Genius Manual

Ji r Lebl
University of Wisconsin-Madison [email protected]

Kai Willadsen
University of Queensland, Australia [email protected]

Genius Manual by Ji r Lebl and Kai Willadsen Copyright 1997-2012 Ji r (George) Lebl Copyright 2004 Kai Willadsen Manual for the Genius Math Tool.

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), Version 1.1 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. You can nd a copy of the GFDL at this link1 or in the le COPYING-DOCS distributed with this manual. This manual is part of a collection of GNOME manuals distributed under the GFDL. If you want to distribute this manual separately from the collection, you can do so by adding a copy of the license to the manual, as described in section 6 of the license. Many of the names used by companies to distinguish their products and services are claimed as trademarks. Where those names appear in any GNOME documentation, and the members of the GNOME Documentation Project are made aware of those trademarks, then the names are in capital letters or initial capital letters. DOCUMENT AND MODIFIED VERSIONS OF THE DOCUMENT ARE PROVIDED UNDER THE TERMS OF THE GNU FREE DOCUMENTATION LICENSE WITH THE FURTHER UNDERSTANDING THAT: 1. DOCUMENT IS PROVIDED ON AN "AS IS" BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES THAT THE DOCUMENT OR MODIFIED VERSION OF THE DOCUMENT IS FREE OF DEFECTS MERCHANTABLE, FIT FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR NON-INFRINGING. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY, ACCURACY, AND PERFORMANCE OF THE DOCUMENT OR MODIFIED VERSION OF THE DOCUMENT IS WITH YOU. SHOULD ANY DOCUMENT OR MODIFIED VERSION PROVE DEFECTIVE IN ANY RESPECT, YOU (NOT THE INITIAL WRITER, AUTHOR OR ANY CONTRIBUTOR) ASSUME THE COST OF ANY NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION. THIS DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY CONSTITUTES AN ESSENTIAL PART OF THIS LICENSE. NO USE OF ANY DOCUMENT OR MODIFIED VERSION OF THE DOCUMENT IS AUTHORIZED HEREUNDER EXCEPT UNDER THIS DISCLAIMER; AND 2. UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES AND UNDER NO LEGAL THEORY, WHETHER IN TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE), CONTRACT, OR OTHERWISE, SHALL THE AUTHOR, INITIAL WRITER, ANY CONTRIBUTOR, OR ANY DISTRIBUTOR OF THE DOCUMENT OR MODIFIED VERSION OF THE DOCUMENT, OR ANY SUPPLIER OF ANY OF SUCH PARTIES, BE LIABLE TO ANY PERSON FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OF ANY CHARACTER INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, DAMAGES FOR LOSS OF GOODWILL, WORK STOPPAGE, COMPUTER FAILURE OR MALFUNCTION, OR ANY AND ALL OTHER DAMAGES OR LOSSES ARISING OUT OF OR RELATING TO USE OF THE DOCUMENT AND MODIFIED VERSIONS OF THE DOCUMENT, EVEN IF SUCH PARTY SHALL HAVE BEEN INFORMED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.

Feedback
To report a bug or make a suggestion regarding the Genius Mathematics Tool application or this manual, follow the directions in the GNOME Feedback Page2.

Revision History Revision 0.2 March 2012 Jiri (George) Lebl <[email protected]>

Table of Contents
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................1 2. Getting Started ..................................................................................................................3 To Start Genius Mathematics Tool ........................................................................3 When You Start Genius ...............................................................................................3 3. Basic Usage.........................................................................................................................5 Using the Work Area ...................................................................................................5 To Create a New Program ...........................................................................................5 To Open and Run a Program ......................................................................................6 4. Plotting................................................................................................................................7 Line Plots .......................................................................................................................7 Parametric Plots............................................................................................................8 Slopeeld Plots .............................................................................................................9 Vectoreld Plots............................................................................................................9 Surface Plots................................................................................................................10 5. GEL Basics........................................................................................................................11 Values ...........................................................................................................................11 Numbers ............................................................................................................11 Booleans .............................................................................................................12 Strings.................................................................................................................12 Null .....................................................................................................................13 Using Variables ...........................................................................................................13 Setting Variables................................................................................................14 Built-in Variables...............................................................................................14 Previous Result Variable..................................................................................14 Using Functions..........................................................................................................14 Dening Functions ...........................................................................................15 Variable Argument Lists ..................................................................................15 Passing Functions to Functions ......................................................................15 Operations on Functions .................................................................................16 Absolute Value / Modulus .......................................................................................16 Separator......................................................................................................................17 Modular Evaluation...................................................................................................17 List of GEL Operators................................................................................................18 6. Programming with GEL.................................................................................................23 Conditionals ................................................................................................................23 Loops............................................................................................................................23 While Loops.......................................................................................................23 For Loops ...........................................................................................................23 Foreach Loops ...................................................................................................24 Break and Continue..........................................................................................24 Sums and Products ....................................................................................................24 Comparison Operators ..............................................................................................24 Global Variables and Scope of Variables.................................................................25 Parameter variables ...................................................................................................26 Returning.....................................................................................................................27 References....................................................................................................................27 Lvalues.........................................................................................................................27 7. Advanced Programming with GEL .............................................................................29 Error Handling ...........................................................................................................29 Toplevel Syntax...........................................................................................................29 Returning Functions ..................................................................................................29 True Local Variables ...................................................................................................31 GEL Startup Procedure..............................................................................................32 Loading Programs......................................................................................................32 iii

