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Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

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Thermodynamics and Energy

Thermodynamics is the science that primarily deals with energy. Energy can viewed as the capacity to cause change. The study of thermodynamics is concerned with the ways energy is stored within a body and how energy transformations, which involve heat and work, may take place. One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the conservation of energy principle . The first law of thermodynamics simply states that during an energy interaction, energy can change from one form to another but the total amount of energy remains constant. Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only change forms. It asserts that energy is a thermodynamic property

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The macroscopic approach to thermodynamics does not require acknowledge of the behavior of individual particles and is called classical thermodynamics.
It provides a direct and easy way to obtain the solution of engineering problems without being overly cumbersome.

A more elaborate approach, based on the average behavior of large groups of individual particles, is called statistical thermodynamics

This microscopic approach is rather involved and is not reviewed here and leads to the definition of the second law of thermodynamics.

The second law of thermodynamics asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity, and actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of energy.

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Application Areas of Thermodynamics

The human body

Air-conditioning systems

Airplanes

Car radiators

Power plants

Refrigeration systems

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Dimensions and Units

Dimensions can characterize any physical quantity.

Primary (or fundamental) dimensions: mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T. Second dimensions, which can be expressed in terms of the primary dimensions: velocity V (L/t), volume (L3), density (M/L3),

Any magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units. Unit Systems:
English system (United States Customary System, USCS) International system (SI)

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Fundamental dimensions and their units

Dimension Length Mass Time Temperature Electrical current Amount of light Amount of matter SI Unit meter (m) English Unit foot (ft) 1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 lbm =0.45359 kg

kilogram (kg) pound-mass (lbm) second (s) Kelvin (K) ampere (A) candela (c) mole (mole) second (s) Rankine (R)

T(R) = 1.8T(K)

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Standard prefixes in SI Units

Multiples 1012 109 106 103 102 101 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 Prefix tera, T giga, G mega, M kilo, k hecto, h deka, da deci, d centi, c milli, m micro, nano, n pico, p

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Force
Force is a derived unit from Newton's second law. Force = (mass)(acceleration) or F = ma
1 N (newton) = 1 kg m/s2 l lbf (pound-force) = 32.174 lbmft/s2

The term weight is often misused to express mass. Unlike mass, weight W is a force.
W = mg
m is the mass of the body and g is the local gravitational acceleration (g is 9.807 m/s2 or 32.174 ft/s2 at sea level and 450 latitude.

Specific weight w = W/ = g
is the volume of the body.

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Work
Work is defined as force times distance. 1 J (Joule) = 1 Nm 1 kJ(kilojoule) = 103 J

(A more common unit for energy in SI)

In the English system, the energy unit is the Btu (British thermal unit), which is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water at 68 0F by 1 0F. In the meter system, the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water at 150C by 10C is defined as 1 calorie (cal). 1 cal = 4.1868 J 1 Btu = 1.055 kJ
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Closed, Open, and Isolated Systems

Thermodynamic system, or simply system, is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. The region outside the system is called the surroundings.
Surroundings are physical space outside the system boundary.

The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the boundary.
The boundary of a system may be fixed or movable.

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Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study. A closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass and no mass may cross the system boundary. The closed system boundary may move. Examples of closed systems are sealed tanks and piston cylinder devices (note the volume does not have to be fixed). However, energy in the form of heat and work may cross the boundaries of a closed system.

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An open system, or control volume, has mass as well as energy crossing the boundary, called a control surface.
Examples of open systems are pumps, compressors, turbines, valves, and heat exchangers.

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An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass where no heat or work may cross the boundaries. An isolated system is a closed system with no energy crossing the boundaries and is normally a collection of a main system and its surroundings that are exchanging mass and energy among themselves and no other system.
Isolated System Boundary

Heat = 0 Work = 0 Mass = 0 Across Isolated Boundary

Work Mass
System

Surr 4 Surr 3

Surr 1 Heat Surr 2

Mass

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Energy
Consider the system shown below moving with a velocity, at an elevation, Z, relative to the reference plane.

General System

CM

s V

Reference Plane, Z=0

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The total energy, E, of a system is the sum of all forms of energy that can exist within the system such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical and nuclear. The total energy of the system is normally thought of as the sum of the internal energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy.
The internal energy, U, is that energy associated with the molecular structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity. The kinetic energy, KE, exists as a result of the system's motion relative to an external reference frame. When the system moves with velocity, , the kinetic energy is expressed as
m V 2
2

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The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational field relative to the external reference frame is called potential energy, PE, and is expressed as

PE = mgz

(KJ)

g is the gravitational acceleration and z is the elevation of the center of gravity of a system relative to the reference frame.

The total energy of the system is expressed as

E = U + KE + PE
or, on a unit mass basis,

( kJ )
( kJ ) kg

e=

e = E/m is the specific stored energy, and u = U/m is the specific internal energy
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E U KE PE = + + m m m m r2 V = u+ + gZ 2

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The change in stored energy of a system is given by

E = U + KE + PE

( kJ )

Most closed systems remain stationary during a process and, thus, experience no change in their kinetic and potential energies.
The change in the stored energy is identical to the change in internal energy for stationary systems.

