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Chapter 3

Figure 3.7 cylinder (D

(a) Deformation and (b) load-natural frequency characteristics of rubber L 1.25 in.) when loaded in (1) axial and (2) radial directions.

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Figure 3.8 Constant natural frequency vibration isolator: 1 bottom cover; 2 top cover; 2 lid; 3 rubber elastic element; 4 transversal reinforcing ring (rib); 5 viscous damper; 6 rubber friction rings; 7 level adjustment unit; 8 foot of the installed machine. (All dimensions in millimeters.)

annular clearance 2 . Rings 3 and 3 are bonded to lower 1 and upper 2 metal covers. When the axial load Pz (weight of the installed machine 8) is small, each ring is compressing independently and rubber can freely bulge on the inner and outer side surfaces of both rings. At a certain magnitude of Pz , the bulges on the inner surface of ring 3 and on the outer surface of ring 3 are touching each other, and further bulging on these surfaces is restrained. At another magnitude of Pz , the bulge on the outer surface of ring 3 touches lid 2 of top cover 2, thus also restraining bulging. Initially, there is an annular clearance 1 between lid

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Chapter 3

2 and the external surface of ring 3. Both restraints result in a hardening nonlinear load-deection characteristic whose behavior can be tailored by designing the clearances 2 between rings 3 and 3, and 1 between the outer surface of ring 3 and lid 2. Plots in Fig. 3.8b illustrate load-natural frequency characteristics of several commercially realized CNF isolators of such design. It can be seen that the ratios Pmax /Pmin as great as 100 :1 have been realized. While the load range within which the CNF characteristic occurs for the streamlined rubber elements, as in Fig. 3.7b, is not as wide as in Fig. 3.8b, the design is much simpler and easier to realize than for a mount in Fig. 3.8a. Thin-layered rubber-metal laminates have nonlinear properties which are very interesting and important for practical applications [7] (see Article 3). Further splitting and laminating of the block in Fig. 3.5 leads to even higher stiffness. When the layers become very thin, on the order of 0.052 mm (0.0020.08 in.), compression stiffness becomes extremely high and highly nonlinear, as shown in Fig. 3.9. Both stiffness and strength (the ultimate compressive load) are greatly

Figure 3.9 Compression modulus of ultrathin-layered rubber-metal laminates. Rubber layer thickness: (1) 0.16 mm; (2) 0.33 mm; (3) 0.39 mm; (4) 0.53 mm; (5) 0.58 mm; (6) 0.106 mm; (7) 0.28 mm; (8) 0.44 mm. Test samples (1)(5) have brass intermediate layers; (6)(8) have steel interlayers.

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inuenced by deformations and strength of the rigid laminating layers (usually metal). The thin-layered rubber-metal laminates fail under high compression forces when the yield strength of the metal layers is exceeded and the metal disintegrates. When the rigid laminating layers made of a high strength steel were used, static strength values as high as 500600 MPa (75,00090,000 psi) have been realized for rubber layer thickness of 0.51.0 mm (0.0060.04 in.). This unique material changes its stiffness by a factor of 1050 during compressive deformation of only 1020 m. Another special feature of the rubber-metal laminates is anisotropy of their stiffness characteristics. Since shear deformation (under force Px in Fig. 3.5) is not associated with a volume change, shear stiffness does not depend on the design of the rubber block, only on its height and cross-sectional area. As a result of this fact, shear stiffness of the laminates stays very low while the compression stiffness increases with the thinning of the rubber layers. Ratios of stiffness in compression and shear exceeding 30005000 are not difcult to achieve. 3.2.2 Nonlinear Elements with Softening Characteristic All the examples described above represent mechanical systems with hardening load-deection characteristics. It is more difcult to obtain a softening load-deection characteristic in a mechanical system. Usually, some ingenious design tricks are required. Figure 3.10a shows such specially designed device; its loaddeection characteristic is shown in Fig. 3.10b. The system consists of linear spring 1 and nonlinear spring 2 having a hardening load-deection characteristic. These springs are precompressed by rod (drawbar) 3. Stiffness k of the set of springs acted upon by force P is the sum of stiffnesses of spring 1 (k 1 ) and 2

Figure 3.10

(a) Spring device with (b) softening load-deection characteristic.

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Chapter 3

(k 2 ), k k 1 k 2 . With increasing load P, deformation of nonlinear spring 2 is diminishing and, accordingly, its stiffness is decreasing. Since stiffness k 1 is constant, the total stiffness is also decreasing as in Fig. 3.10b. This process continues until spring 2 is completely unloaded, after which event the system becomes linear. Another design direction for realizing nonlinear systems with the softening load-deection characteristic is by using thin-walled elastic systems that are usually capable of having two or several elastically stable congurations, i.e., capable of collapsing the fundamental stable conguration. Figures 3.11b and c [8] shows stages of compression of a thin-walled rubber cylinder in Fig. 3.11a. The rst

Figure 3.11

Compression of thin-walled rubber cylinder.