8. Matrices in GEL...............................................................................................................33 Entering Matrices .......................................................................................................33 Conjugate Transpose and Transpose Operator......................................................33 Linear Algebra ............................................................................................................34 9. Polynomials in GEL .......................................................................................................35 Using Polynomials .....................................................................................................35 10. Set Theory in GEL ........................................................................................................37 Using Sets ....................................................................................................................37 11. List of GEL functions ...................................................................................................39 Commands ..................................................................................................................39 Basic..............................................................................................................................39 Parameters...................................................................................................................44 Constants .....................................................................................................................47 Numeric .......................................................................................................................48 Trigonometry ..............................................................................................................52 Number Theory ..........................................................................................................54 Matrix Manipulation..................................................................................................61 Linear Algebra ............................................................................................................66 Combinatorics.............................................................................................................74 Calculus .......................................................................................................................77 Functions .....................................................................................................................81 Equation Solving ........................................................................................................83 Statistics .......................................................................................................................85 Polynomials.................................................................................................................86 Set Theory....................................................................................................................87 Commutative Algebra ...............................................................................................88 Miscellaneous..............................................................................................................88 Symbolic Operations..................................................................................................89 Plotting.........................................................................................................................89 12. Example Programs in GEL ..........................................................................................99 13. Settings .........................................................................................................................101 Output........................................................................................................................101 Precision.....................................................................................................................102 Terminal .....................................................................................................................102 Memory .....................................................................................................................103 14. About Genius Mathematics Tool ..........................................................................105

iv

Chapter 1. Introduction
The Genius Mathematics Tool application is a general calculator for use as a desktop calculator, an educational tool in mathematics, and is useful even for research. The language used in Genius Mathematics Tool is designed to be mathematical in the sense that it should be what you mean is what you get. Of course that is not an entirely attainable goal. Genius Mathematics Tool features rationals, arbitrary precision integers and multiple precision oats using the GMP library. It handles complex numbers using cartesian notation. It has good vector and matrix manipulation and can handle basic linear algebra. The programming language allows user dened functions, variables and modication of parameters.
Genius Mathematics Tool comes in two versions. One version is the graphical

GNOME version, which features an IDE style interface and the ability to plot functions of one or two variables. The command line version does not require GNOME, but of course does not implement any feature that requires the graphical interface. This manual describes mostly the graphical version of the calculator, but the language is of course the same. The command line only version lacks the graphing capabilities and all other capabilities that require the graphical user interface.

Chapter 1. Introduction

Chapter 2. Getting Started

To Start Genius Mathematics Tool
You can start Genius Mathematics Tool in the following ways: Applications menu Depending on your operating system and version, the menu item for Genius Mathematics Tool could appear in a number of different places. It can be in the Education, Accessories, Ofce, Science, or similar submenu, depending on your particular setup. The menu item name you are looking for is Genius Math Tool. Once you locate this menu item click on it to start Genius Mathematics Tool. Run dialog Depending on your system installation the menu item may not be available. If it is not, you can open the Run dialog and execute gnome-genius. Command line To start the GNOME version of Genius Mathematics Tool execute gnomegenius from the command line. To start the command line only version, execute the following command: genius. This version does not include the graphical environment and some functionality such as plotting will not be available.

When You Start Genius

When you start the GNOME edition of Genius Mathematics Tool, the window pictured in Figure 2-1 is displayed.

Figure 2-1. Genius Mathematics Tool Window The Genius Mathematics Tool window contains the following elements:

Chapter 2. Getting Started Menubar. The menus on the menubar contain all of the commands that you need to work with les in Genius Mathematics Tool. The File menu contains items for loading and saving items and creating new programs. The Load and Run... command does not open a new window for the program, but just executes the program directly. It is equivalent to the load command. The Calculator menu controls the calculator engine. It allows you to run the currently selected program or to interrupt the current calculation. You can also look at the full expression of the last answer (useful if the last answer was too large to t onto the console), or you can view a listing of the values of all user dened variables. Finally it allows plotting functions using a user friendly dialog box. The other menus have same familiar functions as in other applications. Toolbar. The toolbar contains a subset of the commands that you can access from the menubar. Working area The working area is the primary method of interacting with the application. The working area initially has just the Console tab which is the main way of interacting with the calculator. Here you type expressions and the results are immediately returned after you hit the Enter key. Alternatively you can write longer programs and those can appear in separate tabs and can be stored in les for later retrieval.

Chapter 3. Basic Usage

Using the Work Area
Normally you interact with the calculator in the Console tab of the work area. If you are running the text only version then the console will be the only thing that is available to you. If you want to use Genius Mathematics Tool as a calculator only, just type in your expression here and it will be evaluated. Type your expression into the Console work area and press enter and the expression will be evaluated. Expressions are written in a language called GEL. The most simple GEL expression just looks like mathematics. For example
genius> 30*70 + 67^3.0 + ln(7) * (88.8/100)

or
genius> 62734 + 812634 + 77^4 mod 5

or
genius> | sin(37) - e^7 |

or
genius> sum n=1 to 70 do 1/n

(Last is the harmonic sum from 1 to 70) To get a list of functions and commands, type:
genius> help

If you wish to get more help on a specic function, type:

genius> help FunctionName

To view this manual, type:

genius> manual

Suppose you have previously saved some GEL commands as a program to a le and you now want to execute them. To load this program from the le path/to/program.gel, type
genius> load path/to/program.gel

Genius Mathematics Tool keeps track of the current directory. To list les in the current directory type ls, to change directory do cd directory as in the unix com-

mand shell.