If KE = PE = 0,

E = U

( kJ )

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Property
Any characteristic of a system in equilibrium is called a property. The property is independent of the path used to arrive at the system condition. Some thermodynamic properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m. Properties may be intensive or extensive. Extensive properties are those that vary directly with size---or extent---of the system.
Some Extensive Properties
mass volume total energy mass dependent property

Intensive properties are those that are independent of size.

Some Intensive Properties
temperature Pressure age Color any mass independent property

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Extensive properties per unit mass are intensive properties. Specific volume v defined as

Density defined as

volume V = = mass m mass m = = volume V

( m 3 / kg ) (kg/m 3 )
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Pressure
Force per unit area is called pressure, and its unit is the Pascal, N/m2 in the SI system and psia, lbf/in2 absolute, in the English system.

P=

Force F = Area A

N m2 N 1 MPa = 106 2 = 103 kPa m 1 kPa = 103

The pressure used in all calculations of state is the absolute pressure measured relative to absolute zero pressure. However, pressures are often measured relative to atmospheric pressure called gage or vacuum pressures. In the English system the absolute pressure and gage pressures are distinguished by their units, psia (pounds force per square inch absolute) and psig (pounds force per square inch gage), respectively; however, the SI system makes no distinction between absolute and gage pressures. Mechanical Engineering

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Pgage = Pabs Patm

Pvac = Patm Pabs

Pabs = Patm Pgage

Where the +Pgage is used when Pabs > Patm and Pgage is used for a vacuum gage.

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The relation among atmospheric, gage, and vacuum pressures

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Example

A vacuum gage connected to a tank reads 30 kPa at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 98 kPa. What is the absolute pressure in the tank?

Pabs = Patm Pgage = 98 kPa 30 kPa = 68 kPa

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Example
A pressure gage connected to a valve stem of a truck tire reads 240 kPa at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. What is the absolute pressure in the tire, in kPa and in psia?

Pabs = Patm Pgage

= 100 kPa + 240 kPa = 340 kPa

The pressure in psia is

Pabs

14.7 psia = 340 kPa = 49.3 psia 101.3 kPa

What is the gage pressure of the air in the tire, in psig?

Pgage = Pabs Patm = 49.3 psia 14.7 psia = 34.6 psig

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Manometer
Small to moderate pressure differences are measured by a manometer and a differential fluid column of height h corresponds to a pressure difference of

is the fluid density and g is the local gravitational acceleration

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Example
Both a gage and a manometer are attached to a gas tank to measure its pressure. If the pressure gage reads 80 kPa, determine the distance between the two fluid levels of the manometer if the fluid is mercury whose density is 13,600 kg/m3.

P h= g
103 N / m3 80 kPa kPa h= 1N kg m 13600 3 9.807 2 m s kg m / s2 = 0.6 m

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Bourdon tubes used to measure pressure

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Temperature

Temperature is a thermodynamic property that is the measure of the energy content of a mass.
When heat energy is transferred to a body, the body's energy content increases and so does its temperature. In fact it is the difference in temperature that causes energy, called heat transfer, to flow from a hot body to a cold body.

Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium when they have reached the same temperature. Zeroth law of thermodynamics
If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

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State
Consider a system that is not undergoing any change. The properties can be measured or calculated throughout the entire system. This gives us a set of properties that completely describe the condition or state of the system. At a given state all of the properties are known; changing one property changes the state.

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Equilibrium
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it maintains thermal (uniform temperature), mechanical (uniform pressure), phase (the mass of two phases, e.g. ice and liquid water, in equilibrium) and chemical equilibrium.

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Process

Any change from one state to another is called a process. During a quasi-equilibrium or quasi-static process the system remains practically in equilibrium at all times.

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Quasi-Equilibrium, Work-Producing Devices Deliver the Most Work

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In some processes one thermodynamic property is held constant Process isobaric isothermal isochoric isentropic Property held constant pressure temperature volume entropy
System Boundary

F Wate r Constant Pressure Process

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State Postulate
The number of properties required to fix the state of a simple, homogeneous system is given by the state postulate. The thermodynamic state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent intensive properties.

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Cycle
A process (or a series of connected processes) with identical end states is called a cycle. Below is a cycle composed of two processes, A and B. Along process A, the pressure and volume change from state 1 to state 2. Then to complete the cycle, the pressure and volume change from state 2 back to the initial state 1 along process B. Keep in mind that all other thermodynamic properties must also change so that the pressure is functions of volume as described by these two processes.
P 2
Process B Process A

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Many Ways to Supply the Same Energy

Ways to supply a room with energy equaling a 300-W electric resistance heater

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Bomb Calorimeter Used to Determine Energy Content of Food

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1-2 1-9 1-19 1-25 1-53 1-72 1-83 1-144

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