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stable conguration (Fig. 3.11b) is characterized by the softening load-deection characteristic 1 in Fig. 3.11d; the second stable conguration (Fig. 3.11c) has the hardening load-deection characteristic 2 and there is a sizable segment of negative stiffness describing the collapsing process of the cylinder. The realizable load-deection characteristic is shown by the solid line; the dimensionless coordinates in Fig. 3.11d are /R and 12PR 2 /E 3. Some additional examples of elements with softening and/or neutral (zero stiffness) load-deection characteristics and their practical applications are described in Section 8.5.

3.2.3 Practical Case 3 [9] Figure 3.12 shows a somewhat different embodiment of a spring system with the softening load-deection characteristic, which is used as a punch force simulator for evaluation dynamic and noise-radiation characteristics of stamping presses. In this design, Belleville springs 2 are preloaded by calibrated (or instrumented) bolts 1 between cover plates 3 and 4 to the specied load Ps . The simulator is installed on the press bolster instead of the die. During the downward travel of the press ram, it contacts the head 6 of the simulator and on its further travel down it unloads the bolts from the spring-generated force. As the bolts are being unloaded, the ram is gradually loaded. This process of the press ram being exposed to the full spring load is accomplished while the ram travels a distance equal to the initial deformation of the bolts caused by their preloading of the force Ps . This initial deformation is very small (high stiffness segment) and can be adjusted by changing length/cross section of the bolts. After this process is complete, the ram is further compressing the springs (low stiffness segment). Thus, this device having the softening load-deection characteristic provides sim-

Figure 3.12

Punch force simulator.

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Chapter 3

ulation of the punching process consisting of a very intense loading during the breakthrough process and much less intense loading afterwards.

3.3

STIFFNESS MANAGEMENT BY PRELOADING (STRENGTH-TO-STIFFNESS TRANSFORMATION)

The contribution of stiffness to performance characteristics of various mechanical systems is diverse. In some cases, increase of stiffness is benecial; in other cases, a certain optimal value of stiffness has to be attained. To achieve these goals, means for adjustment of stiffness are needed. In many instances, the stiffness adjustment can be achieved by preloading of the components responsible for the stiffness parameters of the system. Preloading involves intentional application of internal forces to the responsible components, over and above the payloads. The proper preloading increases the stiffness but may reduce strength or useful service life of the system due to application of the additional forces. Thus, some fraction of the overall strength is transformed into stiffness. Preloading can regulate stiffness both in linear and nonlinear systems. Preloading of linear systems can be illustrated on the example of Fig. 3.13.

Figure 3.13 branch.

Belt drive (a) without and (b) with preload. A

active branch, B

slack

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In a belt drive in Fig. 3.13a, torque T applied to driving pulley 1 results in application of a tangential force Pt to driven pulley 2 by tensioning the leading (active) branch A of the belt. This tensioning leads to stretching of the branch A by an increment . The idle branch B accommodates this elongation by getting more slack. Stiffness k bd of the belt drive is a ratio of torque T on the driving pulley divided by the angular deection of the pulley if the driven pulley is kept stationary (locked). In this case, it is more convenient to derive an expression for compliance e bd 1/k bd . It is then obvious that
e bd /T (/R 1 )/(Pt R 1 ) /Pt R 2 1 (Pt L ef /EA)/Pt R 2 1 L ef /R 2 EA 1 (3.8)

In this drive, only the branch A is transmitting the payload (tangential force); the other branch B is loose. The drive can be preloaded by pulling the pulleys apart during assembly so that each branch of the belt (both the previously active branch A and the previously loose branch B) is subjected to the preload force P0 even if no payload is transmitted. In this case, application of a torque to the driving pulley will increase tension of the active branch A of the belt by the amount PA and will reduce the tension of the previously passive (loose) branch B by the amount PB . These forces are
PA PB (1/2 T )/R 1 (3.9)

Total elongations of branches A and B are, respectively

a (P0 PA ) L ef /EA; b (P0 PB )L ef /EA (3.10)

Incremental elongations of branches A and B caused by the payload are, respectively

1 PA L ef /EA; 2 PB L ef /EA (3.11)

and the angular compliance of the preloaded drive is

e d b L ef /2R 2 EA 1 (3.12)

or one-half of the compliance for the belt drive without preload. In other words, preload has doubled stiffness of the belt drive, which is a system with a linear load-deection characteristic. It is important to note that the active branch in a preloaded drive is loaded with a larger force (P0 Pt /2) than in a nonpreloaded drive (Pt P0 Pt /2). Thus, only belts with upgraded strength limits can be preloaded, and, accordingly,