To Create a New Program

To start writing a new program, choose FileNew Program. A new tab will appear in the work area. You can write a GEL program in this work area. Once you have written your program you can run it by CalculatorRun. This will execute your program and will display any output on the Console tab. Executing a program is equivalent of taking the text of the program and typing it into the console. The only difference is that this input is done independent of the console and just the output 5

Chapter 3. Basic Usage goes onto the console. CalculatorRun will always run the currently selected program even if you are on the Console tab. The currently selected program has its tab in bold type. To select a program, just click on its tab. To save the program youve just written, choose FileSave As...

To Open and Run a Program

To open a le, choose FileOpen. A new tab containing the le will appear in the work area. You can use this to edit the le. To run a program from a le, choose FileLoad and Run.... This will run the program without opening it in a separate tab. This is equivalent to the load command.

Chapter 4. Plotting
Plotting support is only available in the graphical GNOME version. All plotting accessible from the graphical interface is available from the Create Plot window. You can access this window by either clicking on the Plot button on the toolbar or selecting Plot from the Calculator menu. You can also access the plotting functionality by using the plotting functions of the GEL language. See Chapter 5 to nd out how to enter expressions that Genius understands.

Line Plots
To graph real valued functions of one variable open the Create Plot window. You can also use the LinePlot function on the command line (see its documentation). Once you click the Plot button, a window opens up with some notebooks in it. You want to be in the Function line plot notebook tab, and inside you want to be on the Functions / Expressions notebook tab. See Figure 4-1.

Figure 4-1. Create Plot Window Into the text boxes just type in expressions where x is the independent variable. You can also just give names of functions such as cos rather then having to type cos(x). You can graph up to ten functions. If you make a mistake and Genius cannot parse the input it will signify this with a warning icon on the right of the text input box where the error occurred, as well as giving you an error dialog. You can change the ranges of the dependent and independent variables in the bottom part of the dialog. Pressing the Plot button produces the graph shown in Figure 4-2.

Chapter 4. Plotting

Figure 4-2. Plot Window From here you can print out the plot, create encapsulated postscript or a PNG version of the plot or change the zoom. If the dependent axis was not set correctly you can have Genius t it by nding out the extrema of the graphed functions. For plotting using the command line see the documentation of the LinePlot function.

Parametric Plots
In the create plot window, you can also choose the Parametric notebook tab to create two dimensional parametric plots. This way you can plot a single parametric function. You can either specify the points as x and y, or giving a single complex number. See Figure 4-3.

Figure 4-3. Parametric Plot Tab An example of a parametric plot is given in Figure 4-4. Similar operations can be done on such graphs as can be done on the other line plots. For plotting 8

Chapter 4. Plotting using the command line see the documentation of the LinePlotParametric or LinePlotCParametric function.

Figure 4-4. Parametric Plot

Slopeeld Plots
In the create plot window, you can also choose the Slope eld notebook tab to create a two dimensional slope eld plot. Similar operations can be done on such graphs as can be done on the other line plots. For plotting using the command line see the documentation of the SlopefieldPlot function. When a slope eld is active, there is an extra Solver menu available, through which you can bring up the solver dialog. Here you can have Genius plot specic solutions for the given initial conditions. You can either specify initial conditions in the dialog, or you can click on the plot directly to specify the initial point. While the solver dialog is active, the zooming by clicking and dragging does not work. You have to close the dialog rst if you want to zoom using the mouse. The solver uses the standard Runge-Kutta method. The plots will stay on the screen until cleared. The solver will stop whenever it reaches the boundary of the plot window. Zooming does not change the limits or parameters of the solutions, you will have to clear and redraw them with appropriate parameters. You can also use the SlopefieldDrawSolution function to draw solutions from the command line or programs.

Vectoreld Plots
In the create plot window, you can also choose the Vector eld notebook tab to create a two dimensional vector eld plot. Similar operations can be done on such graphs as can be done on the other line plots. For plotting using the command line see the documentation of the VectorfieldPlot function. By default the direction and magnitude of the vector eld is shown. To only show direction and not the magnitude, check the appropriate checkbox to normalize the arrow lengths. When a vector eld is active, there is an extra Solver menu available, through which you can bring up the solver dialog. Here you can have Genius plot specic solutions 9

Chapter 4. Plotting for the given initial conditions. You can either specify initial conditions in the dialog, or you can click on the plot directly to specify the initial point. While the solver dialog is active, the zooming by clicking and dragging does not work. You have to close the dialog rst if you want to zoom using the mouse. The solver uses the standard Runge-Kutta method. The plots will stay on the screen until cleared. Zooming does not change the limits or parameters of the solutions, you will have to clear and redraw them with appropriate parameters. You can also use the VectorfieldDrawSolution function to draw solutions from the command line or programs.

