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61

Chapter V
MAKING MOLDS

Castings are made by pouring molten metal during casting. The pins and fittings should be
into refractory molds and allowing the metal to continually checked for wear and
solidify. The solidified metal will retain the misalignment to avoid mismatched or shifted
shape of the mold cavity and can be removed molds.
from the mold when the metal is solid. A mold
is made by shaping a suitable sand mixture The use of steel flasks is preferred, but cases
around a pattern of the desired form. A metal or will arise requiring a size of flask not available.
wood box (flask) is used to retain the sand. The Under such circumstances, a flask may be
pattern is then removed from the sand, leaving constructed of wood. It should be husky
a cavity in the sand into which the molten metal enough to stand wear and tear. If it is planned
can be poured. to use the flask for several molds, allowance
should be made for some burning of the wood,
The molder's skill is the basic skill of the which will often occur when the metal is
foundry. He must know how to prepare molds poured.
with the following characteristics:
A flask is made of two principal parts, the
1. Strong enough to hold the weight of cope (top section) and the drag (bottom
the metal. section). When more than two sections of a
flask are necessary, either because of the size
2. Resistant to the cutting action of the or design of the casting, intermediate flask
rapidly moving metal during pouring. sections, known as cheeks, are used.

3. Generate a minimum amount of gas HAND TOOLS

when filled with molten metal.
RIDDLES are used for sifting the sand over
4. Constructed so that any gases formed the surfaces of the pattern when starting a
can pass through the body of the mold mold. The size of the riddle is given by the
itself rather than penetrate the metal. number of meshes to the inch. A No. 8 riddle
has eight meshes per inch, a No. 4 riddle has
5. Refractory enough to withstand the four meshes per inch, etc. The particular riddle
high temperature of the metal, so it will used depends on the kind and character of
strip away cleanly from the casting after casting to be made; castings with fine surface
cooling. detail require finer sand and a finer riddle.

6. Collapsible enough to permit the RAMMERS are used for tamping the sand
casting to contract after solidification. around the pattern in the flask. For the heavier
class of molding, they are made of iron.
The refractory material normally used by Sometimes they are made with a wooden
foundries is silica sand bonded with clay. The handle with a cast iron butt on one end and a
material usually provided for the variety of cast iron peen on the other. The small rammers
castings made aboard repair ships is a washed used in bench work are usually made of
and graded silica sand mixed with clay and maple, although sometimes they are made of
cereal bond as described in Chapter 4, "Sands cast iron or aluminum.
for Molds and Cores."
STRIKES are used to scrape the extra sand
MOLDING TOOLS AND ACCESSORIES from the top of the cope or drag after ramming.
They are usually a thin strip of metal or wood.
The basic molding tools and accessories used They should have one straight edge and
by the molder and coremaker are described should be light but sturdy.
below and shown in figures 71 and 72.
CLAMPS are used for holding together the
FLASKS cope and drag of the completed mold or for
clamping together the mold-board and the
Flasks are wood or metal frames in which the bottom-board on either side of the drag when
mold is made. They must be rigid so that the latter is rolled over. They are of many
distortion does not take place during ramming styles and sizes. Some are adjustable and are
of the mold or during handling. They must also tightened on the flask by means of a lever.
resist the pressure of the molten metal Other types use wedges to secure them on the
flask. The WEDGES are usually of soft wood,
but for the heavier work are either of hard
wood or iron.

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BELLOWS are used to blow excess parting the heel. The straight, flattened portion is
materials from the pattern and also to blow known as the blade and is used to slick the
loose sand and dirt from the mold cavity. sides of the mold where they cannot be
Compressed air hoses have almost replaced reached by the trowel or slicker. The heel is
bellows for this purpose. also used to slick the bottom of deep recesses
after the sand has been removed.
TROWELS are of many different styles and
sizes to suit the individual taste of the molder SLICKERS are formed with blades of varying
and the particular requirements of the job. The widths, sometimes with one end of the tool
trowel is used for making joints and for turned to form a heel somewhat similar to the
finishing, smoothing, and slicking the flat lifter. It is used for lifting loose sand from
surfaces of the mold. shallow parts of the mold, for patching, and to
form corners to the proper shape. This tool is
VENTS - Thin, rigid steel strips are used for widely used by molders.
making vents. Hacksaw blades are suitable for
this purpose. Rods are also used for vents but SPOON SLICKERS have spoon-shaped ends
they often cause a shrinkage depression at their and are used to slick rounded surfaces in a
base on the casting. mold. They are usually made with one end
larger than the other.
BOSHES or SWABS are made of hemp,
tasselled to a point at one end and bound with The DOUBLE ENDER has a slicker at one
twine at the other to hold it together. They are end and a spoon at the other. They are usually
used for placing a small amount of water on the made to the molder's order and are used on
sand around the edge of the pattern before the small molds.
pattern is rapped for drawing from the mold.
Bushes will hold considerable water and the CORNER TOOLS are used to slick the
amount which they deliver to the sand can be corners of molds where a slicker or the heel of
regulated by the pressure the molder applies a lifter is not satisfactory. Corner tools are
when squeezing them. Boshes are also used to made with different angles for special work.
apply wet blacking to dry-sand molds when
they are to be blacked before the mold is dried. Various specialized tools such as flange tools,
pipe tools, and hub tools are also used.
SOFT BRUSHES are used to brush the pattern WOODEN GATE-PINS or SPRUES are
and the joint of the mold. The hard brush is round tapered pins used to form the sprue or
used to spread beeswax or tallow on metal down-gate through which metal is poured into
patterns and to brush and clean out between the the mold. The size depends on the size of the
teeth of gears and similar patterns. mold.

CAMEL'S HAIR BRUSHES are used to GATE CUTTERS are pieces of sheet brass
brush dry blacking on the face of the mold. bent to a semicircle on one edge. They are
used to cut the ingate in the drag leading from
RAPPING and CLAMPING BARS are the base of the sprue to the mold cavity.
usually bars of steel about 3/4 inch in diameter
and 2 feet long. They are pointed at one end to SPRUE CUTTERS are cylindrical metal tubes
enter rapping plates in a pattern and are used to cut the sprue in the cope when the
flattened and turned up at the other end for sprue-stick is not used. Tapered sprue cutters
convenience in tightening clamps on a flask. are available for making the more desirable
tapered sprue. They must be pressed down
DRAW SCREWS are eye-bolts threaded on from the cope side before stripping the mold
one end. They are used for drawing large from the pattern.
wooden patterns from the sand by screwing
into holes drilled for that purpose in the rapping
CALIPERS are used more often by the core
plate. They are also used for drawing metal maker than the molder. The molder uses them
patterns where pointed spikes could not be to verify the sizes of cores in order to insure
used. proper fit in the core print and also to obtain
the length of smaller cores. The calipers in this
DRAW SPIKES are steel rods which are case are set at the proper dimension and the
sharpened at one end for driving into a wooden core filed to fit. This is important in dry-sand
pattern to rap and draw it and are principally work to prevent crushing of the mold if the
used in bench work for drawing small patterns. core is too large when the mold is closed.

LIFTERS are used for removing loose sand CUTTING NIPPERS are used to cut small
from deep cavities in molds. They are of wires to the desired length for use in cores or
different lengths and sizes, one end being molds.
turned at right angles to the stem; this portion is
called

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FACING NAILS when molten metal is poured into the mold. It

is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of
Facing nails are used: (1) to reinforce mold the displaced molten metal. A core with
surfaces and to prevent washing of the mold dimensions of 12 inches by 12 inches by 12
face, (2) to mechanically lock the sand on the inches, or one cubic foot, will weigh
face with that deeper in the body of the mold, approximately 100 pounds. Immersed in
and (3) to act as a means for slightly molten gray iron, which weighs 450 pounds
accelerating solidification at internal corner s of per cubic foot, the core will tend to remain in
the casting. These nails are similar to "roofing place until it has displaced 100 pounds of iron,
nails," having a flat, thin head of large diameter and then it will tend to float. In order to keep it
and shanks of various lengths. Caution must be submerged (displacing 450 pounds of cast
exercised to see that no galvanized, rusty, oily, iron) it will be necessary to exert 350 pounds
or dirty nails are used. The use of anything but of force on it (450 - 100 = 350). It takes no
clean dry nails will result in defective castings. more force to keep it submerged at greater
depths than just below the surface. A greater
GAGGERS head does not increase the lifting effect,
although it does increase the pressure on the
Gaggers are used to give support to hanging core.
masses of sand which would break under their The ratio of 100 to 350, or 1 to 3.5, holds
own weight unless they were supported. good for cores of any size, so we can make the
Gaggers should be cleaned and are coated with rule that the force resulting from the tendency
clay before use to provide a better bond with of a sand core to lift in cast iron is roughly 3.5
the sand. Care must be taken in the placing of times its weight; for steel, 3.9 times; for
gaggers in the mold so that they are not too copper, 4.5 times; etc.
close to a mold surface, where they would
cause a chilling of the metal where it is not Where chaplets are used on large cores with
wanted. Many times, a casting defect can be extensive surface areas exposed to the metal,
traced to a gagger located too near to a mold the usual practice is to use ordinary chaplets in
surface. the drag (since they are only required to hold
the core in place until the metal is poured
CHAPLETS around them) and to use stem chaplets in the
cope. Stem chaplets, instead of bearing on the
Chaplets are metal supports used to hold a core mold face, pass through the mold body and are
in place when core prints are inadequate. They brought to bear against a support placed across
are too often used to compensate for poor the top of the flask. They are thus able to
design, improper pattern construction, or bad withstand very high forces, such as imposed
core practice. In all castings (especially in when large cores tend to float on the metal.
pressure castings), chaplets are a continual Figure 77 illustrates this method. It also shows
source of trouble and should be avoided a useful method for increasing the load-
whenever possible. Figures 73, 74, and 75 carrying ability of the green sand mold. A dry-
show typical chaplets. It is absolutely necessary sand core is used as a chaplet support in the
that they be clean. Rust, oil, grease, moisture, mold. A dried oil sand core will safely support
or even finger marks, cause poor fusion or a load of 70 to 90 p.s.i. while the strength of
porosity. Sandblasting immediately before use green sand is 5 or 6 p.s.i.
is a good practice if no other protection is used.
Copper and nickel plating is a good method of Metal wedges or shims must be used to hold
protecting chaplets from rusting but does not the stem chaplet down because the force of the
eliminate the need for absolute cleanliness. molten metal acting on the core and
Their size must bear a direct relationship to the transmitted through the stem of the chaplet will
type and section of metal in which they are to force it into a wooden wedge and thus allow
be used. Soft-steel chaplets are used in iron and the core to rise.
steel, and copper chaplets in brass and bronze
castings. Chaplets should be the same Table 19 for calculating the load-carrying
composition as the casting, if possible. The capacity of chaplets of various sizes is given
strength of the chaplet must be enough to carry below.
the weight of the core until sufficient metal has
solidified to provide the required strength, but it TABLE 19. CHAPLET LOAD-CARRYING
should be no heavier than necessary. The use CAPACITIES
of an oversize chaplet results in poor fusion and
often causes cracks in the casting. A chaplet Double Head Stem Chaplet
which can be made in the machine shop for Diameter Size of Safe Diameter Thin Heavy
emergency use is shown in figure 76. Chaplets of Stem, Square Load of Metal Metal
should not have any sharp, internal corners inch Head, lbs Head, Section, Section,
because metal will not fill a sharp internal inch inch lbs lbs
groove. 3/16 3/4 45 3/4 45 22
3/8 1-1/2 180 1-1/4 180 90
It is well to consider the forces which a chaplet
must resist. In all metals except aluminum and 5/8 2-1/2 500 1-3/4 500 250
the light alloys, a core tends to float

64

CHILLS DRY-SAND MOLDS

A detailed description of the use of chills will Dry-sand molds, as the name implies, are
be found in Chapter 7, "Gates, Risers, and molds made with tempered sand and then
Chills." thoroughly dried by baking. Dry-sand molds
are used when a mold of high strength is
Chills used in making molds are internal chills needed, or when low moisture content is
and external chills. Internal chills are set so they important. Dry-sand molds are not
project into the mold cavity. They are expected recommended for complicated castings unless
to fuse with the solidifying metal and become a special care is taken to obtain sand mixtures
part of the casting. Extreme care should be which will give good collapsibility, so as to
taken to make sure the chills are clean. Any prevent hot cracks or tears.
grease, finger marks, film, or dirt will prevent
good fusion between the chill and the casting. SKIN-DRIED MOLDS
External chills are rammed up with the mold to
anchor them firmly in the sand. They also Skin-dried molds are green-sand molds which
should be rust free and clean when used have been dried only on the mold surface by
without special treatment. Many times, when the use of a torch or some other source of heat.
external chills fuse to a casting, the condition Skin-dried molds are used where a mold
can be overcome by coating the chill surface surface low in moisture content is necessary.
with a thin coat of shellac, or other adhesive The mold surface is usually sprayed with
material, applying a very thin layer of fine, dry additional special binding materials and then
sand, and then drying the chill to drive off any dried by the use of a torch. This type of mold
moisture. Many commercial chill coating combines the firm sand face obtained from a
materials are available also. Torch drying of dry-sand mold with the collapsibility of a
coated chills in the mold should be avoided green-sand mold in the backing sand. In
because moisture from the flame will condense general the sand used for skin-dried molds has
on the chill. Moisture will condense on cold a moisture content higher than for a green-sand
chills in green sand molds if the molds are mold and dry sand molds require a still higher
closed and allowed to stand for an appreciable original moisture content.
time before pouring.
MOLDING LOOSE-PIECE PATTERNS
CLAMPS AND WEIGHTS
Loose-piece patterns are in one piece or are
Clamps and weights are used to hold the cope split to make molding easier. Molding with a
and drag sections of a mold together and to split pattern will be described here. Molding
prevent lifting of the cope by the force of the with a single-piece pattern (and the use of
molten metal. It is safe practice to use a weight broken parts) usually involves the cutting of a
on small molds, but when the molds are of parting line and will be described under the
considerable size, both weights and clamps section, "False-Cope Molding," later in this
should be used. The use of insufficient weights chapter.
is a common cause of defective castings.
In making a mold, a flask should be selected
TYPES OF MOLDS so that sufficient room is allowed between the
pattern and flask for risers and the gating
The types of molds which are made aboard system. There must also be enough space over
repair ships are (1) green-sand molds, (2) dry- and under the pattern to prevent any break-
sand molds, and (3) skin-dried molds. These outs of the metal during pouring or straining of
three types of molds differ mainly in their sand the mold. Many castings are lost, or require
mixture content. extra cleaning, and many injuries to personnel
are caused by the use of undersized flasks. It is
GREEN-SAND MOLDS better to err on the side of safety and choose
too large a flask, rather than to use a flask that
Molds made from tempered sand (see chapter is too small. In addition to the safety factor, an
on foundry terminology) and not given any undersized flask makes positioning of the
further treatment are called green-sand molds. gages and risers difficult. Gates and risers
Green-sand molds are used for normal foundry placed too close to a steel flask will be chilled
work aboard ship. They have the necessary by the flask and will not perform their function
green strength and other properties which make properly. Safe practice in the selection of a
them suitable for a great variety of castings. flask is shown in figure 78.
Green sand gives less resistance to contraction
of a casting than does dry sand, and thereby For a split pattern, such as that for a pump
tends to prevent hot cracks in the casting. housing, a smooth ram-up board and a bottom
Green-sand molds are the easiest to make. board are needed. The ram-up board should be

65

of sufficient size to project an inch or two board and the ram-up board and turned over.
beyond the flask. A one-piece board, such as The ram-up board (which is now on top) is
3/4-inch plywood, is preferred. The use of such removed and the mold face cleaned and
a ram-up board keeps mold finishing and slicked. Figure 82 shows the drag of the mold
slicking to a minimum. ready for the cope.

Before use, the pattern should be checked for A parting material is sprinkled over the mold
cleanliness and the free working of any loose joint and pattern. The parting material prevents
pieces which must seat securely. Any chills the sand in the cope from sticking to the sand
which will be required should be clean and on in the drag when the cope is rammed up. The
hand ready for use. The chills should be parting material for large castings is usually
checked to make sure that they fit the pattern fine silica sand. For medium and small
correctly and have the proper means for castings, finely ground powders (such as talc
anchoring them. or silica flour) are used.