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Chapter 3

the described effect can be viewed as an example of strength-to-stiffness transformation. While belts have approximately linear load-deection characteristics, chains are highly nonlinear, both roller chains (Fig. 3.14a) and silent chains (Fig. 3.14b). Experimental data show that with increasing the load from 0.1Pr to Pr , the tensile stiffness of a silent chain increases about threefold (Pr , rated load) (Fig. 3.14c). The statics of a chain drive are very similar to those of a belt drive. If the chain is installed without initial preload, like the belt in Fig. 3.13a, only the active branch will be stretched by the full magnitude of the tangential force Pt T/R 1 . The tensile deformation is described by Eq. (3.8), in which A l c d is the effective

Figure 3.14 Power transmission chains: (a) roller chain; (b) silent chain; (c) torqueangular (1) deection characteristic and (2) stiffness of a silent chain drive.

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Nonlinear and Variable Stiffness Systems

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cross-sectional area (l c total load-carrying width of the chain, d diameter of the roller-supporting axles for the roller chains or the laminae-supporting axles for silent chains) (Figs. 3.14a and b), and E t/k ch is the effective elastic modulus (t chain pitch and k ch compliance factor of the chain, which is a function of the tensile load Pt ). Thus
e ch k ch (Pt )L/R 2 At 1 (3.13)

If a preload is applied, the chain drive stiffness would immediately double, which is described [10], by an expression similar to Eq. (3.12)
e ch k ch (P0 ) L/2R 2 At 1 (3.14)

However, in addition to this direct effect of the preload, with increasing preload P0 , stiffness of each branch increases because of the hardening nonlinear loaddeection curve (Figs. 3.1 and 3.14c) as reected in the expression k ch (P0 ). Thus, an increase in the preload would additionally enhance the stiffness, up to three times for a typical roller chain. The total stiffness increase, considering both effects, can be up to 56 times. Another advantage of the preloaded chain drive is the stability of its stiffness. Since only one branch transmits payload in a nonpreloaded chain and this branch is characterized by a nonlinear hardening characteristic, stiffness at low payloads is low and stiffness at high payloads is high. Thus, the accuracy of a device driven by a chain drive would be rather poor at relatively low torques. In a preloaded drive, stiffness for any payload Pt 2P0 will have the same (high) value, since the working point on the load-deection plot in Fig. 3.1 (or torqueangular deection plot in Fig. 3.14c) would always correspond to load P0 . This statement is reinforced by the data in Section 4.3, Eqs. (4.9) and (4.10), on the preloading of at joints in order to increase their stiffness in case of moment loading. Although contact deformations are characterized by nonlinear loaddeection curves, preloaded joints are essentially linear when a moment is applied. Of course, preloading of at joints leads to increased stiffness not only for the moment loading but for the force loading as well. Indeed, loading with an incremental force P1 of a joint preloaded with a compressive force P0 , P1 P0 , would result in stiffness roughly associated with the working point P0 , which is higher than the stiffness for the working point P1 P0 (Fig. 3.1). In addition, preloaded joints can work even in tension if the magnitude of the tensile force does not exceed P0 . Similar, but numerically much more pronounced effects occur in rubbermetal laminates described above and in Rivin [7] (Article 3). The concept of internal preload is very important for antifriction bearings,

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Chapter 3

especially in cases when their accuracy of rotation and/or their stiffness have to be enhanced. The accuracy of rotation under load depends on the elimination of backlash as well as on the number of the rolling bodies participating in the shaft support. The deections of the shaft (spindle), which also affect accuracy, are also inuenced by deformations of bearings. Elastic displacements of shafts in antifriction bearings consist of elastic deformations of rolling bodies and races calculated by using Hertz formulae (see Table 4.1), as well as of deformations of joints between the outer race and the housing and the inner race and the shaft. Since contact pressures between the external surfaces of both the races and their counterpart surfaces (shaft, housing bore) are not very high, contact deformations have linear load-deection characteristics (see Section 4.4.1, cylindrical joints). The total compliance in these joints that are external to the bearing is [10]
(4/)(Pk 2 /db)(1 d/D) (m) (3.15)

where P radial force, N; d and D inner and outer diameters of the bearing, m; b width of the bearing, m; and k 2 5 to 25 10 11 m 3 /N. Lower values of k 2 are representative for high-precision light interference cylindrical or preloaded tapered ts and/or high loads, and higher values are representative for regular precision tight or stressed ts, with reamed holes and nish ground shaft journals and/or light loads. Hertzian deformations of rolling bodies in ball bearings are nonlinear and can be expressed as
b (0.15 0.44d ) 10 6 P 2/3 (m) (3.16)