Surface Plots
Genius can also plot surfaces. Select the Surface plot tab in the main notebook of the Create Plot window. Here you can specify a single expression which should use either x and y as real independent variables or z as a complex variable (where x is the real part of z and y is the imaginary part). For example to plot the modulus of the cosine function for complex parameters, you could enter |cos(z)|. This would be equivalent to |cos(x+1i*y)|. See Figure 4-5. For plotting using the command line see the documentation of the SurfacePlot function.

Figure 4-5. Surface Plot

10

Chapter 5. GEL Basics

GEL stands for Genius Extension Language. It is the language you use to write programs in Genius. A program in GEL is simply an expression that evaluates to a number. Genius Mathematics Tool can be used as a simple calculator, or as a powerful theoretical research tool. The syntax is meant to have as shallow of a learning curve as possible, especially for use as a calculator.

Values
Values in GEL can be numbers, Booleans or strings. Values can be used in calculations, assigned to variables and returned from functions, among other uses.

Numbers
Integers are the rst type of number in GEL. Integers are written in the normal way.
1234

Hexadecimal and octal numbers can be written using C notation. For example:
0x123ABC 01234

Or you can type numbers in an arbitrary base using <base>\<number>. Digits higher than 10 use letters in a similar way to hexadecimal. For example, a number in base 23 could be written:
23\1234ABCD

The second type of GEL number is rationals. Rationals are simply achieved by dividing two integers. So one could write:
3/4

to get three quarters. Rationals also accept mixed fraction notation. So in order to get one and three tenths you could write:
1 3/10

The next type if number is oating point. These are entered in a similar fashion to C notation. You can use E, e or @ as the exponent delimiter. Note that using the exponent delimiter gives a oat even if there is no decimal point in the number. Examples:
1.315 7.887e77 7.887e-77 .3 0.3 77e5

When Genius prints a oating point number it will always append a .0 even if the number is whole. This is to indicate that oating point numbers are taken as imprecise quantities. When a number is written in the scientic notation, it is always a oating point number and thus Genius does not print the .0.

11

Chapter 5. GEL Basics The nal type of number in gel is the complex numbers. You can enter a complex number as a sum of real and imaginary parts. To add an imaginary part, append an i. Here are examples of entering complex numbers:
1+2i 8.01i 77*e^(1.3i)

Important: When entering imaginary numbers, a number must be in front of the i. If you use i by itself, Genius will interpret this as referring to the variable i. If you need to refer to i by itself, use 1i instead. In order to use mixed fraction notation with imaginary numbers you must have the mixed fraction in parentheses. (i.e., (1 2/5)i)

Booleans
Genius also supports native Boolean values. The two Boolean constants are dened as true and false; these identiers can be used like any other variable. You can also use the identiers True, TRUE, False and FALSE as aliases for the above. At any place where a Boolean expression is expected, you can use a Boolean value or any expression that produces either a number or a Boolean. If Genius needs to evaluate a number as a Boolean it will interpret 0 as false and any other number as true. In addition, you can do arithmetic with Boolean values. For example:
( (1 + true) - false ) * true

is the same as:

( (true or true) or not false ) and true

Only addition, subtraction and multiplication are supported. If you mix numbers with Booleans in an expression then the numbers are converted to Booleans as described above. This means that, for example:
1 == true

always evaluates to true since 1 will be converted to true before being compared to true.

Strings
Like numbers and Booleans, strings in GEL can be stored as values inside variables and passed to functions. You can also concatenate a string with another value using the plus operator. For example:
a=2+3;"The result is: "+a

will create the string:

The result is: 5

You can also use C-like escape sequences such as \n,\t,\b,\a and \r. To get a \ or " into the string you can quote it with a \. For example: 12

Chapter 5. GEL Basics

"Slash: \\ Quotes: \" Tabs: \t1\t2\t3"

will make a string:

Slash: \ Quotes: " Tabs: 1 2 3

In addition, you can use the library function string to convert anything to a string. For example:
string(22)

will return
"22"

Strings can also be compared with == (equal), != (not equal) and <=> (comparison) operators

Null
There is a special value called null. No operations can be performed on it, and nothing is printed when it is returned. Therefore, null is useful when you do not want output from an expression. The value null can be obtained as an expression when you type ., the contant null or nothing. By nothing we mean that if you end an expression with a separator ;, it is equivalent to ending it with a separator followed by a null. Example:
x=5;. x=5;

Some functions return null when no value can be returned or an error happened. Also null is used as an empty vector or matrix, or an empty reference.

Using Variables
Syntax:
VariableName

Example:
genius> e

= 2.71828182846

To evaluate a variable by itself, just enter the name of the variable. This will return the value of the variable. You can use a variable anywhere you would normally use a number or string. In addition, variables are necessary when dening functions that take arguments (see the Section called Dening Functions).
Using Tab completion: You can use Tab completion to get Genius to complete variable names for you. Try typing the rst few letters of the name and pressing Tab.

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Chapter 5. GEL Basics

Variable names are case sensitive: The names of variables are case sensitive. That means that variables named hello, HELLO and Hello are all different variables.

Setting Variables
Syntax:
<identifier> = <value> <identifier> := <value>

Example:
x = 3 x := 3

To assign to a variable, use the = or := operators. These operators set the value of the variable and return the number you set, so you can do things like
a = b = 5

The = and := operators can both be used to set variables. The difference between them is that the := operator always acts as an assignment operator, whereas the = operator may be interpreted as testing for equality when used in a context where a Boolean expression is expected. For issues regarding the scope of variables, see the Section called Global Variables and Scope of Variables in Chapter 6.