When using a split pattern, the drag part of the The cope of the flask is set on the drag and
flask is turned upside down and placed on the seated firmly with the aid of the flask pins. The
ram-up board. If the flask is not too large, the cope pattern, riser forms, and any other parts
ram-up board and drag can be placed on the of the gating system are set in their proper
cope of the flask. The drag pattern is placed positions. Figure 83 shows the mold with the
with the parting surface down on the ram-up cope pattern, sprue, whirl-gate, and cross-gate
board along with any pieces used for the gating pieces set.
and risering system. Figure 78 shows a pump-
housing pattern set in the drag with the parts of The facing sand is riddled into the cope and
the gating system. The facing sand is then hand packed around corners and in deep
riddled to a depth of about one inch on the pockets. At this point, any gaggers which are
pattern and the ram-up board. Riddling of the necessary are placed. Care should be taken not
sand is absolutely necessary for good to set the gaggers too close to the pattern risers
reproduction of the pattern. The riddled sand is or parts of the gating system. Gaggers set too
then tucked into all pockets and sharp corners close to the mold surface will cause undesired
and hand packed around the pattern as shown chilling of the metal. Any mold showing
in figure 79. exposed gagger s in the cope after the cope
pattern has been drawn, should be shaken out
Backing sand is then put into the flask to cover and made over. The number of gaggers and
the facing sand to a depth of three or four supporting bars will depend upon the size of
inches. The backing sand should be carefully the casting. Large flasks will require cope bars
rammed into any deep pockets as shown in to support the sand. Gaggers may be fastened
figure 80. The remainder of the mold is then to the cope bars. The flask is then filled with
rammed with a pneumatic or hand rammer, sand and rammed as in making the drag. The
care being taken to avoid hitting or coming too sand should be packed by hand around any
close to the pattern. The mold must be rammed riser forms or raised portion of the pattern and
uniformly hard in order to obtain a smooth, care should be taken to avoid striking any
easily cleaned casting surface and to avoid forms or patterns during ramming. The
metal penetration into the sand, swelling, partially filled cope is shown in figure 84.
break-outs, or other casting defects. When this Notice that the cope has been peened around
ramming is completed, five or six more inches the inside edge of the flask. This procedure
of sand are added at a time and rammed until should be followed for both cope and drag, as
the flask is filled to a point about one inch it serves to pack the sand tightly against the
above the top of the flask. flask and to prevent the sand from dropping
out during handling. Also notice that the sprue
Next, the excess sand is "struck off," by means and swirl gate form are slightly below the top
of a straight edge or strike as shown in figure of the cope of the flask. The cope is filled the
81. Instead of striking the sand in one motion, it same as the drag with successive fillings and
is often easier to loosen the sand by a series of uniform ramming. The completed mold is then
short strokes and then remove it with one struck off. With the riser, gating, and sprue
motion. When the struck-off surface is smooth, forms a little below the top of the flask, the
a scattering of a small amount of loose sand on excess sand can be struck off without
the struck surface helps to give better contact disturbing them.
with the bottom board. The bottom board is
placed into position with a slight circular After the mold has been struck off, it is vented
motion. Good, full, and solid contact between in the cope as shown in figure 85. The cope is
bottom board and drag sand is important if the then removed from the drag, set on its side,
mold and pattern are to have adequate support and rolled over to facilitate drawing the cope
when they are rolled over. The drag section is pattern. By tapping the runner, riser, and sprue
then clamped between the bottom forms lightly on the parting side of the cope,
they will come free easily and can be removed.

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Any cope pattern pieces are also withdrawn at MOLDING MOUNTED PATTERNS
this time. The pieces used for the gating system
are drawn from the drag. Cutting of in-gates is A mounted pattern is one which is attached to
done before drawing the pattern if possible. a ram-up board. It is called a match-plate
Loose sand should be cleaned from the drag. pattern if the cope pattern is mounted on one
The drag pattern is drawn by the use of side of the board and the drag pattern on the
eyebolts or draw pins as dictated by the pattern. other. For a match-plate, the cope and drag
A light rapping of the pattern and eye bolt patterns must be aligned perfectly.
before and at the beginning of the draw will
make this operation easier. (NOTE: avoid The molding of a mounted pattern is much
excessive rapping.) The beginning of the easier than the molding of loose patterns.
pattern draw for the pump housing is shown in Mounted patterns are usually metal and are
figure 86. The drawn pattern is shown in figure used for quantity production, but their use is
87. Notice that this pattern was drawn with often justified when quite a few castings of
both hands. Such procedures give the molder one design are required. Mounted patterns may
better control over the pattern. The cope and also be of wood, but these require proper care
drag are both inspected and cleaned, if and storage facilities to prevent warping.
necessary. Slicking of the mold should be kept
to a minimum, but the pouring gate in the cope The advantages of a mounted pattern are that
should be compacted and smoothed so as to the parting-line surface can be rammed much
eliminate loose sand and prevent washing out harder than with loose-pattern molding and a
by the molten metal. vibrator can be attached to the pattern plate to
make the drawing of the pattern much easier.
If any facing nails are required to resist Another important advantage is that the gating
washing of the mold face, they should be and risering system can be made a fixed part of
placed at this time. Any sharp corners or fins of the pattern. As a result, smooth hard surfaces
sand in the mold cavity or in the gating system will be obtained and sand-erosion problems
should be carefully removed. Any such reduced.
projections will be washed out by the stream of
molten metal and result in defective castings. The sequence of operations for molding with
mounted patterns is the same as for molding
Once the cope and drag have been properly loose patterns. The pattern is set between the
finished, the cores should be set in place. It is cope and drag parts of the flask and held in
place by the flask pin. The drag is rammed up
good practice to rest the arms against the body first, the flask rolled over, and the cope
while setting the core to make the operation rammed up. When the mold is completed, the
easier and smoother and to avoid damage to the cope is drawn off the pattern and then the
mold. Both hands should be used for setting all pattern drawn from the drag. Core-setting
but the smallest cores. The handling of the core operations and closing the mold are the same
for the pump housing is shown in figure 88. as for loose pattern molding.
The cope and drag with the core set and ready
for closing are shown in figure 89. FALSE-COPE MOLDING AND THE
USE OF BROKEN PARTS AS
The mold is closed carefully by using pins to PATTERNS
guide the cope. The cope should be lowered
slowly and kept level. Any binding on the pins Some patterns do not have a straight or flat
because of cocking of the cope should be parting line that permits them to be placed
avoided. A jerking motion caused by binding solidly against a ram-up board. Broken
pins often causes sand to drop from the cope. castings or parts which are to be used as a
This is one reason why flask equipment should pattern usually fall into this class. Very often
be kept in top condition. After the mold is castings of this type would be impossible to
closed, it is clamped, the weights are placed, mold by the common cope-and-drag method.
and the pouring cup or basin set over the sprue. The difficulties come from the facts that: (1)
The mold, ready for pouring, is shown in figure the parting line is not straight, and (2) the
90. pattern or broken part requires special support
while being molded. The false-cope method
The proper pouring techniques are discussed in provides this extra support and makes it
detail in Chapter 9, "Pouring Castings." possible to have a very irregular parting line.
Pouring of the pump housing is shown in Essentially the method consists of molding the
figure 91. A block of iron was used to hold the part or pattern roughly into a false cope that is
pouring basin down. Notice that the lip of the used to support the part while the final drag
ladle is close to the basin and that the basin is section is molded. The false cope is then
kept full of metal. removed and a final cope section molded Lo
take its place in the final mold assembly.
The finished pump-housing casting is shown in
the two views in figure 92.

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The cutting of an irregular parting line is If several castings are required from a pattern
probably the most important step in false-cope with an irregular parting line, a more
molding and will be described here. A small permanent type of false cope, or "follow
boat propeller is used as the pattern. board" can be used. A shallow box, the size of
the flask and deep enough for the cope section
The propeller is set in the drag, on the ram-up of the pattern, is made from wood. The box
board, as shown in figure 93. The facing sand should be made so that it is held in place by
is riddled onto the pattern, and the drag filled the flask pins. The pattern should be given a
with sand and rammed in the conventional light grease coating to prevent any sticking. It
manner. The bottom board is set and the flask is then positioned in the box, cope side up, in
rolled over. The cope of the flask and ram-up the manner previously described. Plaster is
board are removed. The parting line is then cut poured around the pattern and permitted to set
with the use of spoons and slicks. The sand firmly but not hard. The false cope and follow
must be removed to provide a gradual slope board are then turned over together. The
from the casting parting line to the flask parting pattern is worked back and forth slightly so
line. A 45° slope usually is the maximum that that it can be drawn easily. While the plaster is
can be tolerated and prevent sand from still workable, the parting line is cut and the
dropping. The completely cut parting line is plaster permitted to harden. After the plaster
shown in figure 94. The cope section of the has dried completely, it may be coated with
flask is set in position, parting compound shellac to prevent any moisture pickup. Nails
sprinkled on the drag, and the cope rammed.
Extreme care must be taken in ramming to may be used through the sides of the frame to
prevent damage to the drag. After the cope is help support the plaster. A follow board may
completed, it is carefully removed from the be made in a similar manner by building up the
drag. The drawn cope is shown with the drag required backing with fireclay mixed to the
in figure 95. The pattern is then drawn, and the consistency of heavy putty, and working it
sprue, gates, and risers cut. The mold ready for around the pattern. A fireclay match has the
closing is shown in figure 96. The as-cast disadvantage that it must be kept slightly moist
propeller is shown in figure 97. to keep the fireclay from cracking.

In false-cope molding, the false cope provides a The follow board is used in place of the false
bearing surface for the pattern when ramming cope in providing the necessary support when
up the drag. It has the advantage that the ramming the drag. The pattern is set in the
finished mold is not disturbed in cutting the follow board, and the drag rammed up as for
parting line. molding a loose pattern. After the bottom
board is set, the drag is rolled right side up and
The preparation of a false cope consists of the match plate drawn, exposing the pattern in
molding the pattern in the cope and cutting the the drag with the parting line made. The cope
parting line. The sand is rammed as hard as is then placed and the molding completed as
possible to provide a good bearing surface for loose -pattern molding.
when ramming the drag. An alternative way of
preparing a false cope is to ram the cope SETTING CORES, CHILLS, AND
without the pattern. The pattern is then bedded CHAPLETS
into the parting line side of the cope. The
parting line can be cut into the cope or built up In the setting of cores, it is important to check
with additional sand, or it may be a the size of the core print against the core itself.
combination of both. A core print is a depression or cavity in the
cope or drag, or both. The print is used to
The drag section of the flask is then placed into support a core and, when the core is set, is
position, parting material sprinkled over the completely filled by the supporting extensions
mold joint, and the drag made as described for on the core. A typical example of a core print
loose-pattern molding. The flask is then rolled in use is shown at the extreme left of the mold
over and the cope drawn. Extreme care must be in figure 89. An oversize print or an undersize
taken in drawing the cope. The original cope is core will cause fins on the completed castings,
discarded, the cope section returned to the drag, which may lead to cracks or chilled sections in
parting compound sprinkled over the mold joint the core area. An oversize core or an undersize
and a new cope made. Extreme care must be print may cause the mold to be crushed and
taken in ramming the cope to prevent any result in loose sand in the mold and a dirty
damage to the drag. The cope is then carefully casting.
drawn, the pattern drawn, sprues, gates, and
risers cut, and the mold closed. This type of Setting simple cores in the drag should be no
molding provides a firm, sharp, parting line problem to a molder. Care should be taken in
without any loose sand particles that might handling and setting the core. After a core has
wash into the mold cavity. been properly set, it should be seated by
pressing it lightly into the prints. Another item
which should be checked is the venting of
cores

452605 0-58-6

68

through the mold. Many times, the cores use of chaplets in pressure castings should be
themselves are properly vented but the molder completely avoided.
forgets to provide a vent through the mold for
the core gases to escape. CLOSING MOLDS
In come instances, the cores may have to be The most important factor in the proper and
tied to the cope. In such a case, they are easy closing of molds is to have flask
attached to the cope by wires extending equipment in good condition. Clean pins and
through the cope. The wires are wound around bushings and straight sides on the flasks are
long rods resting on the top of the cope to the factors that make the closing of molds an
provide additional support. The rods should easy operation. The opening of a mold after it
rest on the flask to prevent crushing or cracking has been closed is sometimes recommended.
of the cope. This procedure may prove useful. By using an
excess of parting compound, the molder can
Such operations should be done with the cope then determine, with a fair degree of certainty,
resting on its side or face up. The tieing should any mismatch or crushing of the mold.
be done with as little disturbance as possible to Nevertheless, the fewer times a mold is
the rammed surface. The core should be drawn handled, the fewer chances there are to jar it
up tight to prevent any movement of the core and cause sand to drop.
while the mold is being closed. Before closing
the mold, the cope should be checked to make SUMMARY
sure it is free of any loose sand.
The molding operation aboard ship depends
Chills are rammed in place with the mold and primarily on the molder and his ability to do
are described under "Molding Tools" in this his job. Skill in this type of molding can be
chapter. Again it is emphasized that chills must attained only through experience, but a high
be clean and dry. Even chills which have just level of skill can be reached in a shorter length
been removed from a newly shaken-out mold of time by following correct molding
should be checked before immediate reuse. techniques. For a beginning molder, it may
appear much easier to patch molds that have
The use of chaplets was described earlier in this been made haphazardly, than to take the time
chapter under "Molding Tools." It must be to make them properly. A molding technique
remembered that chaplets should be used only based on careful attention to the various details
when absolutely necessary. Preferably, another involved in making a mold is by far the best
method for support (for example, core prints) approach to attaining molding skill. As with
should be used, if at all possible. The many other trades, speed in molding comes
about by itself, if proper attention is given to
the basic techniques.

69
 Figure 71. Molder's hand tools. 1. Wedge; 2. Gaggers; 3. Blow can; 4. Bellows; 5. Floor
rammer; 6. Adjustable clamp; 7. Clamp; 8. Rapping iron; 9. Strike; 10. Rammer; 11. Bench
rammers; 12. Molder's shovel; 13. Six-foot rule; 14. Cutting pliers; 15. Riddle.

70
 Figure 72. Additional molder's tools. 1. Gate stick; 2. Brush; 3. Bosh or swab; 4. Level; 5.
Trowels; 6. Camel's hair brushes; 7. Rapping or clamping bar; 8. Wrench; 9. Rawhide mallet;
10. Vent wire; 11. Slickers, double-enders, spoons; 12. Half-round corner; 13. Dogs; 14. Draw
spike; 15. Draw screw; 16. Calipers; 17. Flash light; 18. Gate cutter; 19. Circular flange tool;
20. Circular flange tool; 21. Bench lifter (bent); 22. Hub tool; 23. Lifter; 24. Lifters.

71

Figure 73. Double-headed chaplets.

Figure 76. Recommended chaplet design for

emergency use.
 Figure 74. Stem chaplets.

Figure 77. Anchoring cores with chaplets.

Figure 75. Perforated chaplets.

Figure 78. Pattern set in drag with gating system parts.

72
Figure 79. Hand packing riddled sand around the pattern.

Figure 80. Ramming a deep pocket.

73
 Figure 81. Striking off the drag.

Figure 82. Drag ready for the cope.

74
Figure 83. Cope with pattern and gating pieces set.

Figure 84. Ramming the partially filled cope.

75
 Figure 85. Venting the cope.

Figure 86. Start of the pattern draw.

76
Figure 87. Pattern completely drawn.

Figure 88. Setting the core.

77
Figure 89. Cope and drag ready for closing.

78
Figure 90. Clamped mold with weights and pouring basin.

Figure 91. Pouring the mold.

79
Figure 92. Finished pump housing casting.

Figure 93. Propeller set in the drag.

80
Figure 94. Propeller in the drag with parting line cut.

Figure 95. Drawn cope.

81
Figure 96. Mold ready for closing.
 82

Figure 97. As-cast propeller.