For roller bearings

r k1 P (m) (3.17)

where k 1 0.66 10 10 /d for narrow roller bearings; 0.44 10 10 /d for wide roller bearings; 0.41 10 10 /d for normal-width tapered roller bearings; and 0.34 10 10 /d for wide tapered roller bearings [10]. As a general rule, is responsible for 2040% of the overall deformation at low loads (precision systems) and for 1020% at high loads. Accordingly, the internal preload of roller bearings (which can be achieved by expanding the inner race, e.g., by using a tapered t between the bearing and

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the shaft) (Fig. 3.15e) brings results similar to those achieved in belt drives, namely, doubling their radial stiffness (reducing in half ) because of the elimir nation of backlash and bringing to work idle rollers on the side opposite to the area compressed by the radial force. In ball bearings, the effect of the internal preload on is rather similar to that in chain drives and consists of (1) doubling b the number of active balls and (2) shifting the working point along the nonlinear load-deection curve. The positive effects of internal preload in antifriction bearings are (in addition to the stiffness increase) elimination of backlash and enhancement of rotational accuracy because of more uniform loading of the rolling bodies and better averaging of the inevitable inaccuracies of the races and the rolling bodies. The negative effects are higher loading of the bearing components and its associated higher working temperature, as well as faster wear and higher energy losses (it can be expressed as part of the strength had been used to enhance stiffness). Since (1) Hertzian deformations are responsible for only 6090% of the total bearing compliance [the balance being caused by external contact deformations

Figure 3.15 Some practical techniques for preloading rolling friction bearings: (a) preload by tightening a nut; (b) preload maintained by a spring; (c) preload caused by unequal spacers for inner and outer races; (d) preload by reducing width of outer races; (e) preload by squeezing inner race on a shallow cone.

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Chapter 3

described by Eq. (3.15)] and (2) the latter are not affected by the internal preload, then in stiffness-critical cases bearing preload has to be accompanied by more stringent requirements to the assembly of the bearings with the shafts and housings. The resulting reduction of k 2 in Eq. (3.15) would assure the maximum stiffness-enhancement effect. Figure 3.15 shows some techniques used to create the preload in the bearings. Figure 3.15a shows preload application by tightening a threaded connection; Fig. 3.15b shows preload by springs; and Figs. 3.15c and d show preload by a prescribed shift between the rolling bodies and the races achieved through the use of sleeves of nonequal lengths between the outer and inner races (c) or by machining (grinding) the ends of one set of races (d). In the case shown, the width of each of the outer races is reduced by grinding. A technique similar to the one shown in Fig. 3.15d is used in four-point contact bearings. For preloading cylindrical roller bearings in stiffness-critical applications, their inner races are fabricated with slightly tapered holes (Fig. 3.15e). Threaded preload means are frequently used for tapered roller bearings, which are more sturdy and less sensitive to overloading than ball bearings. Since some misalignment is always induced by the threaded connections, so the technique is generally used for nonprecision units. In cases where a high precision is required, the load from a threaded load application means is transmitted to the bearing through a tight-tted sleeve with squared ends, as shown in Fig. 3.15e (or very accurate ground threads are used). Springs (or an adjustable hydraulic pressure) are used for high- and ultrahigh-speed ball bearings, which have accelerated wear that would cause a reduction of the preload if it were applied by other means. The necessary preload force P0 is specied on the premise that after the bearing is loaded with a maximum payload, all the rolling bodies would still carry some load (no clearance is developing). Similar preload techniques, and with similar results, are used in many other cases, such as in antifriction guideways, ball screws, traction drives [11]. A special case of preload, especially important for manipulators, is used in so-called antagonist actuators (Fig. 3.16a). In such actuators (modeled from human limbs, in which muscles apply only pulling forces developing during contraction of the muscles), two tensile forces F1 and F2 are applied at opposite sides of a joint. A general schematic of such an actuator is given in Fig. 3.16b. Link L is driven by applying parallel tension forces F1 and F2 to driving arms 1 and 2, respectively, which are symmetrical and positioned at angles 90 relative to the link. To apply torque T to the link, the following condition has to be satised:
T F1 a cos( ) F2 a cos( ) (3.18a)

or

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Figure 3.16

(a) Antagonist actuator and (b) its schematic.