Built-in Variables
GEL has a number of built-in variables, such as e, pi or GoldenRatio. These are widely used constants with a preset value, and they cannot be assigned new values. There are a number of other built-in variables. See the Section called Constants in Chapter 11 for a full list.

Previous Result Variable

The Ans and ans variables can be used to get the result of the last expression. For example, if you had performed some calculation, to add 389 to the result you could do:
Ans+389

Using Functions
Syntax:
FunctionName(argument1, argument2, ...)

Example: 14

Chapter 5. GEL Basics

Factorial(5) cos(2*pi) gcd(921,317)

To evaluate a function, enter the name of the function, followed by the arguments (if any) to the function in parentheses. This will return the result of applying the function to its arguments. The number of arguments to the function is, of course, different for each function. There are many built-in functions, such as sin, cos and tan. You can use the help built-in function to get a list of available functions, or see Chapter 11 for a full listing.
Using Tab completion: You can use Tab completion to get Genius to complete function names for you. Try typing the rst few letters of the name and pressing Tab.

Function names are case sensitive: The names of functions are case sensitive. That means that functions named dosomething, DOSOMETHING and DoSomething are all different functions.

Dening Functions
Syntax:
function <identifier>(<comma separated arguments>) = <function body> <identifier> = (() = <function body>)

The is the backquote character, and signies an anonymous function. By setting it to a variable name you effectively dene a function. A function takes zero or more comma separated arguments, and returns the result of the function body. Dening your own functions is primarily a matter of convenience; one possible use is to have sets of functions dened in GEL les which Genius can load in order to make available. Example:
function addup(a,b,c) = a+b+c

then addup(1,4,9) yields 14

Variable Argument Lists

If you include ... after the last argument name in the function declaration, then Genius will allow any number of arguments to be passed in place of that argument. If no arguments were passed then that argument will be set to null. Otherwise, it will be a horizontal vector containing all the arguments. For example:
function f(a,b...) = b

Then f(1,2,3) yields [2,3], while f(1) yields a null.

Passing Functions to Functions

In Genius, it is possible to pass a function as an argument to another function. This can be done using either function nodes or anonymous functions.

15

Chapter 5. GEL Basics If you do not enter the parentheses after a function name, instead of being evaluated, the function will instead be returned as a function node. The function node can then be passed to another function. Example:
function f(a,b) = a(b)+1; function b(x) = x*x; f(b,2)

To pass functions which are not dened, you can use an anonymous function (see the Section called Dening Functions). That is, you want to pass a function without giving it a name. Syntax:
function(<comma separated arguments>) = <function body> (<comma separated arguments>) = <function body>

Example:
function f(a,b) = a(b)+1; f((x) = x*x,2)

This will return 5.

Operations on Functions
Some functions allow arithmetic operations, and some single argument functions such as exp or ln, to operate on the function. For example,
exp(sin*cos+4)

will return a function that takes x and returns exp(sin(x)*cos(x)+4). It is functionally equivalent to typing
(x) = exp(sin(x)*cos(x)+4)

This operation can be useful when quickly dening functions. For example to create a function called f to perform the above operation, you can just type:
f = exp(sin*cos+4)

It can also be used in plotting. For example, to plot sin squared you can enter:
LinePlot(sin^2)

Warning
Not all functions can be used in this way. For example, when you use a binary operation the functions must take the same number of arguments.

Absolute Value / Modulus

You can make an absolute value of something by putting the |s around it. For example:
|a-b|

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Chapter 5. GEL Basics

In case the expression is a complex number the result will be the modulus (distance from the origin). For example: |3 * e^(1i*pi)| returns 3.

Separator
In GEL if you want to type more than one command you have to use the ; operator, which is a way to separate expressions, such a combined expression will return whatever is the result of the last one, so suppose you type the following:
3 ; 5

This expression will yield 5. This will require some parenthesizing to make it unambiguous sometimes, especially if the ; is not the top most primitive. This slightly differs from other programming languages where the ; is a terminator of statements, whereas in GEL its actually a binary operator. If you are familiar with pascal this should be second nature. However genius can let you pretend it is a terminator somewhat, if a ; is found at the end of a parenthesis or a block, genius will itself append a null node to it as if you would have written ;null. This is useful in case you do not want to return a value from say a loop, or if you handle the return differently. Note that it will slightly slow down the code if it is executed too often as there is one more operator involved.

Modular Evaluation
Genius implements modular arithmetic. To use it you just add "mod <integer>" after the expression. Example:
2^(5!) * 3^(6!) mod 5

It could be possible to do modular arithmetic by computing with integers and then modding in the end with the % operator, but that may be time consuming if not impossible when working with larger numbers. For example 10^(10^10) % 6 will simply not work (the exponent will be too large), while 10^(10^10) mod 6 is instanteneous. You can calculate the inverses of numbers mod some integer by just using rational numbers (of course the inverse has to exist). Examples:
10^-1 mod 101 1/10 mod 101

You can also do modular evaluation with matrices including taking inverses, powers and dividing. Example:
A = [1,2;3,4] B = A^-1 mod 5 A*B mod 5

This should yield the identity matrix as B will be the inverse of A mod 5. Some functions such as sqrt or log work in a different way when in modulo mode. These will then work like their discrete versions working within the ring of integers you selected. For example:
genius> sqrt(4) mod 7 = [2, 5] genius> 2*2 mod 7

17

Chapter 5. GEL Basics

= 4 sqrt will actually return all the possible square roots.