83

Chapter VI
MAKING CORES
Cores are used for forming internal cavities in a INTERNAL SUPPORT
casting, for forming parts of molds when the
pattern is difficult to draw, or for details that are Cores are made from sand mixtures that are
difficult to make in molding sand. The various very weak before they are baked or dried.
properties required of good cores are discussed These mixtures often need some reinforcing.
in detail in Chapter 4, "Sands for Molds and Large or complicated cores need proper arbors
Cores." Briefly, the properties desired in a core or reinforcing rods in the sand to permit
are: (1) refractoriness, (2) some green strength, handling of the unbaked core and to help
(3) high dry strength, (4) good collapsibility, support the baked core in the mold. When a
(5) a minimum amount of gas generation by the core is made entirely of sand, the force tending
core during casting, (6) good permeability, and to lift it is quite great when metal is poured
(7) high density. around it, but when the core is hollowed out or
filled with coke or cinders, as is often done to
CORE MAKING TOOLS AND improve collapsibility, the force is even
ACCESSORIES greater. If a core shifts, floats, deforms, or
breaks, the casting is almost always defective.
Tools and accessories used in the making of
cores are the same as those used for making Figure 98 shows a cast iron arbor used to
molds, with the addition of coreboxes, sweeps,
support a core of medium size. Figure 99
core driers, and special venting rods. Cores are
shows the core rammed with the arbor in
shaped by the use of the core boxes, by the use
place. Arbors can also be made by tying rods
of sweeps, or by a combination of these or wires together, or by welding rods or strips
methods. Sweeps are limited in their use and together. Cast iron arbors are seldom used for
will not be discussed here. Core driers are small work; steel rods or wires are more
special racks used to support complicated cores
commonly used. When placing rods or arbors,
during baking. They are usually not used support them to avoid all twisting, bending, or
unless a large number of cores of a particular
breaking forces. Place the support in such a
design are being made. Complicated cores can way that it does not interfere with the proper
often be made as split cores, baked on flat hollowing or "gutting out" of the core.
drying plates, and then assembled by pasting.Hollowing is done to improve collapsibility
after the casting is poured. Care should be
TYPES OF CORES taken to make certain that the arbor or rod does
not project through the surface of the core or
BAKED SAND CORES even approach too close to it. All pockets or
projecting parts of the core should be made
Core work aboard ship is concerned primarily with rods to make it easier to draw the core
with baked sand cores. They have the desired box and to give good support for the core.
properties, are easy to handle, and may be Figure 100 shows a typical method for
made up ahead of time and stored in a dry supporting cores which must be suspended
place for future use. Baked sand cores have from the cope. Figure 101 shows lifting-hook
higher strengths than dry-sand cores. This assemblies used for handling and fastening
means that complicated cores can be made large cores.
most easily as baked cores.
FACING, RAMMING, RELIEF, AND
DRY-SAND CORES VENTING OF CORES
Dry-sand cores are made from green-sand After obtaining the core box and selecting the
mixtures to which additional amounts of proper reinforcing rods or arbor, the next
binders have been added. They are dried in the operation is to put the core sand uniformly into
air or with a torch and their strength comes the core box to a depth of approximately 1/2
from the large amount of binder. Dry-sand inch or more, depending on the size of core
cores are not as strong as baked sand cores and and thickness of the casting. The sand should
require more internal support and careful be free flowing and should not require hard
handling. Although they can be made faster ramming, but it is necessary that it be rammed
than baked sand cores, this is often offset by sufficiently to develop a smooth, uniform
disadvantages of lower strength and the need surface. In pockets, tucking the sand in place
for more careful handling. with the fingers or suitable tools is necessary.
452605 0-58-7 Many core makers tend to overlook the
importance of this operation and its omission is
a source

84

of continual trouble. Uniformity of ramming is A silica wash or spray is a good general-

a big factor affecting green and dry strength, purpose material to smooth the surface of the
ease of cleaning, and the quality of the casting core to give a smoother casting. With a little
surface. practice, washes can be applied to a core either
before or after it is baked. The wash should be
After or during the ramming of the facing heavy enough to fill the openings between the
material, the reinforcements are placed. For sand grains at the surface of the core, but not
small cores, the entire box may be filled with so heavy that it will crack or flake off when it
facing sand prior to placing the rods. In making is dried.
medium and large cores, the facing material
may be backed up with old molding sand, BAKING
cinders or coke to support the core. This
material, after drying, can easily be removed to In the baking of oil sand cores, two things
provide space for venting and for collapsibility occur. First, the moisture is driven off.
of the core. Following this, the temperature rises, causing
drying and partial oxidation of the oil. In this
One of the necessary requirements of a core is way, the strength of the core is developed.
venting. In some of the simple cores, venting is
easy, but in the more intricate ones, it is often For proper baking of oil sand cores, a uniform
difficult. A small, round core may be vented by temperature is needed. This temperature
running a vent rod through its center after should be not over 500°F., nor under 375°F. If
ramming. A core made in halves may be linseed oil cores are baked at a moderate
vented by cutting channels through the body temperature of 375°F. or 400°F., they will be
and core prints at the parting line before quite strong. The same cores baked quickly at
baking. When neither of these methods can be 500°F. will be mush weaker. Baking the cores
applied, a wax vent should be used. It is buried to the point where the bonding material
in the sand along the line or lines that the decomposes must be avoided, or the cores will
escaping gas is to follow. When the core is lose strength.
baked, the wax melts and disappears into the
body of the core, leaving the desired vent The size of the core must be considered in
channels. Care should be taken to avoid using drying. The outer surface of a core will bake
too much wax, as it produces gas when heated fast and will be the first part to develop
by the molten metal. Cores made with coke maximum strength. If the temperature is
cinders, gravel, or similar material in their maintained, the inside will continue to bake
central sections do not usually need additional until it finally reaches maximum strength, but
venting. by that time the outer surface may be
overbaked and low in strength. The tendency
The importance of good ramming, a uniformly for this to happen in large cores can be partly
smooth surface on a core, and of proper overcome by filling the center of the core with
venting cannot be emphasized too strongly. highly porous material with a low moisture
When cores have a tendency to sag before and bond content (for example, cinders or
baking or during baking, they can often be coke), by the use of well-perforated plates, and
supported in a bed of loose green sand which by using low baking temperatures. It is not
can be brushed off the core after it is baked. only a matter of heating the center of the core
but also of supplying it with oxygen. Thus,
TURNING OUT AND SPRAYING there is need for free circulation of air around
and through the core while baking.
After the core box is filled and the excess sand
is removed, a metal plate is placed on the box, The most skillful and careful preparation of
the whole is turned over, and the box is rapped metal and mold can easily be canceled by poor
or vibrated as it is drawn away from the sand. cores. The need for proper baking cannot be
There are several precautions to be observed in overemphasized. If cores are not properly
this operation. The core plate should be clean baked, the following is likely to happen to the
and straight and should be perforated to casting:
facilitate drying of the core. Care should be
taken to avoid hard rapping of the box. This 1. Excessive stress, possible cracks, caused
causes distorted cores. when the core continues to bake from the heat
of the metal, thus increasing the strength of the
After the core is freed from the box, all fins and core at the time the metal is freezing and
irregularities must be removed. The core should contracting.
be sprayed or painted with the proper wash as
described in Chapter 4, "Sands for Molds and 2. Unsoundness from core gases not baked
Cores." out.

85

3. Entrapped dirt from eroded or spalled sand 3 % bentonite

from weak cores. 6 % dextrine
91 % silica flour (200 mesh or finer)
When overbaked, the loss of strength of the Water to develop the correct pasty consistency.
core results in excessive breakage in handling
or during casting, and cutting or eroding of the After this, all joints are sealed with a filler
core surface. mixed as follows:

To establish a full appreciation of the problems 3 % bentonite

of drying cores, a series of 3, 5, and 8-inch 3 % dextrine
cube cores should be made without rods and 94 % silica flour (200 mesh or finer)
then baked at temperatures of 400°F., 425°F., Water to develop the consistency of a thin
450°F., 475°F., and 500°F. for varying times. putty.
After being taken out of the oven and cooled,
they should be cut open with a saw to The filler and paste are dried by returning the
determine the extent to which they are baked. core to an oven for a short period or by local
Conducting this simple test will aid in application of heat (as from a torch).
determining the proper time and temperatures
to use for various cores in a given oven. The above paste and filler developed at the
Naval Research Laboratory have been found
Practice is necessary to accurately determine to give excellent results. A major caution to be
when a core is baked properly. A practical observed in their use is to see that they are
method is to observe the color of the core. thoroughly mixed in the dry state before
When it has turned a uniform nut brown, it is adding water, and again thoroughly mixed
usually properly baked. A lighter color after the water is added.
indicates insufficient baking and a darker color
indicates overbaking. STORAGE OF CORES

Mechanical venting of the core by using many Storage time has an important effect on the
vent holes and then carrying these to the prints quality of cores and upon the resulting
on the core joint will facilitate baking. castings. Baked or dry cores decrease in
strength because they pickup moisture from
CLEANING AND ASSEMBLY the air, particularly on the surface. For this
reason, it is unwise to make cores much in
At the baking temperature, cores are quite advance of requirements, usually not over 24
fragile. Thus, after being removed from the hours. If baked or dry cores must be stored,
oven, they should be allowed to cool to below put them in a dry place.
125°F. before being taken from the core plates.
Consideration must also be given to the
When cool, all excess materials such as fine storage of cores prior to baking. If cores are
and loose sand should be cleaned from them. allowed to stand for too long a time before
Sand, gravel, or cinders used for fill-in material
baking, evaporation of the surface moisture
should be removed to provide for the may take place and give a weak surface on the
collapsibility of the core and to improve core. For thin cores of a large surface area, 10
venting. minutes may be too much time for standing out
of the oven, while for heavier cores more time
Vents should be cut in such a way as to prevent may be allowed. In all cases, the time should
metal from entering them when the casting is be kept at a minimum.
poured. Make sure at all times that vents are
adequate to permit the full flow of core gases as MAKING A PUMP-HOUSING CORE
they are generated. Overventing does no harm.
Underventing gives bad castings. The following figures show the various steps
in making the core for the pump-housing
After this, the core should be fitted together casting shown in Chapter 5, "Making Molds:"
with a gage for control of size. The use of
gages for assembling cores is necessary for The two core boxes for making the parts for
producing quality castings. the pump-housing core are shown in figure
102. A parting compound has been sprinkled
When properly cleaned and gaged, the core on the core boxes to make it easier to turn out
sections are then assembled using a plate mixed the core. Ramming of the sand in one of the
as follows: core boxes is shown in figure 103 and striking
off of the core is shown in figure 104. Placing

86

of the reinforcing rods is shown in figure 105. 1. Refractoriness to withstand the casting heat.
Additional sand is then added, the core rammed This is obtained by selection of material and
lightly again and struck off. The reinforcing proper processing.
rods can also be placed when the core is
partially rammed. Cutting the vents with a 2. Strength to withstand handling and casting
molding tool is shown in figure 106. Notice forces. This is obtained by the use of the
that one vent comes out the end of the core, proper amount of binders and by good internal
while other vents radiate from the center and structural supports.
vent through the center of the supporting core.
The idea is to give gases inside the core a free 3. Collapsibility to permit breakdown during
passageway out of the core. The two core contraction of the casting and ease of cleaning.
halves are shown in figures 107 and 108 after By avoiding the use of sands bonded too
they have been turned out of the core boxes. strongly and by hollowing out the center or
After the two core halves are baked, core paste filling it with coke, cinders, gravel, or weak
is applied with a small rubber squeeze bulb, as sand, this quality may be obtained.
shown in figure 109. Note that there is no
excess of core paste. Core paste on the outside 4. Smooth strong surface to provide a good
of a core can cause a defective casting because casting finish, internal cleanliness, and ease of
of gas formation. The assembling of the two cleaning. This quality is obtained by the use of
core halves is shown in figure 110. The an adequately bonded refractory sand,
assembled core must then be baked for a short uniformly hard rammed, baked immediately
time to dry the paste. The completed core after after being made, and used shortly after
it is sprayed is shown in figure 88, Chapter 5, baking.
"Making Molds."
5. Low gas content to prevent unsoundness in
SUMMARY the casting. This quality is obtained by using
the minimum of organic binding materials,
Cores should always be made with accurate, baking well, and venting thoroughly. All of
clean equipment and should have the following the above features are essential in core making
qualities to a degree suitable for the purpose and are regularly obtained only by good core
intended: practice.

87

Figure 100. Section of mold showing use of

lifting eye for supporting heavy core.

Figure 98. Arbor for a medium-size core.

Figure 101. Typical lifting hooks for lifting

cores.

Figure 99. View of inside of core showing

hollowing to make the core more collapsible
when metal is poured around it.

88
Figure 102. Core boxes for pump housing core.

Figure 103. Ramming up the core.

89
 Figure 104. Striking off the core.

Figure 105. Placing the reinforcing rods.

 90

Figure 106. Cutting vents.

91
Figure 107. Drag core turned out.

92
Figure 108. Cope core turned out.

93
 Figure 109. Applying core paste.

Figure 110. Assembling the two core halves.

94

This page is blank.

95

Chapter VII
GATES, RISERS AND CHILLS

GENERAL PURPOSE The various parts of a simple gating system are

Gates, risers, and chills are closely related. The shown in figure 111.
function of one cannot be explained without
reference to the others. This interrelationship is GENERAL RULES OF GATING
also carried into the casting itself. The best
gating practice can be nullified by poor risering The following general rules are given as a
practice, and improper use of chills can cause guide in making good gating systems:
the scrapping of well-gated and properly
risered castings. The purpose of the gating 1. Use Round Sprues. (a) Round gates or the
system is to deliver the molten metal to the closest approach to round gates are preferred.
mold. The risers are used to supply liquid metal (b) A circular cross section has the minimum
to compensate for solidification shrinkage in surface exposed for cooling and offers the
heavy sections; that is, they "feed" the casting. lowest resistance to flow.
Chills are used to set up temperature gradients
2. Taper the Sprue. The sprue should be
in a casting and permit full use to be made of
tapered with the smaller end toward the
directional solidification. They make one part
casting. This makes is possible to keep the
of a casting solidify ahead of another. The
down-gate full of metal when pouring. Never
proper use of gates, risers, and chills are
locate a tapered sprue so that metal is poured
important tools of the foundryman in producing
into the smaller end.
a good casting.
3. Streamline the Gating System. Gating
GATING SYSTEM
systems having sudden changes in direction
A gating system should be able to do the cause slower filling of the mold cavity, are
following: easily eroded, and cause turbulence in the
liquid metal with resulting gas pickup.
1. Permit complete filling of the mold cavity. Streamlining of the gating system eliminates or
minimizes these problems. Avoid right-angle
2. Introduce the molten metal into the mold turns.
with as little turbulence as possible so as to
minimize gas pickup and prevent damage to the (a) Round sprues are preferred for sprue
mold. diameters of 3/4 inch or less. Larger
sprues should be square or rectangular.
3. Regulate the rate at which the molten metal However, a 3/4 inch diameter sprue is
enters the mold cavity. about the maximum size that can be kept
full of metal while hand pouring.
4. Establish the best possible temperature
gradients within the casting so that directional (b) Wide flat gates and runners are
solidification can be fully utilized, and prevent preferred for light metal alloys.
casting defects due to poor thermal gradients.
4. Use Patterns for the Gates. The gating
To achieve these aims, steps must be taken to system should be formed as part of the pattern
control the following: whenever possible. In the case of many loose
patterns used aboard repair ships, gating
1. The type of ladle and ladle equipment. patterns should be used instead of cutting the
gates by hand. The use of patterns for the gates
2. The size, type, and location of sprue and
permits the sand to be rammed harder and
runner.
reduces sand erosion or washing. Hand-cut
gates expose loosened sand which is easily
3. The size, number, and location of gates
eroded by the flowing metal.
entering the mold cavity.
5. Maintain Proper Gating Ratio. There is a
4. The rate of pouring.
definite relationship between the cross-
5. The position of the mold during casting. sectional areas of the sprue, runners, and in-
gates, to produce the best filling conditions for
6. The temperature and fluidity of the metal. the mold. The rate of filling the mold should
not exceed the ability of the sprue to keep the
entire gating system full of liquid metal at all
 times. The cross section of the runner should
be reduced in size as each gate is passed. An

96

example of such a gating system is shown in excessive turbulence and oxidation of the
figure 112. This keeps the runner full metal, the mold may not be able to withstand
throughout its entire length and promotes this eroding force. Choking of the ingate to
uniform flow through all of the gates. If this assist in gate removal is a proper procedure if a
procedure is not followed in a multiple-ingate number of ingates are used to allow an
system, all of the metal will have a tendency to adequate amount of metal to enter the mold
flow through the ingates farthest from the without jet action.
sprue.
The recommended nomenclature for various
An example of the use of gating ratio can be types of gating is shown in figure 113.
made with figure 112. Aluminum was used to Additional information on gating systems for
make this flat plate casting, and one of the light metals is given in Chapter 15,
gating ratios that has proven successful for this "Aluminum-Base Alloys."
type of casting is a 1:3:3 ratio. The first number
refers to the cross-sectional area of the sprue TYPES OF GATES
base, the second number refers to the total cross
section of all the runners from that sprue, and There are three general classifications for gates
the third number refers to the total cross- which are commonly used. They are: (1)
sectional area of the ingates. In other words, the bottom gates, (2) top gates, and (3) parting
area of the sprue base is 1/3 that of the total gates.
area of the runners, and the total cross-sectional
area of the runners equals the total cross- Bottom Gates. Bottom gates are most
sectional area of the ingates. generally used because they keep mold and
core erosion to a minimum. In spite of this,
The size of the ingate for this plate casting was they have the very decided disadvantage of
selected to be 1/4 inch thick and 1-1/2 inches causing unfavorable temperature gradients in
wide. The individual ingate then has an area of the casting, which make proper feeding
3/8 square inch. There are four ingates, so the particularly difficult and often impossible.
total ingate area is 4 x 3/8 square inch, or 1.5 Figure 114 shows the undesirable temperature
square inches. The total runner area is then also gradients present in the bottom-gate and top-
1.5 square inches, as determined by the gating risered casting of figure 115, the latter showing
ratio. Since there are two runners, each runner the types of defect obtained with this method.
must have a cross-sectional area of 0.75 square
inches. In figure 112, this is shown by the When using bottom gates, as the metal rises in
runner dimensions of 3/4 inch thick by 1 inch the mold, it heats the mold with which it
wide. To complete the gating system, the sprue comes in contact. This produces relatively cold
base must have a cross-sectional area equal to metal in the riser with considerably hotter
1/3 that of the runners. This is equal to 1/2 metal next to the gate. In other words, there is
square inch. A sprue with a base diameter of hot metal and hot mold near the gate and cold
4/5 inch will satisfy this requirement. metal in a cold mold near the riser. Such
conditions are opposite to those desired for
6. Maintain Small Ingate Contact. The area directional solidification in a casting. The risers
of contact between the ingate and the casting should contain the hottest metal in the hottest
should be kept as small as possible (unless part of the mold, and the coldest mold parts
gating through side risers as described later), should be at points farthest removed from the
risers.
7. Utilize Natural Channels. Ingates should
be located so that the incoming flow of metal Thus, bottom gating produces an unfavorable
takes place along natural channels in the mold temperature gradient in the metal, the top of
and does not strike directly on mold surfaces or the casting is the coolest and the bottom is the
cores. The continuous flow of metal against a hottest at the time the mold is filled. The
mold or core surface quickly burns out the amount of this temperature difference is related
binder and washes the loose sand into the to the pouring rate, the rate of rise of the metal
casting. in the mold, and to the heat conductivity of the
mold. A slow pouring rate will produce a
8. Use Multiple Ingates. Unless a casting is temperature gradient more unfavorable than a
small and of simple design, several ingates fast pouring rate. When pouring slowly
should be used to distribute the metal to the through a bottom gate, the metal has a greater
mold, fill it more rapidly, and reduce the danger opportunity to give up its heat to the lower
of hot spots. portions of the mold than it would have if the
mold were filled rapidly. The difference in
9. Avoid Excessive Ingate Choke. The in- temperature gradients due to slow and fast
gate should not be choked at the mold so that it pouring is also shown in figure 114.
causes the metal to enter the mold at such a
high speed that a shower effect is produced.
Besides

97

Unfavorable temperature gradients resulting For some heavy metal castings, the metal will
from bottom gating are corrected to a slight be poured through a shower or pencil gate, as
extent by pouring through the riser as soon as shown in figure 123. Pencil gates permit the
the metal level becomes high enough. It is very metal to fall in a number of small streams and
difficult to perform this operation correctly. help to reduce erosion of the mold.