T/F1

F2 /F1 a cos(

a cos(

(3.18b)

It follows from Eq. (3.18b) that one tension (e.g., F1 ) can be chosen arbitrarily and then the required second tension (F2 ) can be determined from the ratio
F2 /F1 [(T/F1 a cos( )]/a cos( ) (3.18c)

The stiffness of the actuator is

dT/d k F1 a sin( ) ) F2 a sin( ) )]

(3.19)

F1 a[sin(

F2 /F1 sin(

It follows from Eq. (3.19) that for a given F2 /F1 , stiffness is directly proportional to the absolute value of the tensile force F1 . Since a higher stiffness value is usually preferable, the highest tensile forces allowable by the strength of arms 1 and 2, by the joint bearings, by the available hydraulic pressures (for hydraulically driven actuators), etc., have to be assigned. Of course, the overall stiffness of the actuator system would be determined, in addition to Eq. (3.19), by the stiffness (compliance) of the other components, such as hydraulic cylinders and piping (see Chapter 6). As a result, an increase of tensions F1 and F2 is justied only

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Chapter 3

to the point at which an increase of stiffness k by Eq. (3.19) would still result in a meaningful increase in the overall stiffness. Advantages of nonlinear vibration isolators are addressed in Article 1 and in Rivin [2], and are briey described above. If nonlinear vibration isolators are used directly, their stiffness self-adjusts in accordance with the applied weight load. However, nonlinear vibration isolators and other resilient mounts can also be used with preload. Figure 3.17a [2] shows an adjustable mount for an internal combustion engine 4 (only one mounting foot is shown). The adjustable mount is composed of two nonlinear isolators 1, 2, (e.g., of Fig. 3.8 design), preloaded by bolt 5. It is obvious that preloading of one isolator (e.g., 2 in Fig. 3.17a) would result in a parallel connection of bolt 5 and isolator 2, thus resilience of isolator 2 would be lost. When two isolators 1 and 2 are used, mounting foot 4 of the engine is connected with foundation structure 3 via resilient elements of isolators 1 and 2, and the stiffness of bolt 5 plays an insignicant role in the overall stiffness breakdown for the combined mount. However, tightening of the bolt increases loading of both isolators, and thus is moving the working points along their load-deection characteristics. If the load-deection characteristic is of a hardening type (the most frequent case), then tightening of bolt 5 would result in the increasing stiffness. A typical case is shown in Fig. 3.17b. It is important to note that a preloaded combination of two identical nonlinear resilient elements, as in Fig. 3.17a, becomes a linear compound element of adjustable stiffness. When foot 4 in Fig. 3.17a is displaced downwards by an increment x, the load on the lower isolator 2 is increasing by P2 while load on the upper isolator 1 is decreasing by P1 . If isolators 1 and 2 have identical hardening load-deection

Figure 3.17 Variable stiffness vibration isolator composed of two nonlinear (constant natural frequency) isolators.

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Nonlinear and Variable Stiffness Systems

75

characteristics, then stiffness of the upper isolator is decreasing by k 1 . Since the initial loading P0 and the initial stiffness k 0 of both isolators are the same, P2 and k 1 k 2 , thus the total stiffness P1
k1 k 1 k2 k 2 2k 0 k 1 k 2 2k 0 constant (3.20)

Thus, preloading of the properly packaged pair of nonlinear isolators allows one to construct an isolator whose stiffness can be varied in a broad range. Such an isolator can serve as an output element of an active stiffness control system or a vibration control system. Figure 3.18 shows test results of a similar system in which radially loaded rubber cylinders were used as the nonlinear elements. Just two turns of the preloading bolt changed the natural frequency from 20 to 60 Hz, which corresponds to the ninefold increase in stiffness. The similar effect is employed for tuning the dynamic vibration absorber for the chatter-resistant boring bar in Article 4. It is important to note that preloading of structural joints (such as in bearings and interfaces; see Chapter 4), as well as preloading of elastomeric elements, may result in reduction of damping. Use of internal preload (i.e., the strength-to-stiffness transformation concept) for enhancement of bending stiffness is addressed in Chapter 7.

Figure 3.18

Use of preloaded rubber cylinders for tuning vibration control devices.

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

76

Chapter 3

Figure 3.19

System with variable stiffness (bearing 2 is t on splined shaft 3).

3.4

SOME EFFECTS CAUSED BY VARIABLE STIFFNESS

Although nonlinear systems are characterized by stiffness varying with the loading conditions, in some mechanical systems stiffness changes with the changing geometry. Although this effect is typical for linkage mechanisms in which the links are not very stiff, it can also be present and can create undesirable effects in many other basic mechanical systems. Figure 3.19 shows a segment of a gearbox in which ball bearing 2 is mounted on a splined shaft 3. Since races (rings) of antifriction bearings are usually very thin, they easily conform with the prole of the supporting surface. Thus, the inner race of bearing 2 has different local effective stiffness in the areas supported by the splines and in the areas corresponding to spaces (valleys) between the splines. Even minute stiffness variations of the inner race under balls during shaft rotation may cause undesirable, even severe, parametric vibrations. Similar effects may be generated by a gear or a pulley having a nonuniform stiffness around its circumference and tightly t on the shaft. Figure 3.20 shows an oscillogram of vibration of the housing of a gear reducer caused by a vespoke gear which was interference t on its shaft [12]. Effective stiffness of the gear rim is very different in the areas supported by the spokes and in the areas between the spokes. This resulted in a beat-like pattern of vibration amplitudes varying in the range of 3 :1. Such amplitude variation can cause intensive and annoying noise and other damaging effects.