List of GEL Operators

Everything in gel is really just an expression. Expressions are stringed together with different operators. As we have seen, even the separator is simply a binary operator in GEL. Here is a list of the operators in GEL.
a;b

The separator, just evaluates both a and b, but returns only the result of b.
a=b

The assignment operator. This assigns b to a (a must be a valid lvalue) (note however that this operator may be translated to == if used in a place where boolean expression is expected)
a:=b

The assignment operator. Assigns b to a (a must be a valid lvalue). This is different from = because it never gets translated to a ==.
|a|

Absolute value or modulus (if a is a complex number). See Mathworld1 for more information.
a^b

Exponentiation, raises a to the bth power.

a.^b

Element by element exponentiation. Raise each element of a matrix a to the bth power. Or if b is a matrix of the same size as a, then do the operation element by element. If a is a number and b is a matrix then it creates matrix of the same size as b with a raised to all the different powers in b.
a+b

Addition. Adds two numbers, matrices, functions or strings. If you add a string to anything the result will just be a string.
a-b

Subtraction. Subtract two numbers, matrices or functions.

a*b

Multiplication. This is the normal matrix multiplication.

a.*b

Element by element multiplication if a and b are matrices.

a/b

Division. 18

Chapter 5. GEL Basics

a./b

Element by element division.

a\b

Back division. That is this is the same as b/a.

a.\b

Element by element back division.

a%b

The mod operator. This does not turn on the modular mode, but just returns the remainder of a/b.
a.%b

Element by element the mod operator. Returns the remainder after element by element integer a./b.
a mod b

Modular evaluation operator. The expression a is evaluated modulo b. See the Section called Modular Evaluation. Some functions and operators behave differently modulo an integer.
a!

Factorial operator. This is like 1*...*(n-2)*(n-1)*n.

a!!

Double factorial operator. This is like 1*...*(n-4)*(n-2)*n.

a==b

Equality operator (returns true or false).

a!=b

Inequality operator, returns true if a does not equal b else returns false.
a<>b

Alternative inequality operator, returns true if a does not equal b else returns false.
a<=b

Less than or equal operator, returns true if a is less than or equal to b else returns false.
a>=b

Greater than or equal operator, returns true if a is greater than or equal to b else returns false.
a<=>b

Comparison operator. If a is equal to b it returns 0, if a is less than b it returns -1 and if a is greater than b it returns 1. 19

Chapter 5. GEL Basics

a and b

Logical and.
a or b

Logical or.
a xor b

Logical xor.
not a

Logical not.
-a

Negation operator.
&a

Variable referencing (to pass a reference to something). See the Section called References in Chapter 6.
*a

Variable dereferencing (to access a referenced variable). See the Section called References in Chapter 6.
a

Matrix conjugate transpose.

a.

Matrix transpose, does not conjugate the entries.

a@(b,c)

Get element of a matrix in row b and column c. If b, c are vectors, then this gets the corresponding rows columns or submatrices.
a@(b,)

Get row of a matrix (or rows if b is a vector).

a@(b,:)

Same as above.
a@(,c)

Get column of a matrix (or columns if c is a vector).

a@(:,c)

Same as above.
a@(b)

Get an element from a matrix treating it as a vector. This will traverse the matrix row-wise. 20

Chapter 5. GEL Basics

a:b

Build a vector from a to b (or specify a row, column region for the @ operator). For example to get rows 2 to 4 of matrix A we could do
A@(2:4,)

as 2:4 will return a vector [2,3,4].

a:b:c

Build a vector from a to c with b as a step. That is for example

genius> 1:2:9 = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9] (a)i

Make a imaginary number (multiply a by the imaginary). Note that normally the number i is written as 1i. So the above is equal to
(a)*1i

Quote an identier so that it doesnt get evaluated. Or quote a matrix so that it doesnt get expanded.
a swapwith b

Swap value of a with the value of b. Currently does not operate on ranges of matrix elements. It returns null. Available from version 1.0.13.
increment a

Increment the variable a by 1. If a is a matrix, then increment each element. This is equivalent to a=a+1, but it is somewhat faster. It returns null. Available from version 1.0.13.
increment a by b

Increment the variable a by b. If a is a matrix, then increment each element. This is equivalent to a=a+b, but it is somewhat faster. It returns null. Available from version 1.0.13.
Note: The @() operator makes the : operator most useful. With this you can specify regions of a matrix. So that a@(2:4,6) is the rows 2,3,4 of the column 6. Or a@(,1:2) will get you the rst two columns of a matrix. You can also assign to the @() operator, as long as the right value is a matrix that matches the region in size, or if it is any other type of value.

Note: The comparison operators (except for the <=> operator which behaves normally), are not strictly binary operators, they can in fact be grouped in the normal mathematical way, e.g.: (1<x<=y<5) is a legal boolean expression and means just what it should, that is (1<x and xy and y<5)

Note: The unitary minus operates in a different fashion depending on where it appears. If it appears before a number it binds very closely, if it appears in front of an expression it binds less than the power and factorial operators. So for example -1^k is really (-1)^k,

21

Chapter 5. GEL Basics

but -foo(1)^k is really -(foo(1)^k). So be careful how you use it and if in doubt, add parentheses.