Two types of bottom gates are shown in figure Parting Gates. Parting-line gates are used
116. The horn gate is also a bottom gate, but most frequently because they are the easiest for
has the disadvantage of producing a fountain the molder to construct, particularly in jobbing
effect within the mold, causing mold erosion work. In addition, it is usually possible to gate
and entrapping air. In general, horn gates directly into a riser.
should not be used unless they are of the
reverse type, as shown in figure 117. This type The main disadvantage of parting gates is that
of horn gate has the large end of the horn at the the molten metal drops in the mold to fill the
mold cavity, as shown in figure 118. When drag part of the casting. Such a drop often
using a horn gate, it is best to gate into a riser, causes erosion or washing of the mold. In
as shown in figures 117 and 120, rather than nonferrous metals, dross formation is
directly into the casting. aggravated and air is often trapped to produce
inferior castings. A typical parting gate is
Besides allowing easy flow of the metal into shown in figure 124. In this gating system, the
the mold, thereby reducing the erosion of the sprue was used as a riser. A shrinkage defect
mold and core surfaces by the molten metal, formed in the indicated area because of
bottom gating also results in quiet, smooth improper feeding.
flow, thus reducing the danger of entrapped air.
Gating through side risers should be used
The advantages of bottom gating without its wherever possible. If this procedure is not
disadvantages can be obtained if the casting is used, hot spots will cause shrinkage defects.
gated through a side riser as shown in figure Gating directly into the casting produces hot
119. This type of gating produces the best spots, because all of the metal enters the
conditions for directional solidification with a casting through the gates and the sand near the
minimum of turbulence in the metal. In figure gates becomes very hot and retards cooling of
119, it will be noticed that the wheel casting is the metal. Unless risers are provided for
gated through two side risers to permit a rapid feeding these portions of the casting with
pouring and filling of the mold. The molten molten metal, cavities or shrinkage defects will
metal will flow by two paths and meet be formed. Figure 125 shows gating into the
approximately equally distant from the two riser with a parting gate.
risers. This will permit directional solidification
to take place toward the hot risers. The riser at Whirl gates, such as shown in figure 126, are
the hub of the wheel is necessary to feed the sometimes used with heavy metals and parting
heavy section at the hub. gates. The purpose of these gates is to collect
dross, slag, eroded sand, and to trap it,
The bottom gate is often constructed with a allowing only clean metal to enter the casting.
well as part of the gating system, as in figure
121. The well acts as a cushion for the metal Step Gating. There is a fourth type of gating
dropping down the sprue and prevents the which is sometimes used. It is described here
erosion of sand, which is particularly apt to for information purposes only and its use is not
occur at the point of sudden change in the recommended. The theory behind the step gate
direction of flow. A special core (known as a is that as the metal rises in the mold, each gate
splash core) may be used at the base of the will feed the casting in succession. This would
sprue to minimize erosion of the sand. then put the hot metal in the riser where it is
desired. Recent studies have shown that step
Top Gates. Top gating of a casting is limited gates do not work this way. To get proper
by the ability of the mold to withstand erosion, step-gate feeding, a complicated step-gating
because the molten metal is usually poured design must be used. The use of step gates for
through an open-top riser, such as shown in castings normally made aboard repair ships is
figure 122. Contrary to the characteristics of not recommended. A simple step gate is
bottom gating, top gating has the advantage of shown in figure 127.
producing favorable temperature gradients, but
the disadvantage of excessive mold erosion. USEFUL PROCEDURES
This method of gating is usually used for
castings of simple design which are poured in There are two ways in which the advantages
gray iron. Top gating is not used with of bottom gating can be obtained without
nonferrous alloys which form large amounts of serious disadvantages. They are: (1) mold
dross when agitated. manipulation, and (2) gating into blind risers.

98

Mold Manipulation. Mold manipulation which must be considered when designing a

makes it possible to keep mold erosion to a pouring cup. The inside diameter of the cup at
minimum during pouring, and by altering the the top should be about 2.5 to 3 times that of
position of the mold, to obtain temperature the sprue diameter. The inside walls should be
gradients even more favorable than those at a steep angle, so that the cup is easy to
obtained by top pouring. The mold is tilted make. Cups for small sprues usually require
with the ingate end lowest. After pouring is shoulders as shown in figure 130, so that the
finished, the mold is turned through an angle of cup will have sufficient depth. The hole in the
30°, 100°, or 180°, depending on the design of bottom of the cup should exactly match the top
the part. For mechanical reasons, 100° and of the sprue.
180° manipulations are limited to small and
medium castings of suitable design, but 30° When designing a pouring cup, it should not
manipulations are common for both large and be too small or it will be impossible to pour
small castings. A 30° partial reversal for a metal into it fast enough at the start to
bottom-gated casting is shown in figure 128. completely fill the sprue in time to prevent dirt
or slag from flowing down the sprue. A
The gating system shown in figure 128 was shallow cup is difficult to fill without splashing
devised to insure the flow of metal through the and is more difficult to keep filled during
bottom ingate (horn gate until the metal reached pouring.
the bottom of the riser. After this, the balance
of the mold is automatically filled through the Pouring cups can be made out of backing sand
upper gate and riser. This insures heating of the with extra bonding material added so the cups
riser cavity and the proper conditions of hot will bake hard in an oven. The inside surface
metal and hot mold at the riser and cold mold of the cup should be coated with silica wash to
and cold metal at the farthest point from the make it more resistant to erosion.
riser. This type of gate has the disadvantage
In the pouring of steel, it is necessary to use
that it is more difficult to mold and requires the larger sprues and larger pouring cups than for
use of a core. A pouring angle of 10° or 15° is cast iron, bronze, or aluminum. These latter
found satisfactory for proper bottom gating. metals are much more fluid than steel. The
This enables the molten metal to travel forward cups shown in figure 130 are adequate for
as an unbroken stream, instead of fanning out steel and may be reduced in size for the other
over the entire mold cavity. This mold is then metals.
reversed through 30° to 40° after pouring to
produce better feeding from the riser. Performed pouring cups are much better than a
simple depression scooped out of the top of the
Total Reversal. The most favorable cope at the sprue. The disadvantage of a hand-
temperature gradient in both metal and mold cut pouring aid is that the sand is loosened and
may be obtained by the "total reversal" method sharp corners are present so that sand is readily
as shown in figure 129. In this case, the feed eroded by the flowing metal and carried into
head is molded on the bottom, with only small the casting. A pouring cup should be used
vents on the top of the mold, and the sprue whenever possible.
enters the riser at the lowest point to prevent
draining after reversal. After the casting is A pouring basin serves two additional
poured, the vents and the sprue are immediately purposes as compared with a pouring cup. It
sealed with wet sand and the mold reversed not only makes it easier to pour the mold, but it
through an angle of 180° to bring the risers also regulates the flow of metal into the mold
directly above the casting. The 180° reversal is and aids in trapping and separating slag and
used in the casting of what are commonly dross from the metal before it enters the sprue.
called "billets." There may be sufficient A simple pouring basin is shown in figure 131.
demand aboard ship for billets for the machine To make a pouring basin work properly, a
shop to warrant making a special rig to assist in plug should be used with it. The plug can be
reversing the mold. made from core sand or a graphite rod. It
should be long enough to extend well above
Gating Into Blind Risers. By gating into blind the pouring basin. It is good practice to have a
risers attached to the lowest part of the casting, wire or thin metal rod fastened to the plug to
it is possible to take advantage of the bottom- make it easier to pull the plug from the basin.
gating system and not suffer from the formation Refer to Chapter 9, "Pouring Castings," for the
of shrinkage cavities. In order to make a blind proper use of a pouring basin.
riser function well in such cases, it is best to
have the gate enter directly into it. The proper RISERS
use of blind risers is discussed later in this
chapter. The principal reason for using risers is to
furnish liquid metal to compensate for
POURING CUPS AND BASINS solidification shrinkage in the casting. In
addition to
Pouring cups make it easier to pour the molds.
There are a few general principles

99

this main function, a riser has other reasons for 1. The volume of the riser should be large
its use. It eliminates the hydraulic-ram effect enough to compensate for the metal
(similar to water "pound" when a valve is contraction within the area of the casting it is
closed suddenly), shown when the mold is full, designed to feed.
flows off cold metal, and vents the mold.
2. Enough fluid metal must be in the riser to
Just at the time that a mold is completely filled penetrate to the last cavity within its feeding
with metal, there can be a sudden and large area.
increase in pressure in the mold because of the
motion of the flowing metal. This added 3. The contact area of the riser with the casting
pressure may be enough to cause a run-out of must fully cover the area to be fed, or be
the casting or may produce a deformed casting. designed so that all the needed feed metal in
A riser permits the metal to flow continuously the riser will pass into the casting. See figure
into it instead of coming to a sudden stop. This 143.
reduces the pressure or hydraulic-ram effect
which produces these defects. An open riser 4. The riser should be effective in establishing
permits the man pouring the mold to see how a pronounced temperature gradient within the
rapidly the mold is filling and provides him casting, so that the casting will solidify
with a means to regulate the flow of metal. directionally toward the riser.

When a casting must be poured rapidly, the Accordingly, the shape, size, and location of
permeability of the sand is not capable of the riser must be effectively controlled.
permitting air and gases to escape quickly
enough. In such a case, a riser provides an easy Riser Shape. The rate of solidification of a
exit for the gases. metal varies directly with the ratio of surface
area to volume. In other words, for a given
GENERAL RULES OF RISERING weight of metal, the shape which has the
smallest surface area will take the longest time
The most important function of a riser is that of to solidify. The ratio of surface area to volume
a reservoir of heat and molten metal. To be is obtained by dividing the surface area by the
effective, it must be the last portion of the volume. In table 20 are listed some of the
casting to solidify. There are four primary solidification times for various shapes of steel
requirements which a satisfactory riser should castings having the same weight.
meet:

TABLE 20. COMPARATIVE TIME FOR SOLIDIFICATION OF VARIOUS STEEL

SHAPES
Form and Size of Riser Volume, Weight, Area, Amount Time to A/V
cu inch lb sq inch Solidified Completely
in 1 Minute, Solidify,
lb/cu inch minutes
Sphere: 6-inch diameter 113 32 100 42.7 7.2 0.884
Cylinder: 4-1/4 inches 113 32 120 51.2 4.7 1.062
by 8 inches
Square: 3-5/8 inches by 113 32 135 57.5 3.6 1.194
3-5/8 inches by 8-5/8 inches
Plate: 2-1/4 inches by 113 32 160 68.4 2.7 1.416
6-1/4 inches by 8 inches
Plate: 1-25/64 inches by 113 32 220 93.8 1.5 1.947
10-5/32 inches by 8 inches

When the ratio of surface area to volume is Because of molding difficulties it is impossible
plotted against the solidification time (as in to use the sphere as a riser. Therefore, the next
figure 132), a smooth, curved line is produced. best shape, that of a cylinder, is often used.
The sphere which has the lowest ratio of Blind risers make the closest approach to the
surface area to volume and the longest spherical riser because they use a cylindrical
solidification time would be the ideal shape for body with a spherical dome.
a riser.
452605 0-58-8

100

Molten metal in the corners of square or poured was in the casting. The same casting,
rectangular risers solidifies rapidly because of with proper gating and risering, as in figure
the large amount of surface area to which the 136, had a 77 percent yield. Notice that the
metal is exposed. Figure 133 is a sketch risers are round and that the height is
showing that square risers are only as effective approximately 1-1/2 times the diameter.
as an inscribed circular riser would be. The
metal in the corners of square or rectangular Riser Location. Heavy sections of a casting
risers is wasted. have a large amount of solidification shrinkage
which must be compensated for from an
There may be times when risers must be outside source. Heavy sections, therefore, are
elliptical, square, or irregularly shaped where the locations for risers. Figure 137 shows a
they join the casting, but they should be cast wheel with top risers at the rim and spike
constructed in such a manner that they are junctions and at the hub. An important point to
cylindrical above the neck of the riser. remember in the risering of a casting is that the
hottest metal must be in the riser if it is to be
Riser Size. Practical foundry experience has effective. A rise ring arrangement that resulted
shown that the most effective height of a riser is in cold metal in the riser is shown in figure
1-1/2 times its diameter in order to produce 138. This system produced a leaky casting
maximum feeding for the minimum amount of when tested under hydrostatic pressure. When
metal used. Any riser higher than this is the gating and risering were changed so that
wasteful of metal and may be actually harmful the last and hottest metal was in the riser, as in
to casting soundness. A riser having incorrect figure 139, a sound casting was produced.
height and one with recommended height are
shown in figure 134. Another factor that must be remembered in
risering is that it is impossible to feed a heavy
The problem of determining the correct riser section through a thin section. The thin section
diameter for feeding a given section is will freeze before the heavy section has
somewhat more difficult. A safe approximation completely solidified and a shrink will result.
is to assume that the riser has the same volume The diagram in figure 140 illustrates this. The
as the section it is to feed. As an example, a flat two heavy sections are fed by their respective
plate 1 x 4 x 8 inches has a volume of 32 cubic risers. The section on the right, however, has
inches and a surface area of 88 square inches. its heaviest part (C2 ) separated from the riser
The volume to area ratio (V/A) is 0.364. The by a reduced section (C ). Section C will
1 1
riser necessary to feed this section will also solidify and be fed from the riser C before part
have to have a volume of 32 cubic inches. C2 has solidified. As a result, a shrink defect
Since the riser height is set at 1.5 times its
diameter, the formula for the volume of a will be found at D. A method of preventing
this defect would be to use a blind riser to feed
cylindrical riser is V = 3πr3 . The solution of the section at D.
32=3πr3 results in a radius of 1.5 inches. The
riser then has a 3-inch diameter and 4.5-inch Many times, a heavy section is so located in a
height. The volume to area ratio of the riser is casting that it cannot be fed with an open riser.
0.566, as compared to the casting V/A ratio of In such a case, a blind riser is effective in
0.364. As a result, the riser will solidify after feeding the section. Figure 141 shows a
the casting and should feed properly. These flanged casting which has been gated with an
figures were computed for a side riser. The open riser. This type of riser location has the
riser size may be changed slightly, depending disadvantages that the riser is hard to remove
on the experience gained with various castings. from the casting and it is not possible to gate
into the riser. This same casting is shown in
Records of successful risering arrangements are figure 142 with a blind riser. It will be noticed
useful in determining the size of the risers that that it is gated through the riser to make the
feed various shaped sections correctly. Records best use of directional solidification and
that are used as a reference for determining arranged to make removal of the riser easier.
riser size and location reduce the time
necessary in making the mold and producing a Another point which must be considered in the
good casting location of a riser is that of the contact area of
the riser and the casting. It must be
Good and bad risering practice with respect to remembered that the contact area of the riser
size and shape are shown in figures 135 and must be large enough to permit feeding and
136. Figure 135 shows a cylinder casting in small enough that it is not too difficult to
which risers of excessive height and square remove the riser.
shape were used. This casting was also over-
gated. The yield on this casting was 43 percent. A good method for determining the size of
That is, only 43 percent of the metal riser necks involves the use of inscribed circles
in roughly drawn sectional layouts as shown in
figure 143. The maximum circle possible is

