Flowering Plant Reproduction and Development

Dr. Art Conway Copley 127 and Honors House Office

Reproductive Strategies
r-type
maximizes rate of production of offspring (called r in population equation) minimizes parental investment in each offspring

K-type
attempts to stabilize population at or below carrying capacity (K in population equation) so the reproductive rate is uaually low heavy parental investment in each offspring

Reproductive Strategies

Methods of Reproduction
Asexual reproduction
Offspring are typically genetically identical to the parent Dispersal of offspring is usually minimal (except in parthenogenesis or asexual seed production)

Sexual reproduction
Involves meiosis and fertilization, so offspring are genetically variable Seeds allow extensive dispersal and may remain viable for extended periods under unfavorable conditions

Angiosperm Flower Structure

Flowers contain the sex organs of flowering plants

Flowers contain the sex organs of flowering plants

seed

mature sporophyte

Sporophyte - a vegatative body that grows, by mitotic cell divisions, from a plant zygote that produces spore-bearing structures.
meiosis (within anther) meiosis (within ovary)

fertilization

DIPLOID HAPLOID

gametes (sperm) microspores (mitosis) male gametes gametophyte megaspores (eggs) (mitosis) female gametophyte

Gametophyte - haploid gamete-producing body that forms during plant life

Reproductive Structures of Flowering Plants

Components of Flowers (fertile parts) : Male parts, called stamens, are located inside the corolla - often the stamen consists of a slender stalk (filament) capped with an anther. - the anthers are internally divided into pollen sacs in which pollen grains develop (male gametophytes).
petal (all petals combined are the flowers corolla) sepal (all sepals

STAMEN (male reproductive part) filament anther

combined are the flowers calyx)

receptacle

A New Generation Begins

pollen sac

From Microspores to Pollen Grains In anthers, each diploid mother cell divides by meiosis to form 4 haploid microspores. Each haploid microspore will develop an elaborate wall and will divide by mitosis becoming a pollen grain One cell in each pollen grain will produce the sperm; the other will form the pollen tube.

Anther (cutaway view) filament

one of the microspore mother cells inside a pollen sac

Meiosis

Diploid Stage Haploid Stage

pollen tube sperm nuclei mature male gametophyte

stigma style

Pollen Sets Me Sneezing - Focus on Environment

Allergic rhinitis - hypersensitivity to a normally harmless substance; while blood cells respond by mounting an immune response against some of the proteins that project from the surface of pollen grain walls.runny nose, reddened and itchy eyelids, congestion, sneezing

STAMEN (male reproductive part)

CARPEL (female reproductive part)

filament

anther

stigma

style

ovary

PETAL (all petals combined are the flowers corolla)

OVULE (forms within ovary)

SEPAL (all sepals combined are the flowers calyx) receptacle

an ovule
seedling (2n)
cell integument

seed

seed coat embryo (2n) endosperm (3n) Double Fertilization

ovary wall Diploid Stage Haploid Stage

stalk

ovary (cutaway view)

Meiosis

pollen tube Endosperm mother cell (n + n)

egg (n)
The pollen tube grows through the ovarys tissues, then penetrates the ovule & releases its 2 sperm. One sperm fertilizes the egg. The other will fertilize the endosperm mother cell.

embryo sac inside ovule

integuments

Cytoplasmic division results in a seven-celled embryo sac (the mature female gametophyte). Six of those cells have a single nucleus, but one cell has two nuclei (2n).

Pollen Transfer in Flowering Plants

Most flowering plants rely on an outside force to transfer pollen from the male parent to the female parent. A pollinator is any agent that transfers pollen from male to female reproductive parts of flowers of the same plant species. Pollinators include:
Wind Water Insects (moth, butterfly, fly, bees, beetles) Bats Birds and other animals

Sugar Maple

OK, then why do large, colorful flowers exist?

Windpollinated Flowers No Petals ?????? Anthers

Stigmas Petals

Wild Rose

OK, then why do large, colorful flowers exist?

Bribery i.e. Pay insects and other pollinators with nectar so they visit flowers and transfer pollen

Bee on Aster

Butterfly on Henbit

Coevolution
The Hummingbirds long narrow bill coevolved with long, narrow floral tubes.

Ultraviolet Light How we see it How bees see it

Angiosperm Flower Structure

A New Generation Begins

pollen sac

From Microspores to Pollen Grains In anthers, each diploid mother cell divides by meiosis to form 4 haploid microspores. Each haploid microspore will develop an elaborate wall and will divide by mitosis becoming a pollen grain One cell in each pollen grain will produce the sperm; the other will form the pollen tube.