3.5

SYSTEMS WITH MULTIPLE LOAD-CARRYING COMPONENTS

There are numerous cases in which the loads acting on a mechanical system are unequally distributed between multiple load-carrying components. In these

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Nonlinear and Variable Stiffness Systems

77

Figure 3.20

Vibration caused by a ve-spoke gear that is interference t on its shaft.

statically indeterminate systems, evaluation of the overall stiffness becomes more involved. Three systems described below are typical examples of the systems with multiple load-carrying components. Understanding of these systems may help in analyzing other systems with multiple load-carrying components. The system analyzed in Section 3.5.1 (antifriction bearing with multiple rolling bodies) is characterized by high rigidity of the supporting surfaces (inner and outer races), which are reinforced by the shaft and housing, respectively. The spoked bicycle wheel analyzed in Section 3.5.2 has a relatively low stiffness of the rim. These differences lead to very different patterns of load/deformation distribution. 3.5.1 Load Distribution Between Rolling Bodies and Stiffness of Antifriction Bearings [1] Radial load R applied to an antifriction bearing is distributed nonuniformly between the rolling bodies (Fig. 3.21). In the following, all rolling bodies are called balls, even though all the results would also apply to roller bearings. If the bearing is not preloaded, the load is applied only to the balls located within the arc, not exceeding 180 deg. The most loaded ball is one located on the vector of the radial force R (the central ball). The problem of evaluating loads acting on each rolling body is a statically indeterminate one. The balls symmetrically located relative to the plane of action of R are equally loaded. The force acting

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

78

Chapter 3

Figure 3.21

Model of load distribution between rolling bodies in antifriction bearing.

on the most highly loaded central ball is P0 . On the balls located at a pitch angle to the load vector is P1 , on balls located at 2 the vector is P2 , at angle n the vector is Pn , and so on. Here n is one-half of the balls located in the loaded zone. It is assumed for simplicity of the derivation that the balls are symmetrical relative to the plane containing the force R. The equilibrium condition requires that the force R is balanced by reactions of the loaded balls, or
R P0 2P1 cos 2P2 cos 2 2Pn cos n (3.21)

In addition to Eq. (3.21) describing static equilibrium, equations for deformations should be used in order to solve the statically indeterminate problem. Since the bearing races are supported by the housing (the outer race) and by the shaft (the inner race), their bending deformations can be neglected. It is assumed that there is no radial clearance in the bearing. In such case, it can be further assumed that the radial displacements between the races at each ball, caused by contact deformations of the balls and the races, are equal to projections of the total displacement 0 of the inner race along the direction of R on the respective radii

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Nonlinear and Variable Stiffness Systems 1 0 cos ; 2 0 cos 2; i 0 cos i

79 (3.22)

where i number of a ball. For ball bearings, total contact deformation of the balls and the races under force P is (see Chapter 4)
cP 2/3 (3.23)

where c a constant. Substituting expressions (3.23) into (3.22), we arrive at

P1 P0 cos 3/2 ; P2 P0 cos 3/2 2; Pi P0 cos 3/2 i (3.24)

Substitution of Eq. (3.24) into equilibrium Eq. (3.21) results in

i n

P0 1

2
i 1

cos 5/2 i

(3.25)

From this equation P0 can be determined. It is convenient to introduce a coefcient k

k
1 2
i 1

z
i n

(3.26) cos
5/2

then
P0 kR/z (3.27)

where z total number of balls. Knowledge of P0 allows one to determine the radial deformation and stiffness of the bearing by using Eq. (3.23). For bearings with the number of balls z 10 20, k 4.37 0.01. If the bearing has a clearance, then the radial load is accommodated by balls located along an arc lesser than 180 deg., which results in the load P0 on the most loaded ball being about 10% higher than given by Eq. (3.27). Because of this, for single row radial ball bearings it is assumed that k 5 and P0 5R/z. In spherical double-row ball bearings there is always some nonuniformity of radial load distribution between the rows of balls. To take it into consideration, it is usually assumed that P0 6R/z cos , where angle of tilt of contact normals between the balls and the races. Radial force on each ball for the radial loading in angular contact ball bear-