101

inscribed in the area to be fed, and its diameter atmospheric pressure may bear upon it, and
determined. The diameter of the contact (B), proper feeding of the casting result.
should be at least 1-1/2 times the diameter of
the circle inscribed in the casting (A). For Before discussing the means commonly used
contacts of rectangular shape, the minimum to keep blind risers open to atmospheric
dimension should likewise be 1-1/2 times the pressure, an explanation of the effect of this
diameter inscribed in the casting section. There pressure on solidifying castings is necessary.
is no need for having the contact diameter more
than twice the diameter of the circle inscribed With metals solidifying as a continuously
in the casting section. thickening envelope or skin, and contracting in
volume as they freeze, a vacuum will tend to
TYPES OF RISERS form within the casting, if the molten metal in
the casting system (casting, risers, or gates) is
There are two general types of risers, the open not acted upon by atmospheric pressure, and if
riser and the blind riser. The open riser is open properly melted metal with a low dissolved-
to the air while the blind riser is not cut through gas content is used.
to the surface of the mold. A blind riser cannot
be seen when the mold is closed. Figure 144 illustrates the difference between
keeping top risers open to atmospheric
Open Risers. Open risers are used widely pressure and not keeping them open. Figure
because they are simple to mold. Their greatest 145 shows the same condition for blind risers.
use is in large flat castings which have
numerous heavy sections. Figure 146 shows other fairly common types
of casting defects attributable to this same
Blind Risers. Blind risers are advantageous phenomenon, which can be explained in the
because: following manner. When the vacuum starts to
form, the atmospheric pressure of 14.7 p.s.i.
1. They facilitate bottom gating into castings by may collapse the casting walls, if they are
feeding the hot spot at the point of entry of weak enough, as shown in C, figure 147. It
metal. Gating into the riser also preheats the also may penetrate at a hot spot where the
riser cavity and promotes greater feeding solidified skin is quite thin and weak. This
efficiency as well as proper temperature usually occurs around a small core or at a
gradients within the casting. sharp corner of the casting as shown in figure
146a and 146b. The importance of this effect
2. They can be located at any position in a cannot be overemphasized. It must be
mold to feed otherwise inaccessible sections. understood by foundrymen if their efforts are
to be consistently successful, since its
3. They are more efficient than open risers influence is felt in many ways in the
because they can be designed to closely production of castings.
approach the ideal spherical shape, thus
substantially reducing the amount of riser metal The most successful method of introducing
required for satisfactory feeding. In addition, atmospheric pressure into blind risers involves
they are completely surrounded by sand, which the use of either a small-diameter sand core, or
eliminates the chilling by radiation to the air a graphite rod, placed in the riser cavity as
and keeps the metal liquid longer. shown in figure 147. A sand core is permeable
enough to allow atmospheric pressure to enter
4. They are easier to remove from castings than and act on the last molten metal in the riser,
open risers because they can be more which is at the center of the riser. Metal does
strategically positioned. not solidify rapidly around the sand core
because it is small and does not conduct heat
An idea of the relative efficiencies of open and very rapidly. The cores are generally made of
blind risers may be gained from the fact that a strongly bonded oil sand and are reinforced
open risers do not usually deliver more than 20 with small wires or rods. The sizes used are as
percent of their volume to the casting, whereas follows:
blind risers deliver as high as 35 to 40 percent.
For the same casting, blind risers can be made Risers up to 3-inch diameter-3/8 inch or
much smaller than open types. 1/2 inch core.
Blind risers operate in fundamentally the same Risers from 3-inch to 6-inch diameter-5/8
manner as the open type except that it is not inch or 3/4 inch core.
necessary to place them above the casting in
order to feed properly. In common with open Risers from 6-inch to 10-inch diameter-
risers, the molten metal they contain must be 7/8 inch or 1-inch core.
kept open to the atmosphere, in order that
The graphite rod has its best application in
risers for steel castings although the sand

102

core is satisfactory. The graphite rod is not head. In the manufacture of average castings,
altogether impermeable but most of the such as valves, this situation seldom exists. In
atmospheric pressure enters along the outside general, the mass of the flange or other section
of the rod. The steel in the riser absorbs the is great enough to require a blind head very
carbon of the graphite rod which lowers its nearly as high as, or slightly higher than, the
freezing point by 100°F. or more, thus, keeping part it is to feed.
it molten longer. Because of this carbon
absorption, and the small mass of the graphite Referring again to figure 147, the metal poured
rod, the metal does not solidify around it, thus, into the ingate must flow first through the riser
permitting the entrance of atmospheric and then into the casting. As soon as the mold
pressure. The high-carbon area left in the riser is completely filled, the metal loses
makes it necessary to use care in the selection temperature rapidly to the sand, and a skin of
of the riser size to make sure it does not extend solid metal quickly forms at the mold-metal
into the casting. This method can also be interface. This initial skin formation is shown
applied to cast iron. The graphite rod works as as the cross-hatched areas of the figure. As
well as the sand core in all cases and has the temperature drops, more and more metal
advantage of greater structural strength. solidifies.
(CAUTION: When graphite rods are used in
risers for steel castings and a dead-melting The atmospheric pressure acts like a piston on
practice is followed in the Rocking Arc or the metal in the blind riser, forcing it into the
Induction furnace, undissolved graphite rods casting to feed shrinkage. In other words, the
should be picked out of the risers to avoid system is functioning on the principle of a
carbon pickup when these risers are remelted.) barometer. Shrinkage is constantly tending to
In general, the sizes of graphite rods used are as create a partial vacuum in the casting, and
follows: atmospheric pressure, acting through the
Riser Graphite Rod medium of the molten metal in the riser, is
Diameter Diameter, inch constantly relieving it. If solidification
proceeds properly with the parts most remote
Up to 3 inches 3/16 from the riser freezing first (cold metal in a
3 to 5 inches 1/4 cold mold cavity) and progressing thence
5 to 8 inches 5/16 toward the riser (hot metal in a hot mold
8 to 12 inches 3/8 cavity), each successive amount of shrinkage
Blind risers have an advantage in addition to is compensated by additional fluid metal
those previously given; namely, they have the forced in from the riser. The ingate into the
ability to feed sections of castings in positions riser, being smaller than the neck leading to the
higher than their point of attachment. For casting, freezes off first and completes this part
example, sections of steel castings as much as of the closed system.
30 inches higher than the riser contact have
been fed by blind risers. These castings were Blind risers with pencil cores to produce
made in a laboratory under ideal conditions, atmospheric pressure on the molten metal in
however, and such practices should not be the riser work satisfactorily with most heavy
applied in the production of emergency metals. Blind risers may be used with light
castings where there is no time for metals also, but the pencil core is not effective.
experimentation. Oxide films, formed on the surface of the
molten light metals, prevent the pencil cores
Theoretically, it should be possible for a blind from functioning properly.
riser, when properly kept open to the
atmosphere, to force steel upward into a void to Use of Blind and Open Risers Together.
a height slightly greater than four feet. When several risers are used at different levels
Actually, this cannot be done because a true in the same casting, it is essential that a
vacuum never exists in even the best-made particular zone of feeding be assigned to each
steel, some gas coming out of solution to riser. Figure 148 is a sketch showing the
partially fill the void. Further, to count upon a necessity for this precaution. The blind riser
completely sound skin in every case would not failed to function. A cavity was found in the
be practical, there always being the danger of casting in the position shown. The reason for
eroded sand, ladle slag, or local mold this is that both risers were initially open to the
disturbances rupturing this skin and thus atmosphere. The net advantage of the blind
breaking the vacuum and the feeding system. riser in this respect was zero. Because of the
higher position of the open riser, the metal was
Figure 147 shows a layout for the use of a forced through the system to actually feed the
blind riser for feeding the heavy section of a blind riser. By the time the narrow section of
casting. The sketch shows the casting actually metal shown at (c) had solidified and shut off
seven inches higher than the top of the blind the hydraulic contact between the two risers,
metal had solidified beyond the end of the
sand core and made it impossible for
atmospheric pressure to act. The

103

section to be fed further was choked at (c) and Padding is used to encourage directional
solidified with the shrinkage shown. It is to be solidification in members of uniform thickness.
noted that the sand core, had it been placed When used for this purpose, it is a tapered
through the blind riser at a lower point, would section of metal with the taper increasing in the
have aided in preventing this. direction of the feed heads. When uniform
sections are made without padding, centerline
The casting could have been made perfectly shrinkage may occur. Uniform solidification in
sound without changing the method of risering a member generally causes centerline
to any appreciable extent by either one of two shrinkage, but progressive solidification along
methods. One method would be to place the member gives a sound casting.
external metal chills cast to shape, around the
neck of the casting at point (c). This would Uniform solidification can be prevented to a
chill the metal at this point, separate the two large extent by gating and risering, but in
heavy sections, and allow each riser to function many cases this is not sufficient. Figures 150
independently of the other. The other method and 151 show some typical applications of
would be to apply hydrostatic pressure to the padding to obtain soundness or freedom from
blind riser by extending it to the surface of the shrinkage.
mold as an open riser. This would then have
Centerline shrinkage actually occurs on the
equalized the hydrostatic pressure in the two thermal centerline of the member, since it is the
risers. The assignment of an independent last portion to solidify. Figure 152 shows
feeding zone to each riser is a very important where centerline shrinkage will occur in
part of properly feeding castings. unpadded sections. In A, because of the lower
heat-extracting capacity of the core completely
VENTS surrounded by metal, the centerline shrinkage
will be nearer the cored surface. To a lesser
Vents are a necessary part of any system of extent, this applies to B. In C, the thermal
gates and risers. The function of a vent is to centerline will coincide with the section
permit gases to escape from the mold cavity centerline.
fast enough to avoid developing back pressure
which would oppose the inflowing metal. The use of a special core to obtain padding is
Vents also prevent gases from becoming shown in figure 153.
trapped in the metal and forming gas cavities.
Vents should be taken off all high parts of When padding is used, it should be applied if
molds, such as flanges, bosses, lugs, and care possible on surfaces where it can be removed
should be taken to make sure that they are open by machining.
to the top of the mold.
HOT TOP AND ANTIPIPING
Experience has shown that round vents large COMPOUNDS
enough to evacuate mold gases at a proper rate
will frequently reveals fine shrinkage cavity in Methods of keeping top risers open to the
the casting when they are removed. Vents of atmosphere so that maximum feeding can be
rectangular section are preferred, and they obtained are of great value to the foundryman.
should be kept comparatively thin so that the Materials which aid the foundryman in this
metal which flows into them will solidify respect fall into two classes: (1) insulating
quickly. corn-pounds and (2) exothermic compounds.

For small and medium castings, such as will be Insulating Compounds. As the name implies,
made for most emergency work, vents made by insulating compounds are used to insulate the
the use of molder's lifters or by a saw blade are riser and to reduce the heat lost by radiation to
satisfactory. This represents the desired the air. They are usually spread on top of the
thickness. It is better to use many thin vents riser after the pouring has been completed.
than few large ones. Any of the commonly known insulating
materials can be used. Examples of suitable
PADDING materials are asbestos, sawdust, blacking, talc,
and even dry sand. In unusual cases requiring
Padding is used mainly in conjunction with small risers, insulating sleeves may be made
risers to obtain directional solidification and is from some of these materials and rammed into
discussed here rather than under casting design. the mold to make the riser cavity. This
It is often possible to avoid the use of chills or procedure, along with insulating material on
extra risers by padding between heavy metal top of the riser, provides complete insulation of
sections. If weight is important, or if the the riser. Care should be used to prevent
mechanical functioning of the part is affected, excessive contamination of molding sands
this padding is removed when the casting is with these materials.
machined. Figure 149 shows some typical
cases in which padding is applied to avoid the
use of chills or risers.

104

A comparison between an insulated riser and INTERNAL CHILLS

one not insulated is shown in figures 154 and
155. By good insulation of the top of a riser, it It is difficult to set rules for the use of internal
can be made smaller and still feed well. An chills, their successful use being affected by
important factor which must not be overlooked many variables, such as chill composition,
in the use of insulating compounds is that of metal analysis, location, metal temperature,
absorbed moisture. Before using insulating rate of pouring, chill surface, type of mold. In
compounds, they should be dried, especially if general, because of the many variables
they are molded and rammed up in a mold. attendant to their use, they should be applied
only in exceptional cases.
Exothermic Compounds. Exothermic
compounds are usually mixtures of aluminum When used, their composition should be
with a metal oxide. When ignited by the molten basically similar to the metal being cast; i.e.,
metal in a riser, they burn and produce low-carbon-steel chills for steel and cast iron,
aluminum oxide, metal, and a large amount of copper chills for brass and bronze, and
heat. The reaction between aluminum and iron aluminum chills for aluminum.
oxide in the thermite reaction for steel results in
a temperature of 4,500°F. Internal chills should always be very clean and
dry. If they are not, gas will form as the molten
The principal function of this type of metal surrounds them. This gas formation is
compound is to supply heat to keep the riser the largest factor in the unsatisfactory behavior
molten longer. In the use of these compounds, of chills. Oxide films, grease or oil, paint, mold
a careful check should be made of their washes, and moisture are all harmful. In green
analysis to prevent any harmful elements from sand molds, the chills should not be placed
being picked up on later remelting. Because of until just before closing, and the mold should
the heat supplied by these compounds, shorter be poured immediately. If the mold cannot be
risers are required. A high riser will not permit poured immediately, it should be disassembled
the molten metal to feed properly and the and the chills removed and kept dry. Internal
desired effect will be lost. A comparison chills should not be allowed to remain in
between an ordinary riser, an insulated riser, molds during oven drying, since the fumes and
and one using an exothermic compound is moisture given off in drying will affect their
shown in figure 156. surface adversely. Holes for receiving the
chills should be made in the green mold,
Carbonaceous materials may be used to however, before it is dried.
produce better feeding in steel castings but the
function is different. Some of the carbon in the The size of the internal chill is very important
material becomes dissolved by the steel in the because its effect may prevent feeding if it is
riser. This lowers the melting point of the steel too large, and fail to accomplish anything if it
in the riser and it remains fluid for a longer is too small. The chill must fuse perfectly into
period of time. There is a disadvantage to this the casting if soundness is to be obtained.
type of riser compound; it produces an area Internal chills that are too large sometimes
high in carbon in the casting immediately cause cracks in the cast metal.
below the riser, and this will produce variable
carbon content when the risers are remelted. The chill shape is very important. Figure 157
shows several types used in practice. By
CHILLS eliminating flat, horizontal surfaces and using
surfaces which are streamlined, any gases
When a heavy section of a casting is remote formed are better able to rise and avoid
from a source of feed metal, and it is difficult to becoming enveloped by the metal.
mold a riser in place, or hard to remove it in
cleaning the casting, internal or external chills The location of internal chills is important.
can be used to good advantage. Chills are metal When used in bosses (a popular use for such
shapes used to speed up the solidification in chills), their location and size should be such
heavy sections, thus permitting the shrinkage that they will be completely removed in
that takes place to be fed through adjoining machining. Their location with respect to the
sections. metal flow in the mold is important. Internal
chills placed directly in front of an ingate are
Chills are of two basic types, internal and quite likely to be melted and thus have no
external. Internal chills are cast into the casting value, often being quite harmful. It is desirable
and become a part of it. External chills are to have some metal flow past a chill to wash
rammed up in the mold to form part of the mold away gases and aid in proper fusion. The
surface and can usually be recovered for re-use. amount of metal which will pass the chill must
 be considered in determining the size to use.
Internal chills should not be used in sections
which must be pressure tight

105

or which must withstand radiographic in the mold, due to contraction stresses. The
inspection and magnetic powder testing. Their use of brackets in preventing defects of this
use, even in the hands of an expert, is not sort was previously discussed in Chapter 2,
always completely successful. "Designing a Casting." Many times, brackets
are of little help and chills must be used. By
EXTERNAL CHILLS placing a chill in contact with such areas, the
metal is more rapidly cooled to give increased
The use of external chills is favored whenever strength at the time when the stresses would
it is necessary to increase the rate of normally cause hot tearing of the casting.
solidification in any part of a casting. These
chills may be cast to shape in either iron, steel, In the discussion of casting design in chapter
bronze, or copper, or they may be formed of 2, it was mentioned that member junctions of
plates, bars, or rods. Figures 158, 159, 160, L, T, V, X, and Y design which were
161, and 162 show some typical applications of inaccessible for feeding would be discussed
such chills. further in this section. When designing such
sections, fillets, must be kept to a minimum to
General rules to be followed in applying avoid excessive increases in section thickness.
external chills can be summarized as follows: In this regard, these sections differ from those
which can be fed. With small fillets and the
1. Their surfaces should be clean and tendency to unsoundness in the center of the
accurately fit the area to be chilled. section, cracks are quite likely to be formed.
External chills definitely reduce such defects
2. The ends and sides of large, massive chills
(See figure 165 ). Figure 166 shows the
should be tapered. Too drastic cooling at the preferred location of external fillet chills. This
edges of chills may form casting stresses method also prevents cracking at the ends of
resulting in cracks (See figure 163 ).
the chills.
3. Chills should be large enough so that they
External chills applied to cast iron increase its
don't fuse to the casting. solidification contraction and cause the iron in
4. They should not be so large that they cause the chilled areas to become very hard. For
cracking of the casting or interfere with these reasons, their use should be avoided in
cast iron except in such cases where either of
feeding.
the above results is desired.
5. The area of contact between chill and casting
should be controlled (See figure 164). Note that SUMMARY
in this figure, the chills on the left have a larger
It is difficult to consider or select gating,
contact area with the casting than the chills on risering, and the use of chills separately
the right. As a result, the amount of metal because the three factors are interdependent.
solidified by the chills on the left is greater than
All three have a definite influence on each
the amount of metal solidified on the right. This other and must be considered together if a
can be verified by comparing the thicknesses of sound casting is to be made.
metal shown in the figure. This shows that
contact area between the chill and the metal is A good gating system must supply clean metal
very important in determining the effectiveness to the mold cavity at a temperature and rate
of a chill. which will produce a casting free from defects.
Risers must be capable of supplying hot
Rules 3 and 4 may usually be met by using a
molten metal to the casting to compensate for
chill equal in thickness to that of the casting solidification shrinkage without causing any
section being chilled. An increase in thickness defects in the casting. Chills should be used
over this will not appreciably increase the rate only when necessary and then to assist in
of solidification. establishing proper temperature gradients
within the casting.
If the surface of a long chill is rough, the
normal contraction of the cooling metal may be In this chapter, no attempt has been made to
restrained and a crack produced in the casting. discuss any problems relating to specific
metals. Information on these metals will be
A common use for external chills is in corners found in following chapters dealing with the
or parts which are inclined to crack specific metals.