Anther (cutaway view) filament

one of the microspore mother cells inside a pollen sac

Meiosis

Diploid Stage Haploid Stage

pollen tube sperm nuclei mature male gametophyte

stigma style

Angiosperm Flower Structure

an ovule
seedling (2n)
cell integument

seed

seed coat embryo (2n) endosperm (3n) Double Fertilization

ovary wall Diploid Stage Haploid Stage

stalk

ovary (cutaway view)

Meiosis

pollen tube Endosperm mother cell (n + n)

egg (n)
The pollen tube grows through the ovarys tissues, then penetrates the ovule & releases its 2 sperm. One sperm fertilizes the egg. The other will fertilize the endosperm mother cell.

embryo sac inside ovule

integuments

Cytoplasmic division results in a seven-celled embryo sac (the mature female gametophyte). Six of those cells have a single nucleus, but one cell has two nuclei (2n).

From Zygote to Seeds and Fruits

Formation of the Embryo Sporophyte Zygote undergoes repeated division to form an embryo sporophyte. Embryo sporophyte develops as part of an ovule and is accompanied by formation of a fruit. (Fruit = mature ovary) Cotyldons (seed leaves) develop for the purpose of utilizing the endosperm during germination. Cotyledons form as part of the embryo, embryo absorb nutrients from the endosperm and stores them inside the cotyledons.
EMBRYO SPOROPHYTE cotyledon

endosperm

Nutrients in Female Parent Ovary Ovule Wall Endosperm Cotyledon(s)

Body of Embryo

EMBRYO SPOROPHYTE

cotyledon

mature embryo within ovule

A fruit (mature ovary) cut open to show seeds (mature ovules).

endosperm

Seed and Fruit Formation From Zygote to embryo, the plant supplies nutrition until the time when the connection b/w the ovule and ovary wall is broken. Mature ovules integuments thicken into a seed coat. The embryo, food reserves and coat are a self-contained package the seed! Seed is a mature ovule. A fruit is a mature ovary with seeds (ovules) inside
ovule Seeds in ovary

wall of ovary

From Zygote to Seeds and Fruits

Fleshy Fruits have three divisions : The pericarp of a fruit consists - Endocarp (around the seed) - Mesocarp (fleshy portion) - Exocarp (skin)

fleshy fruit (from ovary tissues)

Multiple Fruits - combined from ovaries of many flowers.

seed

Simple (Fleshy Fruit) - from one ovary of one flower

one of many individual fruits

Fruit formation on an apple (Malus) tree.

remnants of sepals, petals ovary tissue seed enlarged receptacle

Accessory Fruit - most tissues of the flesh are not derived from ovary; mainly from the receptacle.
Fig. 31.8c, p. 537

receptacle

ovary

Aggregate Fruit - many ovaries of one flower, all attached to the same receptacles, many Seeds
(also, an accessory fruit , flesh derived from receptacle)

fruit wall

Strawberry (Fragaria) flower fruit wall

cotyledons Numerous fruits perched on the surface of the mature receptacle

wing

seed (in carpel)

Winged seed of maple (Acer)

Dispersal of Fruits and Seeds

Seeds have co-evolved with particular dispersing agents - currents of air or water, or animals passing by. Human are perhaps the grand dispersing agents by virtue of the long distances to which they carry seeds, by design or accident.

seed

wing

Questions?

Methods of Reproduction
Asexual reproduction
Offspring are typically genetically identical to the parent Dispersal of offspring is usually minimal (except in parthenogenesis or asexual seed production)

Sexual reproduction
Involves meiosis and fertilization, so offspring are genetically variable Seeds allow extensive dispersal and may remain viable for extended periods under unfavorable conditions

Basic Patterns of Asexual Reproduction

Budding or bud activation Fission or fragmentation Parthenogenesis or agamospermy

Asexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Asexual reproduction by bud activation (budding) can occur in a variety of modified stem structures. Like all asexual processes, the cells involved are produced by mitosis, therefore the offspring are identical to (clones of) the parent.
Runners (ex. Strawberry) new plants arise at nodes along aboveground horizontal stems. Rhizomes (ex. Bermuda grass) new plants arise at nodes of underground horizontal stems. Corms (ex. Gladioulus) new plants arise from axillary buds on short, thick, vertical underground stems Tubers (ex. Potato) new shoots arise from axillary buds on tubers, which are the enlarged tips of slender underground rhizomes Bulbs (ex. Onion, lily) new bulbs arise from axillary buds on short underground stems

Asexual Reproduction of Flowering Plants

Parthenogenesis results in embryo development from an unfertilized egg Vegetative Propagation (cuttings) can result in new plants produced from leaves or stems that form roots. This can occur naturally (fragmentation) or artificially (cuttings) Tissue Culture propagation can result in whole plants produced from a group of cells. (ex. Orchid, lily, wheat, rice, corn)

How to make a plant

Create a body axis with a shoot apex at one end and a root apex at the other end Activate the apices to form the adult plant parts

