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PRACTICAL REPORTS
PART 1 PART 2 PART 3 PART 4 PART 5 PART 6 PART 7 PART 8 Part 9 HEADINGS VARIABLES EXPERIMENTAL VALIDITY, RELIABILITY AND ACCURACY GRAPHS ERRORS Unit Prefixes, Scientific Notation, Orders of Magnitude, and Significant Figures STRAIGHT - LINE GRAPHS WORKING INDIVIDUALLY/WORKING IN TEAMS Risk Assessments PART 1

Some Headings
Aim: Method: Diagrams: Results: Usually 2 or 3 lines about what you are trying to achieve in this experiment. Should be in point form Should be a clear set of instructions starting with verbs. Not always necessary but often they are not only informative but essential to explain either the method or the results. Should be tabulated when possible. Units should be stated in the table where applicable.

The formula and working should be shown for any calculations that are necessary. Conclusion: *Have you achieved the aim of the experiment? *Comment on your results, calculations and graphs. *Compare theoretical results and experimental results where applicable. *Comment on any sources of error. *Answer all questions from the Instruction Sheet for the prac using the correct question numbers.

Other headings that an experimental report may include are "Hypothesis" (just after the aim) then Equipment List and "Discussion" (just before the conclusion).

PART 2 VARIABLES
Independent Variable (ONE ONLY) The independent variable is manipulated "independently" by the experimenter, to see what happens as a result. i.e. you deliberately change this variable e.g. increase the mass on the spring by 250g each time. The independent variable usually goes up in regular intervals because you choose the values. Dependent Variable (ONE ONLY) The dependent variable depends on the independent variable. The dependent variable has a different value each time YOU change the independent variable. For example, each time you add an extra 250g(0.25 kg) mass (Independent Variable) to the spring its extension (Dependent Variable) is greater. Mass (kg) Extension (m)

0 0 0.25 0.06 0.50 0.12 0.75 0.19 1.00 0.25 1.25 0.31 1.50 0.37 1.75 0.43 2.00 0.49 This is the Independent This is the Dependent Variable. Variable because it depends on the Independent Variable. Many other Variables need to be controlled (kept constant) To make it a fair experiment, some other variables need to be controlled e.g. use the same spring for the whole experiment, use the same ruler for the whole experiment, temperature etc

PART 3 - EXPERIMENTAL VALIDITY, RELIABILITY AND ACCURACY

Validity and Reliability You now need to evaluate the validity and reliability of your results. Your experimental results are valid if they measure what you think they are measuring. Suppose you were measuring a spring constant but you added such a large mass that the spring stretched beyond its elastic limit. You no longer get a straight line when you graph force against extension. Your spring constant, if you can get one, would not be correct as your experimental results are not valid. Validity can be checked in a number of ways. Discussing the design of the experiment and the pattern of results with others may help. If your results are not reliable it may also indicate they are not valid. Results are reliable if you get consistent results with repeated measurements. Another indication that they are reliable is if the amount of experimental error is small. If your spring has stretched beyond its elastic limit, then the same weight will produce different extensions. You will not get consistent results - they are not reliable. Validity If an experiment measures what you think it measures, as shown by using a different method to measure the same variable, then the experiment is valid. Validity refers to the ability of a particular measurement to give you useful information, to make a useful prediction about the subject of interest. Reliability If an experiment can be repeated under the same circumstances and produce the same result, then the experiment is reliable. Reliability of an experiment is improved through repetition. Some good questions to ask:
reliability first-hand information and data Have I tested with repetition? Secondary information and data How consistent is the information with information from other reputable sources? Is the data presented based on repeatable processes? How was the information gathered? Do the findings relate to the hypothesis or problem?

validity

Does my experimental procedure/design actually test the hypothesis that I want it to? Have all variables been identified and controlled?

Accuracy ...the closeness of the agreement between a measurement and a true value of the measure (e.g. temperature). An experiment is only an accurate as the measuring device used to take the measurement. Using a device with a smaller limit of reading will improve the accuracy of the measurements taken with the device. Neither reliability nor repeatability are the same as accuracy, for a measurement may be both reliable and repeatable while being wrong.

Part 3(cont): Reliability, validity and accuracy what do they mean?

Reliability and validity are two terms that continue to cause problems for students. Students in Stages 4 and 5 are required to evaluate evidence for reliability and validity. In Stage 6 they are required to discuss and explain how they would improve the validity and reliability of a first-hand investigation. They could also be asked about the validity and/or reliability of secondary sources of information. With reference to first-hand data, the glossary of terms on pp. 76-78 of the Science Years 7-10 syllabus defines the terms validity and reliability as follows: validity of first-hand data reliability of first-hand data The extent to which the processes and resultant data measure what was intended. The degree with which repeated observation and/or measurements taken under identical circumstances will yield the same results.