Notes
1. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/AbsoluteValue.html

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Chapter 6. Programming with GEL

Conditionals
Syntax:
if <expression1> then <expression2> [else <expression3>]

If else is omitted, then if the expression1 yields false or 0, NULL is returned. Examples:
if(a==5)then(a=a-1) if b<a then b=a if c>0 then c=c-1 else c=0 a = ( if b>0 then b else 1 )

Note that = will be translated to == if used inside the expression for if, so
if a=5 then a=a-1

will be interpreted as:

if a==5 then a:=a-1

Loops
While Loops
Syntax:
while <expression1> do until <expression1> do do <expression2> while do <expression2> until <expression2> <expression2> <expression1> <expression1>

These are similar to other languages. However, as in gel it is simply an expression that must have some return value, these constructs will simply return the result of the last iteration or NULL if no iteration was done. In the boolean expression, = is translated into == just as for the if statement.

For Loops
Syntax:
for <identifier> = <from> to <to> do <body> for <identifier> = <from> to <to> by <increment> do <body>

Loop with identier being set to all values from <from> to <to>, optionally using an increment other than 1. These are faster, nicer and more compact than the normal loops such as above, but less exible. The identier must be an identier and cant be a dereference. The value of identier is the last value of identier, or <from> if body was never evaluated. The variable is guaranteed to be initialized after a loop, so you can safely use it. Also the <from>, <to> and <increment> must be non complex values. The <to> is not guaranteed to be hit, but will never be overshot, for example the following prints out odd numbers from 1 to 19: 23

Chapter 6. Programming with GEL

for i = 1 to 20 by 2 do print(i)

Foreach Loops
Syntax:
for <identifier> in <matrix> do <body>

For each element in the matrix, going row by row from left to right we execute the body with the identier set to the current element. To print numbers 1,2,3 and 4 in this order you could do:
for n in [1,2:3,4] do print(n)

If you wish to run through the rows and columns of a matrix, you can use the RowsOf and ColumnsOf functions which return a vector of the rows or columns of the matrix. So,
for n in RowsOf ([1,2:3,4]) do print(n)

will print out [1,2] and then [3,4].

Break and Continue

You can also use the break and continue commands in loops. The continue continue command will restart the current loop at its next iteration, while the break command exits the current loop.
while(<expression1>) do ( if(<expression2>) break else if(<expression3>) continue; <expression4> )

Sums and Products

Syntax:
sum <identifier> = <from> to <to> do <body> sum <identifier> = <from> to <to> by <increment> do <body> sum <identifier> in <matrix> do <body> prod <identifier> = <from> to <to> do <body> prod <identifier> = <from> to <to> by <increment> do <body> prod <identifier> in <matrix> do <body>

If you substitute for with sum or prod, then you will get a sum or a product instead of a for loop. Instead of returning the last value, these will return the sum or the product of the values respectively. If no body is executed (for example sum i=1 to 0 do ...) then sum returns 0 and prod returns 1 as is the standard convention.

24

Chapter 6. Programming with GEL

Comparison Operators
The following standard comparison operators are supported in GEL and have the obvious meaning: ==, >=, <=, !=, <>, <, >. They return true or false. The operators != and <> are the same thing and mean "is not equal to". GEL also supports the operator <=>, which returns -1 if left side is smaller, 0 if both sides are equal, 1 if left side is larger. Normally = is translated to == if it happens to be somewhere where GEL is expecting a condition such as in the if condition. For example
if a=b then c if a==b then c

are the same thing in GEL. However you should really use == or := when you want to compare or assign respectively if you want your code to be easy to read and to avoid mistakes. All the comparison operators (except for the <=> operator which behaves normally), are not strictly binary operators, they can in fact be grouped in the normal mathematical way, e.g.: (1<x<=y<5) is a legal boolean expression and means just what it should, that is (1<x and xy and y<5) To build up logical expressions use the words not, and, or, xor. The operators or and and are special beasts as they evaluate their arguments one by one, so the usual trick for conditional evaluation works here as well. For example, 1 or a=1 will not set a=1 since the rst argument was true.

Global Variables and Scope of Variables

GEL is a dynamically scoped language1. We will explain what this means below. That is, normal variables and functions are dynamically scoped. The exception are parameter variables, which are always global. Like most programming languages, GEL has different types of variables. Normally when a variable is dened in a function, it is visible from that function and from all functions that are called (all higher contexts). For example, suppose a function f denes a variable a and then calls function g. Then function g can reference a. But once f returns, the variable a goes out of scope. For example, the following code will print out 5. The function g cannot be called on the top level (outside f as a will not be dened).
function f() = (a:=5; g()); function g() = print(a); f();

If you dene a variable inside a function it will override any variables dened in calling functions. For example, we modify the above code and write:
function f() = (a:=5; g()); function g() = print(a); a:=10; f();

This code will still print out 5. But if you call g outside of f then you will get a printout of 10. Note that setting a to 5 inside f does not change the value of a at the top (global) level, so if you now check the value of a it will still be 10. Function arguments are exactly like variables dened inside the function, except that they are initialized with the value that was passed to the function. Other than this point, they are treated just like all other variables dened inside the function. 25