How to make a plant

Shoot Apex Shoot Apex Stem Leaves Lateral Buds Root Apex Root Lateral Roots

Root Apex

activity at meristems

Meristems
Meristems are localized regions of dividing cells. Two kinds of meristems: (1) Apical Meristems at the tips of roots and stems is responsible for Primary Growth. Descendants of these cells will develop into the specialized tissues of the elongating root and stem.

new cells elongate & start to differentiate into primary tissues

new cells elongate & start to differentiate into primary tissues activity at meristems

Meristems
(2) Lateral Meristem tissues are responsible for the increase in diameter of older roots and stems. Vascular cambium and cork cambium are the 2 kinds of lateral meristems. These are responsible for Secondary Growth which adds to the diameter of woody parts of trees.
vascular cambrium cork cambrium
secondary phloem secondary xylem

thickening

VASCULAR CYLINDER: endodermis pericycle xylem phloem cortex epidermis

Vessels have now matured; root hairs and the vascular cylinder are about to form

fully grown root hair

The oldest cells are farthest from apical meristem. Root cap protects the meristem

Cells elongate; sieve tubes of phloem form and mature; xylems vessel members start to form Most cells have stopped developing Cells are dividing rapidly at apical and primary meristems Quiescent center (no cell division)

root cap

Lateral or Branch Root Formation

Angiosperm Body Structure

Taproot system of a California poppy

Fibrous root system of a grass plant

Successive Stages of Primary Growth:

Shoot Apical Meristem Zone for primary growth
Protoderm ground meristem

Immature leaf

shoot apical meristem

Lateral bud forming

epidermis cortex procambrium

Apical meristem gives rise to protoderm, ground meristem, and procambium which mature into epidermis, ground tissue and vascular tissue

pith

primary xylem

primary pholem

lateral bud

terminal bud

primary xylem

primary phloem

lateral shoot (aka branch)

VASCULAR CAMBIUM

secondary xylem secondary phloem Twig from a walnut tree (Juglans) in winter, after its leaves dropped

lateral shoot (aka branch)

Patterns of Early Growth and Development

Seed Germination Germination is the resumption of growth after a time of arrested embryonic development (dormancy) Environmental factors influence germination: - spring rains provide the water necessary to swell and rupture the seed coat. - Once the seed coat splits, Oxygen moves in and allows the embryo to switch to aerobic metabolism -Increased temperature & # of daylight hours are also influential -many seeds will only germinate after they have been exposed to cold temperatures Repeated Cell division produce a seedling with a primary root. (The root meristem is the first to be activated)

Plant Growth and Development

Growth vs Development Growth is defined as an increase in the #, size and volume of cells Development is the emergence of specialized, morphologically different body parts. - cells divide in certain planes and enlarge in certain directions, resulting in plant parts with specific shapes and functions - different cell types express different genes, resulting in different structural and functional phenotypes

seed coat

coleoptile

first foliage leaf primary root branch root primary root primary root prop roots that form on corn seedlings and that afford additional support for the rapidly growing stem first internode of stem adventitious root branch root

first foliage leaf

coleoptile

one foliage leaf (this type is divided into three leaflets) primary leaf seed coat primary leaf cotyledons (two) primary root hypocotyl withered cotyledon point at which cotyledons were attached

branch roots primary root

root nodules

central vacuole

Meristems of root and shoot apices provide new cells for growth.
nucleus

Each small new cell doubles in size, then divides. One daughter cell remains meristematic; the other differentiates into a specialized cell.

primary wall

The cytoskeleton of the cell, especially the microtubules, controls cell wall fiber orientation which in turn determines direction(s) of cell expansion during cell enlargement or elongation

a Growth proceeds in all directions.

b Growth in longitudinal direction only.

c Cellulose rings thicken the secondary wall of this tracheid, a conducting tube of xylem.

Hormonal Effects on Plant Growth and Development

Plant Hormones selectively regulate gene expression, resulting in altered cellular differentiation and growth. At least 5 different classes of hormones have been shown to have major developmental effects in flowering plants. Gibberellins Auxins Cytokinins Ethylene Abscisic acid

GibberellinsPromote Stem Elongation Contribute to flowering Help end dormancy of seeds and buds

Grapes stems lengthen, which improved air circulation around grapes and gave them more room to grow. Bigger Grapes!

Auxins
Stimulate the lengthening of stems and coleoptiles Participate in growth responses to light & gravity Promote root development and growth Indoleacetic Acid (IAA) is applied to fruit trees to Promote uniform flowering Prevent premature fruit drop Set the fruit and encourage synchronous fruit development
untreated Synthetic auxins (2,4-D) are used as

treated with auxin

herbicides

Hormonal Effects on Plant Growth and Development

Cytokinins - used commercially to prolong the life of stored vegetables & cut flowers - stimulate cell division in root and shoot meristems, where they are most abundant Ethylene -stimulates the ripening of fruit and is used commercially Abscisic Acid (ABA) - growers often apply to nursery stock before shipping - inhibits cell growth - promotes seed and bud dormancy; - helps prevent water loss by promoting stomata closure Other less well known hormones trigger flowering and inhibit the growth of lateral buds (apical dominance).

statoliths

Normal Orientation

Cells turned sideways. Statolith redistribute themselves.