When discussing the accuracy of measurements, a dictionary definition such as that provided in the Australian Oxford Dictionary is appropriate : accuracy The exactness or precision of a measurement; relating to the degree of refinement in measurement or specification.

First-hand investigations:
In the context of students planning first-hand investigations, issues related to accuracy, reliability and validity will impact on the choice of the measuring device and how confident you are about the conclusions drawn from the results of the investigation. The need for accuracy of data should influence the choice of equipment for conducting first-hand investigations. Where data is collected, quantified or evaluated, reliability refers to the ability of the data gathering process to provide results that are consistent and within expected ranges. It is important that we encourage students to predict expected results and even predict ranges of data. Validity relates to whether the measurements you are taking are caused by the phenomena you are interested in. The relationship between reliability and validity can be confusing. Measurements and other observations can be reliable without being valid. A faulty measuring device can consistently provide a wrong value therefore providing reliably incorrect results. However, measurements and observations cannot be valid unless they are reliable and accurate. It is easier to be confident of your conclusion in any investigation when there are limited variables involved and where these variables are controlled. It is possible to highlight the difficulties involved in such decisions when you think about the difficulty in establishing the link between smoking and lung cancer, and the link between mesothelioma and asbestos dust. The more complex the situation in terms of the range of potential variables that need to be controlled and the difficulty in controlling these variables, the less certain it can be that one test will deliver a valid and reliable answer.

Harvey Version: ACCURACY, RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

The Board of Studies definitions are very brief and the following expanded definitions may be of use:

a) ACCURACY: Exactness or conformity to truth.

Science texts refer to accuracy in two ways: (i) Accuracy of a result or experimental procedure can refer to the percentage difference between the experimental result and the accepted value. The stated uncertainty in an experimental result should always be greater than this percentage accuracy. (ii) Accuracy is also associated with the inherent uncertainty in a measurement. We can express the accuracy of a measurement explicitly by stating the estimated uncertainty or implicitly by the number of significant figures given. For example, we can measure a small distance with poor accuracy using a metre rule, or with much greater accuracy using a micrometer. Accurate measurements do not ensure an experiment is valid or reliable. For example consider an experiment for finding g in which the time for a piece of paper to fall once to the floor is measured very accurately. Clearly this experiment would not be valid or reliable (unless it was carried out in vacuum).

b) RELIABILITY: Trustworthy, dependable.

In terms of first hand investigations the Board seems to define reliability as repeatability or consistency. If an experiment is repeated many times it will give identical results if it is reliable. In terms of second hand sources reliability refers to how trustworthy the source is. For example the NASA web site would be a more reliable source than a private web page. (This is not to say that all the data on the site is valid.) The reliability of a site can be assessed by comparing it to several other sites/sources.

c) VALIDITY: Derived correctly from premises already accepted, sound, supported by actual fact.
A valid experiment is one that fairly tests the hypothesis. In a valid experiment all variables are kept constant apart from those being investigated, all systematic errors have been eliminated and random errors are reduced by taking the mean of multiple measurements. An experiment could produce reliable results but be invalid (for example Millikan consistently got the wrong value for the charge of the electron because he was working with the wrong coefficient of viscosity for air). An unreliable experiment must be inaccurate, and invalid as a valid scientific experiment would produce reliable results in multiple trials.

NOTE - The notes that follow from this point on are Harveys own work.

ERRORS
The two different types of error that can occur in a measured value are: Systematic error this occurs to the same extent in each one of a series of measurements eg zero error, where for instance the needle of a voltmeter is not correctly adjusted to read zero when no voltage is present. Random error this occurs in any measurement as a result of variations in the measurement technique (eg parallax error, limit of reading, etc). When we report errors in a measured quantity we give either the absolute error, which is the actual size of the error expressed in the appropriate units or the relative error, which is the absolute error expressed as a fraction of the actual measured quantity. Relative errors can also be expressed as percentage errors. So, for instance, we may have measured the acceleration due to gravity as 9.8 m/s2 and determined the error to be 0.2 m/s2. So, we say the absolute error in the result is 0.2 m/s2 and the relative error is 0.2 / 9.8 = 0.02 (or 2%). Note relative errors have no units. We would then say that our experimentally determined value for the acceleration due to gravity is in error by 2% and therefore lies somewhere between 9.8 0.2 = 9.6 m/s2 and 9.8 + 0.2 = 10.0 m/s2. So we write g = 9.8 0.2 m/s2. Note that determination of errors is beyond the scope of the current course.