106

Figure 111. Parts of a simple gating system.

Figure 112. Illustration of gating ratio.

107
Figure 113. Gating nomenclature.

108
 Figure 117. Reverse horn gate.

Figure 114. Unfavorable temperature gradients

in bottom gated casting.

Figure 115. Defect due to bottom gating. Figure 118. Reverse horn gate.

Figure 116. Bottom gate.

109
 Figure 120. Bottom gating through riser with
horn gate.

Figure 119. Bottom gating through side risers.

Figure 122. Simple top gating.

Figure 121. Sprue with well at base.

Figure 123. Pencil gate. Figure 124. Typical parting gate.

110
Figure 125. Parting gate through the riser.

Figure 126. Whirl gate.

111
 Figure 127. Simple step gate. (Not
Recommended)

Figure 128. Thirty-degree mold manipulation.

Figure 129. Complete mold reversal.

Figure 130. Pouring cups.

Figure 131. Pouring basin.

Figure 132. Solidification time vs A/V ratio.

112
Figure 133. Effectiveness of square and round
risers.
Figure 134. Proper and improper riser height.

Figure 135. Poor riser size and shape.

Figure 136. Proper riser size and shape.

Figure 137. Riser location at heavy sections. Figure 138. Cold metal riser. (Not
Recommended)

113
 Figure 142. Flanged casting with bind riser.

Figure 139. Hot metal riser.

Figure 143. Inscribed circle method for riser

contact.

Figure 140. Feeding through a thin section.

Figure 144. Effect of keeping top risers open.

Figure 141. Flanged casting with open riser.

114
Figure 145. Effect of keeping blind risers open.

Figure 147. Blind riser principle.

Figure 146. Casting defects attributable to

shrinkage voids and atmospheric pressure.

Figure 148. Individual zone feeding for

multiple risers.
 115

Figure 149. Padding to avoid the use of chills

or risers.

Figure 153. Use of a core to make a padded

section.

Figure 150. Padding to prevent centerline

shrinkage.

Figure 154. Effect of insulated risers.

Figure 151. Typical padding of sections.

Figure 152. Shrinkage on the thermal Figure 155. Reduction in riser size due to
centerlines of unpadded sections. insulating.
 452605 0-58-9

116

Figure 156. Comparison of ordinary riser,

insulated riser, and exothermic riser.

Figure 158. Typical external chills with wires

welded on or in to hold chill in place.

Figure 157. Typical internal chills.

 117

Figure 159. Use of external chills in a mold for an aluminum casting.

Figure 160. Use of external chills on a bronze casting.

118
 Figure 161. As-cast aluminum casting showing location of external chills.

Figure 163. Principle of tapering edges of

external chill.

Figure 162. Gear blank mold showing location

of external chills.

119
 Figure 165. Typical application of external
chills to unfed L, T, V, X, and W junctions.

Figure 164. Effect of chill mass and area of

contact.

Figure 166. Preferred method of applying external chills by staggering.

120

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121
 Chapter VIII
DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION OF MELTING FURNACES

OIL-FIRED CRUCIBLE FURNACE available and successive layers have to be

rammed against the furnace shell, one must be
Oil-fired crucible furnaces are satisfactory for sure that each layer is roughened before the
melting aluminum, brass, bronze, other next is applied. Otherwise, the layers may
nonferrous metals and occasionally, cast iron, separate later. If delays occur and the lining is
but will not get hot enough to melt steel. allowed to dry out between layers, it should be
thoroughly dampened before ramming is
CONSTRUCTION resumed. The finished lining must be dried
slowly and completely before it is used.
Oil-fired crucible furnaces are of two basic
kinds: the stationary type and the tilting type. There are also available heavy-duty plastic
The stationary type requires the crucible to be refractories which can be used to line furnaces
lifted in and out of the furnace. When a of this type. Prepared mixtures of this type are
stationary furnace is recessed into the foundry preferred over those mentioned above. Water
floor or deck, it is known as a pit-type furnace. is added to the refractory mix to make it
A pit-type furnace is shown in figure 167. In a workable and then the lining is rammed in
tilting furnace, a crucible with a special lip is place around a form. Ramming mixtures
used, as shown in figure 168, and the molten containing the proper amount of moisture are
metal is poured from the melting crucible by also available. Care should be taken to center
tilting the furnace. A typical tilting furnace is the form properly after the bottom has been
shown in figure 169. rammed. The sides should be rammed into
place by gradually building up the refractory
A cross section of a stationary furnace is shown around the form and roughening each layer
in figure 170. The furnace consists of four before the next is rammed in. Heavy grease or
principal parts: (1) shell, (2) lining, (3) base aluminum foil can be used to cover the form to
block or pedestal, and (4) combustion unit. The keep it from absorbing water from the
shell is heavy-gage steel. The lining is usually a refractory mix and to make it easier to draw
preformed, highly refractory unit which is the form. The proper thickness of lining can be
cemented into place. The base block is used to obtained from the instructions supplied by the
support the crucible. The combustion unit is manufacturer of the unit. Always dry a new
usually of the premixing type, which mixes the lining slowly and completely.
fuel oil and air for proper combustion. A tilting
furnace has about the same general The proper thickness of lining should be
construction, except for the addition of a tilting maintained at all times by patching. When
device. patching the lining, the patch should be
undercut into the lining so that it is keyed into
LINING THE FURNACE place as shown in figure 171. After the cavity
has been made, it should be thoroughly
The best linings are preformed and fired shapes
dampened before the patch is rammed into
of highly refractory material, such as high-
place. The refractory mix should be made with
alumina clay or silicon carbide bricks set into the smallest amount of water possible. This
the furnace and cemented into place with a will tend to minimize the drying shrinkage in
refractory cement. When the preformed linings
the patch. The patch must be dried before the
are unavailable, a lining may be made by furnace is used. Proper maintenance of the
ramming in a suitable refractory. furnace lining is necessary because a poor
A rammed lining can be made in an emergency lining affects the combustion of the fuel in the
from a stiff mixture of crushed firebrick, sand furnace. Turbulence in the burning gases
causes poor heating and melting takes longer.
or gravel, 15 percent fire clay, and water.
Thorough mixing is important; the mixture Attention must be paid to the proper location
works better if it is made up a day ahead of
of the burners with respect to the base block
time, rammed into a solid slab and then cut off and the crucible. The burners should be
with a shovel as it is needed for ramming. The directed into the chamber so that the center line
crushed brick ("grog") or silica should be of the burners is level with the top of the base
refractory, and of a suitable size. When using block and so that the flame is directed between
grog, successive layers should be rammed into the furnace wall and the crucible. This is
place until the lining has been built up to the shown in figure 172. To obtain the best
required thickness. Rammed around a form (as melting results from a furnace of this type, the
described below) is best. If no form is size of crucible suggested by the manufacturer
should not be

122

changed. With this practice, the volume around is shown in figure 173. Notice that the tongs
the crucible available for combustion will clear the top of the crucible and that the blades
always be the same and more consistent bear evenly against the sides of the crucible.
furnace operation will result. It is better to melt Whenever a crucible is handled with tongs,
a small charge in a large crucible than to melt they should be gently lowered, NOT
the same charge in a smaller crucible that will DROPPED, onto the crucible and centered
cause a change in the operating characteristics vertically before gripping and raising the
of the furnace and possibly increase the time crucible.
for melting.
When charging the crucibles, the remelt (such
Base blocks for crucible furnaces should be as gates, risers, and sprues) should be charged
made of the same or similar materials as the on the bottom and ingot material on top,
crucible. The block must be refractory enough providing that there is room enough for the
that it will not soften or slump at the operating ingot without exposing it to the flame. Do not
temperatures of the furnace. If the block overfill the crucible so that any solid metal
softens, it will stick to the bottom of the sticks out of the furnace where it can pickup
crucible and make the removal of the crucible gas from the flame. When charging both scrap
difficult. If the block slumps, it will cause the and ingots, care should be taken to prevent any
crucible to tilt and possibly spill molten metal in of the charge material from becoming wedged
the furnace, or in the case of the long-lip in the crucible. Wedged material will expand
crucible, cause it to crack. Silicon carbide base when heated and crack the crucible. If ingot
blocks are preferred. material cannot be charged with the scrap, it
should be added after the first charge has
Along with lining upkeep, the care of crucibles started to melt. Ingot material should be
must be taken into consideration for good preheated before charging so as not to chill the
furnace operation. Crucibles should be stored molten metal. Ingots or heavy pieces of metal
in a warm dry area. If proper storage facilities should not be dropped or thrown into
are not available, crucibles should be dried at a crucibles.
temperature of 300°F. for 8 hours before use. A
gas-fired or oil-fired core oven should never be Whenever possible, a separate crucible should
used to dry crucibles. Both of these fuels have be kept for each type of metal melted. This
moisture as a product of combustion. This reduces the possibility of contamination in
makes the proper drying of crucibles difficult. successive heats.
If the precaution of carefully drying crucibles is
not observed, any moisture retained in the Where it is impossible or impractical to keep
crucible will cause cracking or spilling when separate crucibles for the various metals, the
the crucible is used. Soft-burned (unvitrified) same crucible may be used only if a wash heat
clay-bonded crucibles should be annealed is made between the required heats. A wash
slowly before use for melting. The crucibles heat consists of melting a scrap charge of the
should be placed upside down in a cold or same composition as the desired heat. This
nearly c old furnace. NEW CRUCIBLES wash is used to remove the undesirable metal
SHOULD NEVER BE PLACED IN A HOT that has penetrated the crucible and to prevent
FURNACE. The fuel is turned on with only contamination of the following heat.
enough air blast to bring the temperature up
slowly until the crucible reaches a cherry-red FLAME ADJUSTMENT AND FURNACE
color. It may then be carefully turned right side ATMOSPHERE
up, charged, and used in a melt down.
Crucibles are very fragile, either cold or hot, Fuel oil is usually supplied to the furnace at a
and should be handled carefully at all times. pressure of 20 to 30 pounds per square inch.
Annealing is not necessary with vitrified hard- The air required for combustion is supplied by
burned, clay-bonded crucibles and should be a blower at 16 ounces per square inch average
avoided with graphite crucibles. pressure. All the air necessary for combustion
should come from the blower and be
Further important information on the proper thoroughly mixed with the fuel before entering
care of clay-graphite crucibles is given on page the furnace. The introduction of secondary air
128 under "Electric Induction Furnace." These around the burner nozzle is to be avoided
precautions should be used for crucibles of all because it results in erratic furnace operation.
types. A proportional-mixer oil burner maintains a
constant mixture of oil and air regardless of the
CHARGING THE FURNACE volume of fuel being supplied to the furnace.
This type of burner makes furnace control
Tongs and shanks used for handling crucibles easier.
should fit properly so as to avoid damage to the
crucible. Proper fit for a pair of tongs If manually operated fuel and air valves are
used, extreme care should be taken to control
the combustion of fuel. If too much air is used
to make an oxidizing atmosphere, the

123

excess air will consume the carbon or graphite pouring operation, a properly fitted shank
in the crucibles. If too much oil is used and a should be used. The crucible should be
strongly reducing atmosphere is made, an removed from the furnace with well-fitting
excess of moist gases will be produced and will tongs. Any pieces of slag or refractory which
attack the crucibles and cause gas pickup in the may stick to the crucible should be removed
melt. Careful control of an oil-fired melting and the crucible set in a bed of dry sand. Any
furnace is an absolute necessity for good pieces of slag or refractory which are not
furnace operation for obtaining good service removed will cause damage to the crucible.
from the crucibles and for melting metal low in
gas content. The molten metal may also be tapped into a
well-dried, preheated ladle for pouring. Any
The atmosphere in the furnace should be small additions of alloys may be added to the
slightly oxidizing, that is, there should be just a metal during tapping and should be placed in
little more air than is required to completely the bottom of the pouring ladle after about an
burn all of the fuel. when the furnace is inch of metal has been tapped into it. The alloy
operating under the correct slightly oxidizing additions or material to compensate for melting
atmosphere, a slight green tinge will appear losses should be added in small pieces so that
around the outer fringe of the flame. A they melt easily and do not produce hard spots
reducing atmosphere is usually indicated by a in the castings.
smoky, yellow flame. A quick test can be made
by passing a freshly broken piece of virgin zinc After the heat has been poured, all slag and
through the open flame. If it turns black, the remaining metal should be drained and scraped
atmosphere is highly reducing. If it turns straw- from the crucible. Metal should never be
yellow to light gray, the atmosphere is slightly permitted to solidify in a crucible. On
reducing, and if it does not change color, the reheating, the solidified button will expand and
atmosphere is oxidizing. Another quick test is crack the crucible. If crucibles are not to be
to throw a small block of wood into the used immediately again, they should be cooled
furnace. If it burns with a flame, the slowly, away from any draft.
atmosphere is oxidizing. If it chars slowly, the
atmosphere is reducing and more air is needed ELECTRIC INDIRECT-ARC
at the burner. FURNACE

MELTING AND TEMPERATURE PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

CONTROL
This furnace gets its name from the fact that
Melting in an oil-fired crucible furnace should the electric arc does not come in direct contact
be as rapid as possible. The shorter the time the with the metal being melted. Any metal melted
metal is held in the furnace, the less opportunity in the electric indirect-arc furnace receives heat
there is for excessive oxidation of the charge from two sources. Radiant heat is obtained
and absorption of gas by the molten metal. As from the electric arc. A secondary source of
soon as the charge is melted down, the heat comes from the refractory lining, which is
temperature should be determined with an heated by the arc. The rocking action of this
immersion pyrometer and repeated checks type of furnace exposes more lining to the heat
made until the desired temperature is reached. of the arc, which in turn permits the lining to
The flame should be cut back when measuring deliver more heat to the metal. Rocking
the temperature of prevent any damage to the permits the lining to heat the metal and the
thermocouple due to localized heating. It is metal to cool the lining. The melt-down time
generally necessary to shut off the fuel and air would be longer if the furnace were not
before the desired temperature is reached. The rocked, and the lining would be damaged.
temperature of the metal in the crucible will Another advantage of the rocking furnace is
continue to rise because of the heat retained in the mixing action given to the molten metal.
the furnace. The point where the fuel should be This produces a more uniform heat.
cut off will depend on the type and amount of
charge metal and the operating characteristics CONSTRUCTION
of the furnace. The rise in temperature after the
fuel and air has been shut off may vary from a The construction of the furnace itself is fairly
few degrees to several hundred degrees. simple. It consists of a barrel-shaped steel shell
Considerable skill on the part of the melter is with a heavy-duty refractory lining. The
necessary to prevent over heating in this type of electrodes for supplying the necessary energy
melting. for melting are centered on the axis of the
barrel. A charging door is provided on the
TAPPING front of the barrel. There is a special device
supplied to rock the furnace automatically
The tapping temperature should not be more while it is in operation. An electric indirect-arc
than 100°F. above the desired pouring furnace installation is shown in figure 174.
temperature. If the melting crucible is used for
the

124

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 8. Build a charcoal fire in the barrel. Allow it

to remain for at least twelve hours. Clean out
Power is supplied to the furnace from a most of the charcoal at the end of that time.
transformer that "steps-down" the 440-volt
current delivered by the generator to 100 volts. 9. Insert the stationary carbon electrode
The reactance control, located on the approximately 1-1/2 inches past the center of
transformer, serves to stabilize the arc. the barrel. Adjust the automatically controlled
Electrode regulation and power in-put to the electrode so that it is approximately 1/2 inch
furnace is controlled on the power panel. A from the stationary electrode. This practice
knife switch on the power panel is used to should be followed on every heat, as it insures
isolate the panel from the source of power or to that the arc will be approximately centered
permit power to pass from the source of power during the melting cycle, thus, preventing
to the panel. The amount of current passing damage to the end walls of the furnace lining.
through the carbon electrodes is controlled by
the load-adjusting rheostat. For more detailed 10. Circulate the cooling water. This practice
information on the electrical system, refer to the should be adhered to at all times prior to
manufacturer's literature. starting the furnace in order to prevent damage
to the electrode clamps or any other jacketed
LINING THE FURNACE parts. The temperature of the outlet water
should never exceed 200°F.
A preformed lining of mullite or sillimanite
refractory is generally furnished for the electric 11. Set the "Rocking Center" on the index
indirect-arc furnace. The lining should be mark.
cemented into place with a highly refractory
cement of the same composition as the lining; 12. Rotate the "Constant Rocking Period"
that is, either a mullite or a sillimanite cement. knob until the "Range Pointer" is on the "off"
The life of a new refractory lining and the position, which is full normal rock.
quality of the metal produced depend largely
on the initial drying-out period. The following 13. Close the d.c. electrode-motor switch. The
instructions should be followed in preparing a closed circuit is indicated by the light on the
new lining for the first heat. d.c. contactor panel.