Statoliths collect near the bottom of root cells in response to the tug of gravity. Redistribution of the statoliths may trigger redistribution of auxin and therefore trigger the gravitropic response

Gravitropism + Phototropism

Do not post on Internet

Rays of sunlight strike one side of a coleoptile.

The coleoptile bends after auxin diffuses down from its tip to cells on its shaded side.

a Rays from sun strike on side of a coleoptile.

b The coleoptile bends after auxin diffuses down from tip to cells on its shaded side.

Auxin moves from the tip of a coleoptile into cells less exposed to light and makes them elongate faster than cells on the illuminated side. The differences in their growth rates brings about the bending toward light.

Adjustments in the rate and direction of growth

Thigmotropism is a shift in growth triggered by physical contact with surrounding objects. Response is prevalent in climbing vines & in tendrils that support some plants. Auxin and ethylene may have roles in this response.

Thigmotropism-Response to physical contact

Responses to Mechanical Stress

Responses to the mechanical stress of strong winds explain why plants grown at higher mountain elevations are more stubby than their counterparts at lower elevations. Human intervention such as shaking can inhibit plant growth. Response to Mechanical Stress

Biological Clocks and Their Effects

Rhythmic Leaf Movements (1) Some plant activities occur regularly in cycles of 24 hr (Circadian rhythms) even when environmental conditions remain constant. (2) Example - leaves may fold to a sleep position after sunset - and will do this even if kept in artificial light.

1 A.M.

6 A.M.

NOON

3 P.M.

10 P.M.

MIDNIGHT

Flowering - A Case of Photoperiodism

Photoperiodism is any biological response to change in relative length of daylight and darkness in a 24 hr cycle. (this re-setting of the biological clocks is necessary to make seasonal adjustment). The flowering process is keyed to changes in daylength throughout the year. - Short-day plants - flower in late summer or early autumn when daylength becomes shorter (ex. Poinsettia) - Long-day plants - flower in the spring as daylength becomes longer - Day-neutral plants - flower when they are mature enough to do so.

long day

short night

short day

long night

pulse of white light

pulse of red light

10 minutes of far-red light follows pulse of red light

Biological Clocks and Their Effects

Biological Clocks are internal time-measuring mechanisms that adjust to daily & seasonal patterns of growth, development & reproduction. (1) Phytochrome, a blue-green pigment, is part of a switching mechanism that promotes or inhibits growth in response to the wavelength of light. (2) Phytochrome can absorb both red & far-red wavelengths with different results. - the pigment is converted to an active form (Pfr) at sunrise (when red light dominates) and to an inactive form (Pr) (when far-red light dominates) - this cycle induces various biological responses.
red light

Pr
(inactive)
far-red light

Pfr
(active)

response
Growth of plant part is promoted or inhibited.

Pfr reverts to Pr in the dark.

Senescence The dropping of leaves, flowers, fruits and so on is called abscission. (the abscission zone is composed of thinwalled parenchyma cells at the base of a petiole or other plant part) Senescence is the sum total of the processes leading to the death of plant parts or the whole plant. - the recurring cue for senescence is a decrease in daylength that triggers a decrease in auxin production. (other cues include drought, wounds and nutrient deficiencies) - cell in abscission zones produce ethylene which causes cells to deposit suberin in their walls. - simultaneously, enzymes digest cellulose and pectin in the middle lamella to weaken the abscission zone

tissues of stem

cells of abscission zone

control (pods not removed

experimental plant (pods removed)

Note: if you interrupt the diversion of nutrients into flower, seeds or fruits, you can prevent senescence in a plant. Example- remove each new flower or seed pod from a plant, its leaves and stems will remain vigorous and green much longer.

Entering Dormancy Dormancy is when metabolic activities idle. Dormancy occurs in Autumn when daylength shortens and growth stops in many trees and non-woody perennials; it will not resume until spring. Strong cues for dormancy include: Short Days, Cool Nights and Dry, Nitrogen-deficient soil Dormancy has great adaptive value in preventing plant growth on occasional warm autumn days only to be killed by later frost.

Vernalization Vernalization is the stimulation of flowering only after plants (either adults or seeds) have been exposed to low temperatures (winter) Deliberately exposing seeds to low temperature to stimulate flowering the next season is common agricultural practice. Breaking Dormancy Dormancy is broken by milder temperatures, rains and nutrients It probably involves gibberellin and abscisic acid, and frequentlyrequires exposure to specific periods of low temperature.

Questions?