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80

Chapter 3

ings is greater than in radial ball bearings by a factor 1/cos , where contact angle between the balls and the races. For roller bearings the solution is similar, but contact deformations of the rollers and the races are approximately linear
c1 P (3.28)

where c 1

a constant (see Chapter 4). Similarly to ball bearings

P0 kR/z

And similarly
k
1 2
i 1

z
i n

cos 2 i

For roller bearings having z 10 to 20, average value of k 4, considering radial clearance, should be increased to k 4.6. For double row bearings, k 5.2, to take into consideration nonuniformity of load distribution between the rows of rollers. Load distribution between the rolling bodies can be made more uniform (thus reducing P0 and 0 , i.e., enhancing stiffness) by modication of the bore in the housing into which the bearing is t. The bore should be shaped as an elliptical cylinder elongated in the prevailing direction of the radial load. If the bearing is preloaded, each rolling body is loaded by a radial force Ppr caused by the preload, even before the radial load R is applied. As a result, all rolling bodies (along the 360 degree arc) are participating in the loading process, with the bodies in the lower half of Fig. 3.21 experiencing increase of their radial loading, and the bodies in the upper half experiencing reduction of their radial loading. The process is very similar to the preloading process of a belt drive (see Section 3.3). Such pattern of the load sharing will continue until at least one of the rolling bodies in the upper 180 degree arc becomes unloaded. The deformation of a preloaded bearing under a radial force R can be analyzed using the same approach as for bearings not preloaded, but derivations become more complex since the expression for deformation of the ball caused by forces acting on each bearing becomes, instead of Eq. (3.23)
i c(Ppr Pi ) 2/3 (3.29)

3.5.2 Loading of Bicycle Wheels [14] The bicycle wheel is subjected to high static (weight of the rider) and dynamic (inertia on road bumps, torques for acceleration, braking, and traction, etc.)

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Nonlinear and Variable Stiffness Systems

81

forces. Its predecessora wagon wheel (Fig. 3.22)has relatively strong wooden spokes and rim. The spokes in the lower part of the wheel accommodate (by compression) the loads transmitted to them by the rim and the hub, just like the bearings discussed earlier. The bikes wheel needed to be much lighter, thus wood was replaced by high strength metals that allowed one to dramatically reduce cross sections of both the spokes and the rim. In fact, the spokes possess necessary strength while having very small cross sections equivalent to thin wire (Fig. 3.23). However, such thin spokes cannot withstand compression due to buckling. The solution was found in prestressing the spokes in tension, so that the tensile preload force on each spoke is higher than the highest compressive force to be applied to the spoke during ride conditions. With such a design, the spoke would never loose its bending stiffness if the specied loads are not exceeded. However, the lateral stiffness of the spoke is decreasing when the tension is reduced by high radial compressive forces (see Section 7.4.1). In such a condition, a relatively small lateral force caused by turning, for example, may lead to collapse of the wheel. Contrary to the antifriction bearings which were discussed earlier, the rim is a relatively compliant member. Since the total force applied to the rim by the prestressed spokes can be as great as 5000 N (1100 lb), the rim is noticeably compressing, thus reducing the effective preload forces on the spokes. Pressurized tires also apply compressive pressures to the rim equivalent to as much as

Figure 3.22

Spoked wagon wheel.

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

82

Chapter 3

Figure 3.23

Spoked bicycle wheel: (a) front view; (b) side view.

715% of the spoke load. The tension of the spokes changes due to driving and braking torques, which cause signicant pulling and pushing forces on the oppositely located spokes. Combination of the vertical load with torque-induced pushing and pulling loads results in local changes in spoke tension, which appear as waves on the rim circumference. These effects are amplied by the spoke design as shown in Figs. 3.23: to enhance the torsional stiffness, the spokes are installed not radially but somewhat tangentially to the hub (Fig. 3.23a); to enhance lateral stiffness and stability of the wheel, the spokes are installed in a frustoconical manner, not in a single plane (Fig. 3.23b). When a vertical load is applied to the wheel, the spokes in the lower part of the wheel are compressed (i.e., their tension is reduced).The spokes in the upper half of the wheel are additionally stretched, but even the spokes in the midsection of the wheel are increasing their tension since the rim becomes somewhat oval. This ovality is not very signicantthe increase of the horizontal diameter is about 4% of the deformation at the contact with the roadbut it has to be considered. Since the rim is not rigid, its attening at the contact with the road leads to reduction of effective stiffness of the wheel. It is in agreement with

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Nonlinear and Variable Stiffness Systems

83

a suggestion in Section 3.5.1 to enhance stiffness of a bearing by increasing the vertical diameter of the bore. It is important to note that performance loads (radial, torque, braking, and turning loads) cause signicant distortion of the rim (Fig. 3.24), which, in turn, results in very substantial deviation from load distribution for an idealized model (like the bearing model in Fig. 3.21). While the problem of load distribution in and deformations of the real-life spoked bicycle wheel is extremely complex, there is a closed-form analytical solution for load and bending moment distribution along the wheel rim and for deformations of the rim with some simplifying assumptions [15]. These assumptions are as follows: the road surface is at and rigid; the spokes are radial and are coplanar with the rim; and the number of spokes n is so large that the spokes can be considered as a continuous uniform disc of the equivalent radial stiffness. With these assumptions, the problem becomes a problem of a radially loaded ring with elastic internal disc. Every point of the rim would experience radial

Figure 3.24

Distortion of bicycle wheel rim under radial and torque loads.