PROCEDURE FOR DRYING A NEW 14. Place the arc-circuit toggle switch in the
LINING "on" position. Throw the circuit breaker in by
means of the remote-control switch. This is
1. Place the lined barrel on the furnace rollers. indicated by the lights on the meter panel.

2. Fasten the automatic and manual electrode 15. Push in the button marked "hand" on the
brackets. regulator panel.

3. Insert and clamp two new carbon electrodes. 16. Advance the operating or automatically
Make certain that they are properly aligned by controlled electrode until it makes contact with
introducing shims between the brackets and the stationary electrode and strikes the arc.
shell endplates. The electrodes should now Withdraw the electrode rapidly until the
appear as one continuous unit. kilowatt meter shows the desired rate of input.
This should be less than the rated input of the
4. Wrap one turn of heavy wrapping paper furnace unit for the drying-out period. In
around the electrodes and push the port sleeves general, a shortening of the arc increases the
in place. input rate and a lengthening of the arc by
withdrawing the operating electrode decreases
5. Tamp the port sleeves in place with the input rate. Place the furnace on automatic
Alundum cement. Recheck the alignment of control by pushing the button marked
the electrodes. "automatic" on the regulator panel and make
the necessary adjustments with the load-
6. Remove the paper and operate the electrodes adjusting rheostat.
manually over their full travel. No binding or
sticking should occur. NOTE: Difficulty may be experienced in
obtaining the desired, steady input on a
7. Cut out the silicon carbide refractory door
green or cold lining when the furnace is
brick to conform to the contour of the furnace
started. lion automatic control, the unit
door and ram the spout and the space around
tends to stabilize itself. However, hand
the door with mullite or sillimanite refractory
adjustment of the operating electrode can
furnished with unit. The purpose of cutting
be made until the input does not fluctuate
away the door-brick refractory is to permit air
excessively.
to get into the barrel during the melting cycle.

125

17. Place the rocking motor contactor b ox Keeping the charging door in top-center
switch in the "on" position. position will minimize this possibility. Replace
18. Place the "Automatic Rock" switch in the the electrode brackets and check the alignment
"on" position. of the electrodes.

19. The drying-out period should be as slow as Check the "limit" and "overtravel" switches to
practical. The following schedule should not be ascertain that they are improper adjustment. A
exceeded. Apply the heat intermittently at: mishap can be created by the use of the
pushbutton with the "Automatic Rock" switch
(a) 6 kilowatt hours once each 1/2 hour in the "on" position in checking the operation
for 2 hours. of the "overtravel" switch.

(b) 9 kilowatt hours once each 1/2 hour CHARGING THE FURNACE
for the next 2 hours.
Preheating. Preheat the lining with the
Additional heat should now be applied furnace at full normal rock before charging the
continuously until the lining temperature first heat. Note the starting instructions and
reaches approximately 2700°F. (white heat). precautions listed under "Procedure for Drying
Turn the remote-control switch, arc-circuit a New Lining." NEVER CHARGE METAL
toggle switch, and the d.c. electrode-motor INTO A COLD FURNACE. The lining
circuit switch off and allow the lining to cool should preferably be preheated to the tapping
off to a dull red before removing the charging temperature of the alloy to be melted. The
door. Loosen the electrode clamps and run the approximate kilowatt-hour input necessary to
electrode back and forth in the port sleeve to preheat linings of various size units are listed
remove any foreign matter and to prevent below:
binding. If necessary, blow out the port sleeve
with a compressed-air blast. The lining is now Furnace Type Kwhr Required to Preheat
ready for its first heat, which preferably should LF 60
be made the next day. LFC 80
20. The next day, patch any cracks in the lining LFY 115
with a mortar cement refractory of the type
used in cementing the preformed shapes. A AA 175
general assembly view of the subject melting CC 275
unit is shown in figure 175. The accessory
equipment (gear) furnished with the unit for the CAUTION: Do not overheat the lining, as it
preparation of the furnace for use is shown in will decrease the life of the refractory and
figure 176. introduce operating difficulties.

Lining Repair. A carefully maintained lining Charging. The ideal position for charging is
is essential for the production of good quality with the furnace door in the top-center
metal. If slag or dross are allowed to position. In any case, it should be within 45°
accumulate in a lining, or a patch is placed over of the top center position. Before charging,
a slag area, a "choked" arc will result. Under slide the electrodes back until they are flush
such conditions, a poor quality melt will be with the furnace wall and will not be damaged
produced. Therefore, it is necessary to remove during the charging period. The charging
all slag or dross from the lining before position should be varied from time to time to
patching. Patching should always be deep and prevent excessive wear on one section of the
keyed in place. The patch material should be lining.
the same grade as the original lining. This is
usually a mullite or sillimanite refractory. Patch First, charge foundry returns (gates and risers)
the area around the furnace door and make up which have been thoroughly cleaned of any
the spout daily. Port sleeves should be patched excess sand. Excessive sand will cause a slag
with Alundum cement daily and reamed to blanket to form on the surface of the molten
insure a tight electrode fit, without binding. metal during the melting cycle. This condition
should be avoided, as it insulates the bath from
Shell Replacement. To change furnace shells, the heat generated by the arc and will make it
remove the electrode brackets and lift the shell difficult to reach or determine the desired
off the furnace rollers. In replacing another tapping temperature. Any unusually heavy
shell on the furnace base, make certain the shell pieces (such as large risers) should now be
cam does not injure the limit switch. charged to the rear of the barrel. If borings of
any kind are used in the charge, they should be
added at this time. They will filter down
through the foundry returns and give a more
compact charge free from direct contact with
the arc. Ingots are added to the charge last. Pile
most of the charge toward the rear of the
furnace so that a

126

larger angle of rock may be obtained with stationary electrode. This practice should
greater electrode safety. A properly charged always be followed on every heat as it insures
furnace with electrodes in position for striking that the arc will be approximately centered
the arc is shown in figure 177. Charging should during the melting cycle, thus, preventing
be accomplished as quickly as possible to damage to the end walls of the lining. Make
prevent excessive loss of heat from the lining. certain that the electrodes are not shorted.
(It is poor practice for an inexperienced
operator to exceed the rated capacity of his Strike the arc manually. Advance the operating
furnace.) At this point, the furnace door is or automatically controlled electrode until it
closed and clamped securely. makes contact with the stationary electrode
and strikes the arc. Withdraw the electrode
ROCKING MECHANISM rapidly until the kilowatt meter shows the
desired rate of input. In general, a shortening
Adjust the rocking mechanism as follows: of the arc increases the input rate and a
lengthening of the arc, by withdrawing the
1. Set the "Rocking Center" on the index mark. operating electrode, decreases the input rate.
This synchronizes the furnace shell with the Place the furnace on automatic control by
angle of rock. pushing the button marked "automatic" on the
regulator panel and make the necessary
2. Push in the button marked "Hand" on the adjustments with the load-adjusting rheostat.
regulator panel. Mark the setting for the normal operating input
on the load- adjusting rheostat dial for future
3. Set the "Range Pointer" and "Selector" on
reference. Place the electrodes on automatic
settings that will give the greatest angle of rock control by pushing in the push-button marked
and permit the barrel to reach full normal rock "Automatic" on the regulator panel.
as quickly as possible, and compatible with
electrode safety. The "Selector" provides a Put the "Automatic Rock" switch in the "on"
means of changing the rate of the rocking position. Observe the operating characteristics
angle. The no. 1 setting is the fastest and the of the arc. It should be sharp and clear. The
No. 6, the slowest. The "Constant Rocking input should be steady and not fluctuating. A
Period" knob provides a means of delaying the cloudy smoke arc from which small graphite
angle of rock. A "Nameplate Table" printed on particles are emitted is not a healthy operating
the rocking controller assembly lists the time condition for this unit and will result in casting
required for the barrel to reach full normal rock losses due to porosity and low physical
from various settings and charging positions. properties. This condition may be caused by
One distinct advantage of the rocking feature is low voltage across the electrode clamps or
the absorption of heat by the charge from the spongy electrodes. It may be corrected by
refractory lining. Thus, it is obvious that increasing the voltage, decreasing the
reaching full normal rock as quickly as possible transformer reactance, or inserting good
will result in rapid melting, more uniform melt, electrodes.
lower power consumption, increase in
refractory life, and a decrease melting loss. ELECTRODE PRECAUTIONS
Actual settings of the "Selector" switch and
"Constant Rocking Period" knob can best be Various steps that should be followed to
determined through experience and will depend provide good electrode operation are listed
upon the physical position of the charge in the below.
barrel. For the first heat, place the "Selector" in
the No. 6 position and the "Constant Rocking 1. Make certain that there is good contact
Period" knob on the 20° rock setting. Delay the between the clamp and the electrode.
increasing angle of rock. Observe the heat
closely and increase the rock manually as the 2. Do not grip the electrode joints within the
heat progresses and the charge settles. After a clamp as it may result in a broken nipple or a
few heats, the operator should be able to reduced area of electrical contact.
determine the most efficient and safe setting for
any charge. Make certain that the "Selector" is 3. In joining two electrodes, insert the threaded
placed securely in the notch intended. carbon stud in the socket of one and screw in
the other, finishing with a snapping action to
ELECTRODE CONTROL insure good electrical contact. Do not use
excessive force or the nipple will break.
Center the carbon electrodes as follows. Insert
the stationary electrode approximately 1-1/2 4. Electrodes should be stored in a warm dry
inches past the center of the barrel. Adjust the place to avoid sponginess. Sponginess will
automatically controlled electrode so that it is cause poor operating characteristics that will
approximately 1/2 inch from the produce a poor-quality melt.

127

5. If an electrode breaks during the melting After the furnace has been completely drained
cycle, shut the furnace down and remove the of molten metal, remove the door. With push-
broken section from the hearth immediately. button control, roll the furnace barrel over until
Insert a new electrode. the charging- door opening is completely
underneath. Allow the slag or dross to drain
6. When the nipple approaches the arcing end out by rocking the barrel back and forth or by
of the electrode, it should be broken off applying the arc for a few minutes.
because it might slip off and fall into the hearth
of the furnace and cause carbon pickup by the The barrel should then be returned to its
metal. original charging position and any slag
removed from the spout. The spout may then
MELTING AND TEMPERATURE be repaired by hot patching, if necessary. The
CONTROL electrodes are then run in and out to prevent
binding by slag or metallic particles. The port
During the melting cycle, the charge should be sleeves should be blown or cleaned out. The
observed periodically to check on the rate of furnace is then ready for another heat.
meltdown and to make sure that it is melting
satisfactorily. The angle of rock should be ELECTRIC RESISTOR FURNACE
increased as quickly as conditions will permit.
The initial melting will take place under the arc PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
where a molten pool of metal will collect. As
the angle of rock increases and melting The operating characteristics of the resistor
proceeds, the pool will wash over the rest of furnace are different from those of the indirect-
the charge and make the meltdown faster. arc furnace. The indirect-arc furnace melts
When the entire charge is molten, the furnace with a heat which is produced by the electric
should be at full rock. Once the charge arc between electrodes. The resistor furnace
becomes completely molten, a close check produces the heat for melting by using
should be kept on the temperature with either continuous graphite resistors and no arc. The
an immersion thermocouple or an optical electric current passing through the resistors
pyrometer, depending on the metal being causes them to become heated to temperature
melted. sufficient to melt the charge. The principal is
the same as that of an electric toaster.
During the time the heat is being superheated to
tapping temperature, it is important that the bath CONSTRUCTION
be kept clear of any slag or dross which may
have formed. Any such substance not only The construction of the resistor furnace proper
prevents proper heating of the metal bath but (including the rocking mechanism is the same
also makes the determination of temperature as that of the electric indirect-arc furnace. The
difficult. electrodes and electrical system have been
modified to use resistor heating elements. The
Various techniques used during meltdown for furnace uses two pairs of 1-3/4 inch-diameter
determining temperatures are described in the resistors, which me et in the center of the
chapter s pertaining to the particular metals. furnace. They are seated and locked by spring
tension from the electrode brackets. The use of
TAPPING male and female electrode sections permits
easier withdrawal of the electrodes for
Just before tapping, the furnace should be charging or replacement. The resistors thread
operated at reduced input, just sufficient to into a 4-inch-diameter terminal and form a
maintain the temperature of the bath during the reduced section, which in operation forms two
tapping period. Place the "Automatic Rock" continuous graphite bars through the melting
switch in the "off" position. The furnace is now chamber. A view of the furnace showing the
operated by the portable push-button station to resistors through the center of the barrel is
carry it through the pouring stage. shown in figure 178. The electrode-bracket
assembly is shown in figure 179.
Tapping should not be delayed once the proper
temperature has been reached. If a slight delay ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
is unavoidable, shut the arc off and set the
"Automatic Rock" switch at "off." The The current for the resistor furnaces on repair
temperature of the bath will not fall or rise ships is supplied by a 440/36 volt, 150-kva, 3-
appreciably during the first few minutes. If a phase to 2-phase Scott-connected transformer.
longer delay is necessary, the furnace should be The input voltage is varied from 440 to 184
operated intermittently at reduced input and at volts in 11 steps by means of solenoid-
full rock in order to maintain the desired operated tap switches. This results in a variable
temperature. The molten metal should always
be tapped into a dried and preheated ladle.