Consider three experimental determinations of g, the acceleration due to gravity. Experiment A 8.34 0.05 m/s2 Experiment B Experiment C

9.8 0.2 m/s2 3.5 2.5 m/s2 3.5 71%

8.34 0.6% 9.8 2%

We can say that Experiment A is more reliable (or precise) than Experiment B because its relative error is smaller and therefore if the experiment was repeated we would be likely to get a value for g which is very close to the one already obtained. That is, Experiment A has results that are very repeatable (reproducible). Experiment B, however, is much more accurate than Experiment A, since its value of g is much closer to the accepted value. Clearly, Experiment C is neither accurate nor reliable. In terms of validity, we could say that Experiment B is quite valid since its result is very accurate and reasonably reliable repeating the experiment would obtain reasonably similar

results. Experiment A is not valid, since its result is inaccurate and Experiment C is invalid since it is both inaccurate and unreliable. How do you improve the reliability of an experiment? Clearly, you need to make the experimental results highly reproducible. You need to reduce the relative error (or spread) in the results as much as possible. To do this you must reduce the random errors by: (i) using appropriate measuring instruments in the correct manner (eg use a micrometer screw gauge rather than a metre ruler to measure the diameter of a small ball bearing); and (ii) taking the mean of multiple measurements. To improve the accuracy and validity of an experiment you need to keep all variables constant other than those being investigated, you must eliminate all systematic errors by careful planning and performance of the experiment and you must reduce random errors as much as possible by taking the mean of multiple measurements.

PART 4 - GRAPHS
Tabulated results should be graphed wherever possible. Each graph should have a title, labelled axes with units stated and points plotted with any of the following symbols x, + or O, not just dots. When you plot a graph you should plot the Dependent Variable versus the Independent Variable. (y -axis) versus (x-axis)

Dependent Variable v Independent Variable

Graph Title: Dependent Variable v Independent Variable Dependent Variable (depends on the independent variable) Independent Variable (You choose these values and they usually go up in regular intervals e.g For an experiment in which you measure the speed of a car at various times, you will change the time in regular intervals (maybe every 30 seconds). Therefore Time will be the independent variable because you are changing it in regular intervals. The Speed depends on the Time, so Speed will be the dependent variable. We would plot Dependent v Independent i.e Speed v Time

In this space you should plot the graph for the results table on page 2

Part 8

WORKING INDIVIDUALLY/WORKING IN TEAMS Working in Teams Can share ideas. Can discuss and develop ideas and arrive at conclusions faster. Can achieve more by sharing the workload. Can specialise in areas that individuals have expertise in already. Can specialise in areas that individual members have researched and become expert in.

Working Individually Sometimes great ideas come from individuals when working alone. Sometimes an individual can achieve more in less time because they dont have to discuss and explain everything that they are doing. Sometimes companies do not want a group of workers to know company secrets.

Individuals would be more likely to When working as a team it is make errors that go uncorrected for important that the team members: a long time and hence waste time. 1. identify collective goals 2. define and allocate roles fairly 3. communicate within the team

PART 9:

RISK ASSESSMENTS

Risk Assessment Risk assessment is a process used to help manage the risks to health and safety that may arise in the workplace. The purpose of risk assessment is to enable decisions to be made about appropriate control measures that are required to protect the health of the workers who may be exposed to hazardous substances at work. The assessment procedure enables a distinction to be made between the hazard of a substance and the risk to health that arises from actual exposure to the substance through its use at work. The hazard is the potential for a substance to adversely affect the health of the people in the workplace. For example, the hazard of cyanides is that they are extremely toxic and a small quantity, if ingested, can cause death. The risk is the likelihood that a substance will cause illness due to the way it is used in the workplace. The risk to health usually increases with the severity of the hazard, the amount used, and the duration and frequency of exposure. Eg, if a cyanide compound is sealed in a labelled container and stored to minimise the possibility of breakage, the risk is well controlled even though the chemical is a serious hazard. Exposure occurs if a person comes into contact with a substance, by breathing it in, getting it onto the skin or into the eyes, or by swallowing it. Injection through the skin can also occur through syringes or high pressure spray or grease guns. The principles of risk assessment are: identify the hazards, assess risks and control risks. Identifying the hazards In order to control the risk from a hazard, it first needs to be identified. Strategies to identify a workplace hazard include: observation carrying out a workplace inspection knowing the potential hazards associated with the chemical being used in the experiment investigating complaints analysing accident records. Knowing the potential hazards associated with chemicals can be achieved by using Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS). These sheets usually provide information about the hazard, routes of exposure, recommended control measures and other actions to prevent or minimise risks. Your teacher may show you the MSDSs associated with the chemicals you will use in your experiment. Assessing the risks Once hazards have been identified, the next step is to assess their significance. To assess whether a hazard poses a significant risk you need to ask questions such as: what is the likelihood of the hazard causing an injury? what would be the severity of such an injury? what might be the frequency of injuries occurring? Controlling the risks After assessing that a significant risk exists, you need to think about control measures, ie how to reduce the likelihood of an accident occurring as a result of the hazard. You need to ask questions such as: can the hazardous situation be completely eliminated? can a less hazardous activity be substituted? if not, can procedures or measures be instigated to reduce the effect of the hazard? are there controls already in place? how effective are they? are more effective or additional controls needed?