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Chapter 3

reaction force from the spokes proportional to deection w at this point. There are n/2R spokes per unit length of the rim circumference (R radius of the wheel). Deformation w and bending moment M along the rim circumference due to vertical force P acting on the wheel from the road are
w PR 3 2 4E 1 I a 2
M PR 1 2 a 2 A cosh cos B sinh sin (3.30)

A sinh sin

B cosh cos

(3.31)

The force acting on a spoke is obviously

Ps E2 F
R w (3.32)

Here E 1 and I Youngs modulus and cross-sectional moment of inertia of the rim, respectively; E 2 , F, and l R Youngs modulus, cross-sectional area, and length of spoke; a (R 2 n/2)(E 2 F/E 1 I ); (a 1)/2; (a 1)/2 ; and angular coordinate of a point on the rim is counted from the top point of the wheel. Formulas (3.30)(3.32) allow one to evaluate, at least in a rst approximation, the inuence of various geometric and material parameters on force and bending moment distributions. Figure 3.25 [15] shows these distri-

Figure 3.25 Calculated distribution of (a) bending moment and (b) radial forces along the circumference of a bicycle wheel.

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Nonlinear and Variable Stiffness Systems

85

butions for R 310 mm; I 3000 mm 4 ; n 36; spoke diameter d 2 mm (F 3.14 mm); E 1 E2 2 10 5 N/mm 2 (steel). After the maximum static and dynamic forces on the wheel are estimated/measured, the data from Fig. 3.25b can be used to specify the necessary initial tension of each spoke Pt . This tension should be safely greater than the maximum possible compressive force acting on the spoke, which for the parameter listed above is 0.280 Pmax .

3.5.3 Torsional Systems with Multiple Load-Carrying Connections Such connections are typical for various types of power transmission couplings. Their performance is analyzed in Article 2, where expressions for both torsional and lateral compensating stiffness are derived. An important feature of such connections with less than six radial protrusions (spider legs) is the fact that they generate dynamic loading on the connected shafts even when the misalignment vector is constant.

REFERENCES
1. DenHartog, J.P., Mechanical Vibrations, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952. 2. Rivin, E.I., Passive Engine MountsDirections for Future Development, SAE Transactions, 1985, pp. 3.5823.592. 3. Freakley, P.K., Payne, A.R., Theory and Practice of Engineering with Rubber, Applied Science Publishers, London, 1978. 4. Rivin, E.I., Lee, B.-S., Experimental Study of Load-Deection and Creep Characteristics of Compressed Rubber Components for Vibration Control Devices, ASME J. Mechanical Design, 1994, Vol. 116, No. 2, pp. 539549. 5. Lee, B.-S., Rivin, E.I., Finite Element Analysis of Load-Deection and Creep Characteristics of Compressed Rubber Components for Vibration Control Devices, ASME J. Mechanical Design, 1996, Vol. 118, No. 3, pp. 328336. 6. Rivin, E.I., Resilient Anti-Vibration Support, U.S. Patent 3,442,475. 7. Rivin, E.I., Properties and Prospective Applications of Ultra-Thin-Layered Rubber-Metal Laminates for Limited Travel Bearings, Tribology International, 1983, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 1725. 8. Lavendel, E.E. (ed.), Vibration in Engineering, Vol. 4, 1981, Mashinostroenie Publishing House, Moscow [in Russian]. 9. Rivin, E.I., Cost-Effective Noise Abatement in Manufacturing Plants, Noise Control Engineering Journal, 1983, Nov.-Dec., pp. 103117. 10. Rivin, E.I., Dynamics of Machine Tool Drives, Mashinostroenie Publishing House, Moscow, 1996 [in Russian]. 11. Rivin, E.I., Mechanical Design of Robots, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988.

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

86 12.

Chapter 3

Taylor, J., Improvement in Reliability and Maintainability Requires Accurate Diagnosis of Problems, P/PM Technology, 1995, No. 12, pp. 3841. 13. Reshetov, D.N., Machine Elements, Mashinostroenie Publishing House, Moscow, 1974 [in Russian]. 14. Brandt, J., The Bicycle Wheel, Avocet Inc., Menlo Park, NJ, 1996. 15. Feodosiev, V.I., Selected Problems and Questions on Strength of Materials, Nauka Publishing House, Moscow, 1973 [in Russian].

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.