128

secondary voltage from 36 volts to 10 volts at scrap is used. While high-frequency heating is
the furnace terminals. Numerals on a disk effective over a wide range, about 1,000
visible through a circular window in the cycles have been found to be the most
transformer housing indicate the nominal open- practical for a 1-ton furnace. Smaller furnaces
circuit voltage for each position. Taps can be will require higher frequencies.
changed under load. Push buttons on the
control panel permit raising or lowering of the The heat is developed in the outer part of the
voltage and current on each phase so that the charge and is quickly carried to the center by
power input can be controlled at almost any conduction, which is rapid through solid
level. During melting, the power input to the metals. After the charge starts to melt and a
furnace is generally held at 150 kw. pool is formed in the bottom of the furnace, a
stirring effect occurs. This not only carries heat
LINING THE FURNACE to the center of the charge but accelerates
melting by washing molten metal against the
Lining of the resistor furnace and its repair are unmelted solid metal. It also mixes the charge
the same as for the electric indirect-arc furnace. thoroughly, thus assuring uniformity. The flow
For a description of the lining and its repair, see lines in the molten bath, indicated in figure 181
the section, "Lining the Furnace for the Electric show there are no "dead spots" and that every
Indirect-arc Furnace," page 124. part of the bath is moved. The vigor of the
stirring can be controlled by varying the power
CHARGING THE FURNACE input.
The same precautions in charging are necessary FURNACE CONSTRUCTION
with the resistor furnace as with the indirect-arc
furnace (see page 123). The electrodes must be The high-frequency induction furnace is
withdrawn until they are flush with the furnace essentially an air transformer in which the
end walls to prevent any damage during primary is a coil of water-cooled copper tubing
charging. and the secondary is the mass of metal to be
melted. The essential parts of the furnace are
ELECTRODE CONTROL shown in figure 182. The outer shell, "5," is
made of asbestos lumber (transite is one brand
Manipulation or control of the electrodes is not of asbestos lumber) and carries the trunnions,
necessary during the melting operation. After "T" on which the furnace pivots in tapping or
the furnace is charged, the electrodes are run pouring. (Most of the shell has been cut away
into the center of the furnace until they meet to show the section of the furnace.) The coil,
and form two continuous resistors. Once this is "C," consisting of a helix of water-cooled
done, there is no further control necessary other copper tubing, is lined with a layer, "L," of
than to make certain that there is always strong refractory material, which forms a protective
enough spring tension at the electrode brackets coating against metal leaks. This layer is
to maintain the resistors in position with good continued above and below the coil against the
electrical contact. This avoids arcing at the asbestos support "R," the firebrick top, and
joints. base, "F." The coil lining and the firebrick
bottom provide a cavity into which the
MELTING AND TEMPERATURE refractory lining of the furnace is built. This
CONTROL lining may take the form of a thin-wall crucible
or supporting shell, "M," packed into the
Melting practice and temperature control are cavity with granular refractory, "G," or it may
the same as for the electric indirect-arc furnace. be in the form of a sintered lining, which holds
(see page 123.) the charge or bath of metal, "B," and is
molded at the top on one side to form the
ELECTRIC INDUCTION FURNACE
pouring spout, "D."
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Due to the peculiarities in construction of the
furnace, in which the primary coil is fairly
In the operation of the furnace, a high-
close to the metal bath, the selection of suitable
frequency electric current is passed through the
primary coil (figure 180), inducing a secondary refractories is an important consideration. A
typical electric induction furnace with a tilting
current in the charge, heating it by resistance to
mechanism is shown in figure 183. The
the desired temperature. The charge may
consist either of a single lump of metal or a power-control panel for this furnace is shown
quantity of loose pieces such as ordinary scrap. in figure 184.
Even comparatively fine turnings can be melted ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
successfully if a moderate amount of heavier
The high-frequency induction furnace receives
its power from a high-frequency motor-
generator set. Power to the furnace is regulated

129

by a control panel. The power put to effective A good grade of dry silica sand (or the
use by the melting unit is very low, so material "Nor sand" furnished by the furnace
capacitors are used to correct the low power manufacturer) is tamped solidly in the bottom
factor and to permit the generator to produce of the furnace to a depth of 3 or 4 inches. The
full power. To make full power available thickness of the sand layer is adjusted so that
during all the melting stages, tap switches are when the crucible is placed on this lining, the
used to regulate the effective voltage on the top of the crucible is 1-1/2 to 2 inches below
furnace. the top of the furnace. The space at the top is
left for top patching. The crucible is centered
LINING THE FURNACE in the coil and held in place by three wooden
wedges between the coil and the crucible.
There are two materials used in the lining of
these furnaces in addition to preformed and The sand is then placed around the crucible to
fired crucibles. These materials (Norpatch and a depth of 4 or 5 inches and tamped solidly in
Normagal) are furnished by the furnace place to prevent pockets and to insure good
manufacturer. Norpatch is a refractory cement, contact between the crucible and the coil
while Normagal is a granular refractory lining. This procedure is continued until the
material. sand level is near the furnace top before the
wedges are removed.
Lining the Furnace Coil. The furnaces are
shipped with a 3/8 inch lining of Norpatch Norpatch cement, mixed with water to a
installed on the inside of the coil. This lining ramming consistency, is then trowelled in
prevents the dry furnace-lining materials from place between the top of the crucible and the
leaking through the coil turns and protects the furnace shell. The pouring lip is also formed at
coil from serious damage by the molten metal this time. The cement seal and lip are slowly
in case of a lining failure. Each time a new but thoroughly dried and the furnace is ready
crucible or lining is placed in a furnace, the coil for operation.
lining should be examined for cracks. If small
cracks are present, they should be filled in with Care of Clay-Graphite Crucibles. Proper
a brush coat of Norpatch mixed with water to a care of clay-graphite crucibles will materially
consistency of heavy paint. If large cracks or increase their life. Before use, they should be
holes are present, they should be patched with stored in a warm, dry place. A rack should be
the Norpatch moistened with water to a thicker provided so that they will not be placed on a
consistency, rammed in place, and smoothed wet or damp floor and they should be stored
with a wet brush or trowel. bottom side up to prevent accumulation of
moisture. Before using, crucibles should be
When it becomes necessary to install a new coil heated to about 300°F. for approximately 8
lining, all the old Norpatch should be removed hours to be sure all moisture is removed. If the
from the coil. A new batch of Norpatch is then preheating is not done, a sudden application of
mixed with water, making certain all lumps are heat will crack them. After being rammed in
well pulverized. This is applied to the inside of place, it is good practice to heat crucibles (1)
the coil with the hand or a trowel to a thickness by means of a large electric bulb placed in the
of 3/8 inch. The Norpatch is pressed firmly bottom of the furnace, (2) by use of an ignited
between the coil so that it squeezes through to charcoal pot in the crucible, or (3) by charging
the outside, which provides a suitable with a few pieces of carbon of sufficient
anchorage. volume to provide radiated heat when the
furnace switch is on low.
After the entire inside surface has been
covered, it is good practice to scrape off the After each heat, all excess metal clinging to the
high spots with a straight edge and fill in the sides and bottom of the crucible should be
low spots. This coating should be reasonably removed. Care should be taken not to exert too
smooth and uniform. A 1,000-watt strip heater much pressure, as the crucible tends to become
or the equivalent placed in the furnace permits brittle at high temperature. It is then checked
the lining to dry slowly. Drying should take for cracks of sufficient size to allow metal to
about 30 hours, and when complete, the cracks leak through. Small hairline cracks will not
should be filled in as explained above. give trouble as they will be sealed by the next
heat when the pot expands.
Crucibles. The temperatures involved in the
melting of nonferrous metals are not sufficient At the end of the day's run, or particularly if
to sinter a monolithic lining. Therefore, there is along period between heats, the
preformed clay-graphite crucibles are used. In crucible should be covered to allow it to cool
installing crucibles, the first step is to turn on slowly, as fast cooling tends to develop cracks.
full water pressure and then check for leaks in Water should be allowed to run through the
the coil and hose connections. Moisture will cooling system until the crucible has reached
cause short circuits (possibly explosions) if it room temperature.
comes in contact with molten metal.

130

Crucibles which have worn down to 5/8-inch the top of the furnace. It is then sealed and the
wall thickness are unsafe for further use, and spout formed with Norpatch cement, trowelled
should be replaced. Relining of the furnace firmly in place and thoroughly dried.
requires that the old crucible and lining be
removed-- sometime s, by hammering and An alternate and popular method involves the
chiseling. Care should be taken to preserve the use of a steel form as shown in figure 185.
refractory cement next to the coil. If it is When the charge becomes molten, the steel
damaged, it should be repaired before relining. shell melts, the asbestos fluxes to forma slag,
and the lining material is properly sintered.
Rammed Linings. The use of monolithic The first heat in a monolithic lining must be
linings for ferrous metals (iron and steel) is steel, as cast iron does not properly sinter the
generally favored because of their long life and lining. The quality of a monolithic lining
because steel cannot be melted in a clay- depends largely upon proper ramming of the
graphite crucible. Also, the steel will absorb lining material and the importance of this
carbon from the crucible. Cast iron, however, cannot be overemphasized.
can be safely melted in a clay-graphite crucible.
The thickness of the lining must be carefully
Because of the difficulty of installing controlled and maintained during use, since it
monolithic linings, the allowance list for each has a major bearing on the power consumption
base and shipboard foundry includes magnesia and melting speed of the furnace. Thin linings
crucibles in addition to materials for installing give better "coupling" (more induced power in
the monolithic lining. Magnesia crucibles are the charge) than thick ones. A perfect coupling
relatively fragile and must be handled with would be obtained if the charge were the same
great care before installing and during use. The diameter as the coil. Naturally, this is not
same general practice given for the clay- possible, so a satisfactory compromise must be
graphite crucibles should be carefully followed obtained.
in installing them.
After each heat, the furnace should be drained
Although considerable skill and experience are completely of metal and slag, and all holes
necessary to properly install a monolithic lining should be carefully patched. (No attempt
for melting ferrous metals, if the instructions should be made to patch over steel or slag).
given below are carefully followed, a fair In general, all patching below the metal line
measure of success should be attained after the should be done with Normagal mixed with
first two or three linings. Also, the experience sodium silicate, and patching above the metal
thus gained should be sufficient to correct all line should be done with Norpatch mixed with
faults which become apparent. water.

The first step consists of firmly ramming 5-1/2 To reline the furnace, the old lining is removed
inches of Normagal in the bottom of the as in the case of clay-graphite crucibles by
furnace. This is most effectively done by the hammering and chiseling, care being taken to
use of a rammer formed by welding along preserve the refractory cement on the coil. The
handle to a steel disk 5 or 6 inches in diameter. unsintered Normagal should be saved, since it
can be used again in relining. If the refractory
Next, the asbestos form, supplied by the cement on the coil is intact, the furnace is
manufacturer, is prepared. This is done by relined in the manner previously described.
drilling four evenly spaced holes about 1/8inch
diameter in the disk about 1/2 inch from the CHARGING THE FURNACE
edge. Directly opposite, four similar holes are
drilled in the sleeve about 1 inch from the The charge is preferably made up of carefully
bottom. The disk is then fastened to the sleeve selected scrap and alloys of an aggregate
by the use of soft iron wire. composition to produce as nearly as possible
the composition desired in the finished metal.
This form is next placed on the Normagal Final additions are made to deoxidize the metal
bottom and accurately centered. A weight of or to adjust composition.
several hundred pounds is placed on the inside
to prevent its shifting while ramming the sides. The heavy scrap is often charged first, and as
If the form is not centered at the top, it is much of the charge as possible is packed into
because the bottom is not level, and proper the furnace. The current is turned on, and as
adjustment should be made. About 3 inches of soon as a pool of molten metal has formed in
Normagal is then placed around the form and the bottom, the charge sinks and additional
rammed uniformly and hard with a suitable scrap is then introduced, until the entire charge
hand rammer, followed, if possible, by an has been added. The charge should always be
electric or air rammer. This practice is made in such manner that the scrap is free to
continued until the Normagal is within 5 or 6 slide down into the batch. If the pieces of the
inches of charge

131

bridge over during melting and do not fall metal is taken out in small quantities in hand
readily into the molten pool, the scrap must be ladles, power may be kept on while pouring.
carefully moved to relieve this condition. This maintains the temperature of the bath and
Severe poking of the charge must be avoided at facilitates slag separation by keeping it stirred
all times, however, because of danger of to the back of the bath. When the heat is
damaging the furnace lining. Bridging is not poured, the furnace is scraped clean of
serious if carefully handled, but if allowed to adhering slag and metal and is then ready for
go uncorrected, overheating of the small pool the next charge.
of metal may damage the lining seriously and
will have a deleterious effect on the Because of the convexity of the bath surface
composition of the metal. resulting from the induced current, it is difficult
to keep a slag blanket on the metal and
The compactness of the charge in the furnace usually, no attempt is made to do so. Should a
has an important influence on the speed of slag blanket be desired, it is necessary to
melting. The best charge is a cylindrical piece control the degree of convexity of the bath,
of metal slightly smaller in diameter than the which can be done by controlling the rate of
furnace lining. This will draw very close to the power input to the melt.
full current capacity of the equipment. Two or
three large pieces with considerable space It is important that dissimilar metals not be
between them will not draw maximum current, melted in the same lining or crucible. When
since the air cannot be heated by induction. melting cast iron or steel, the lining absorbs
The charge should not be so tightly packed that iron. Brass or bronze subsequently melted in
upon heating and expanding it cracks the the same lining will become contaminated with
crucible or lining. iron. The reverse will also be true; cast iron or
steel can become contaminated with copper,
SINTERING THE MONOLITHIC tin, or zinc. If it ever becomes necessary to
LINING AND MAKING THE FIRST melt dissimilar metals in the same furnace, a
STEEL HEAT wash heat similar in composition to the next
heat planned can be used to cleanse the
After the furnace has been lined, a suitable crucible. It is always better practice to have
charge of low-carbon scrap or Armco iron, separate furnaces or linings for use in such
consisting of pieces weighing between 1/4 emergencies.
pound and 2 pounds, should be selected and
placed in the asbestos liner in such a manner The methods of melting nonferrous alloys vary
that the charge will be reasonably compact. considerably for different compositions.
This charge should be brought to the top of the Questions often arise regarding which metal to
asbestos liner. Long or irregular shaped pieces melt first, the temperatures at which the
should not be used for this initial charge, as additions of other metals are made, the use of
such pieces may become bridged and prevent slags and fluxes, deoxidation practice and
the solid metal from coming into contact with pouring temperatures. Frequently, several
the bath as the melting progresses. Before the alternative procedures are available for melting
power is applied, it should be ascertained that the same metal. For melting specific metals,
water is flowing through all coils which are to refer to the later chapters dealing with each
be energized. metal.

The many precautions to be observed in the TEMPERATURE CONTROL

first heat in a new lining are: (1) the charge
should be brought to the top of the Normagal Temperature control in the induction furnace is
lining when molten, and (2) the metal should measured by an immersion or optical
be held at 3,000°F. for 15 to 20 minutes to pyrometer, depending on the metal being
permit proper sintering of the lining. Neither of melted. The power should be reduced (or
these practices should be followed in later better, shut off) while taking a temperature
production and are only necessary initially to reading with an immersion pyrometer to
secure a well-sintered lining. prevent an incorrect reading. Good melting
records with proper temperature readings can
MELTING AND TEMPERATURE prove useful in the event there is a failure in
CONTROL pyrometer equipment. If temperatures and
power input are recorded during various
As soon as the charge is completely melted and melting operations, the power input, along
refining or superheating operations finished, with the time at a given power input, can
further necessary additions of alloys or prove useful in making a close approximation
deoxidizers are made. The furnace is then tilted of the temperature of the heat.
to pour the metal over the lip. If the entire heat
is poured into a large receiving ladle, the power SUMMARY
is turned off before tilting. If, however, the
The operation of assigned melting furnaces is
relatively simple and even inexperienced

452605 0-58-10

132

personnel can use them to melt metal. Whether for iron or steel. The quality of the metal can
this metal will make a good casting is another be damaged severely by improper furnace
matter. For a strong, sound casting free of atmosphere, melting so that the flame hits
defects, it is necessary that the metal be melted some of the metal, or by using crucibles which
under proper conditions and handled properly. have not been stored and prepared properly.
It is relatively easy to see whether a metal is hot CRUCIBLES AND FURNACE LININGS
enough to pour into a particular mold, but it is ARE AN ALL-IMPORTANT ITEM IN
hard to see when the metal has been damaged ANY FURNACE. They must be thoroughly
by improper melting methods. This shows up dried before they are used for melting. If not,
when the casting is shaken out of the mold. the damage they will cause to the metal will be
more far-reaching than possible damage to the
Oil-fired crucible furnaces are convenient for lining.
melting nonferrous metals (brass, bronze, or
aluminum) but usually are not satisfactory Electric furnaces are fast, clean and
convenient. They also permit high
temperatures to be reached.

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 Figure 169. Tilting crucible furnace.

Figure 167. Pit-type crucible furnace.

Figure 170. Cross-section of a stationary

crucible furnace.
Figure 168. Crucible for tilting crucible
furnace.

Figure 171. Undercutting a refractory patch.

134
 Figure 174. Electric indirect-arc furnace.

Figure 172. Proper burner location.

Figure 175. General assembly view of electric

indirect-arc furnace.

Figure 173. Proper fit for crucible tongs.

135
 Figure 177. Properly charged electric indirect-
arc furnace.

Figure 176. Accessory equipment for electric

indirect-arc furnace.

Figure 178. Electric resistor furnace.

136
 Figure 179. Electrode-bracket assembly for electric resistor furnace.

Figure 180. Cross section of electric induction

furnace. Figure 181. Flow lines in an induction furnace
melt.

137
 Figure 182. Essential parts of an induction
furnace. Figure 183. Typical electric induction furnace.

B - Metal bath L - Protective refractory

or insulation

C - Coil M - Crucible
D - Pouring spout R - Asbestos support
F - Firebrick S - Outer shell
G - Refractory T - Trunnions

Figure 185. Method of lining induction

furnace using a steel form.

Figure 184. Induction-furnace control panel.