Chapter 6. Programming with GEL Functions are treated exactly like variables. Hence you can locally redene functions. Normally (on the top level) you cannot redene protected variables and functions. But locally you can do this. Consider the following session:
genius> function f(x) = sin(x)^2

= ((x)=(sin(x)^2))
genius> function f(x) = sin(x)^2

= ((x)=(sin(x)^2))
genius> function g(x) = ((function sin(x)=x^10);f(x))

= ((x)=((sin:=((x)=(x^10)));f(x)))
genius> g(10)

= 1e20

Functions and variables dened at the top level are considered global. They are visible from anywhere. As we said the following function f will not change the value of a to 5.
a=6; function f() = (a:=5); f();

Sometimes, however, it is necessary to set a global variable from inside a function. When this behaviour is needed, use the set function. Passing a string or a quoted identier to this function sets the variable globally (on the top level). For example, to set a to the value 3 you could call:
set(a,3)

or:
set("a",3)

The set function always sets the toplevel global. There is no way to set a local variable in some function from a subroutine. If this is required, must use passing by reference. So to recap in a more technical language: Genius operates with different numbered contexts. The top level is the context 0 (zero). Whenever a function is entered, the context is raised, and when the function returns the context is lowered. A function or a variable is always visible from all higher numbered contexts. When a variable was dened in a lower numbered context, then setting this variable has the effect of creating a new local variable in the current context number and this variable will now be visible from all higher numbered contexts. There are also true local variables, which are not seen from anywhere but the current context. Also when returning functions by value it may reference variables not visible from higher context and this may be a problem. See the sections True Local Variables and Returning Functions.

Parameter variables
As we said before, there exist special variables called parameters that exist in all scopes. To declare a parameter called foo with the initial value 1, we write
parameter foo = 1

From then on, foo is a strictly global variable. Setting foo inside any function will modify the variable in all contexts, that is, functions do not have a private copy of parameters. 26

Chapter 6. Programming with GEL When you undene a parameter using the undefine function, it stops being a parameter. Some parameters are built-in and modify the behaviour of genius.

Returning
Normally a function is one or several expressions separated by a semicolon, and the value of the last expression is returned. This is ne for simple functions, but sometimes you do not want a function to return the last thing calculated. You may, for example, want to return from a middle of a function. In this case, you can use the return keyword. return takes one argument, which is the value to be returned. Example:
function f(x) = ( y=1; while true do ( if x>50 then return y; y=y+1; x=x+1 ) )

References
It may be necessary for some functions to return more than one value. This may be accomplished by returning a vector of values, but many times it is convenient to use passing a reference to a variable. You pass a reference to a variable to a function, and the function will set the variable for you using a dereference. You do not have to use references only for this purpose, but this is their main use. When using functions that return values through references in the argument list, just pass the variable name with an ampersand. For example the following code will compute an eigenvalue of a matrix A with initial eigenvector guess x, and store the computed eigenvector into the variable named v:
RayleighQuotientIteration (A,x,0.001,100,&v)

The details of how references work and the syntax is similar to the C language. The operator & references a variable and * dereferences a variable. Both can only be applied to an identier, so **a is not a legal expression in GEL. References are best explained by an example:
a=1; b=&a; *b=2;

now a contains 2. You can also reference functions:

function f(x) = x+1; t=&f; *t(3)

gives us 4.

27

Chapter 6. Programming with GEL

Lvalues
An lvalue is the left hand side of an assignment. In other words, an lvalue is what you assign something to. Valid lvalues are:
a

Identier. Here we would be setting the variable of name a.

*a

Dereference of an identier. This will set whatever variable a points to.

a@(<region>)

A region of a matrix. Here the region is specied normally as with the regular @() operator, and can be a single entry, or an entire region of the matrix. Examples:
a:=4 *tmp := 89 a@(1,1) := 5 a@(4:8,3) := [1,2,3,4,5]

Note that both := and = can be used interchangably. Except if the assignment appears in a condition. It is thus always safer to just use := when you mean assignment, and == when you mean comparison.

Notes
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scope_%28programming%29

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Chapter 7. Advanced Programming with GEL

Error Handling
If you detect an error in your function, you can bail out of it. For normal errors, such as wrong types of arguments, you can fail to compute the function by adding the statement bailout. If something went really wrong and you want to completely kill the current computation, you can use exception. For example if you want to check for arguments in your function. You could use the following code.
function f(M) = ( if not IsMatrix (M) then ( error ("M not a matrix!"); bailout ); ... )

Toplevel Syntax
The synatax is slightly different if you enter statements on the top level versus when they are inside parentheses or inside functions. On the top level, enter acts the same as if you press return on the command line. Therefore think of programs as just sequence of lines as if were entered on the command line. In particular, you do not need to enter the separator at the end of the line (unless it is of course part of several statements inside parentheses). The following code will produce an error when entered on the top level of a program, while it will work just ne in a function.
if Something() then DoSomething() else DoSomethingElse()

The problem is that after Genius Mathematics Tool sees the end of line after the second line, it will decide that we have whole statement and it will execute it. After the execution is done, Genius Mathematics Tool will go on to the next line, it will see else, and it will produce a parsing error. To x this, use parentheses. Genius Mathematics Tool will not be satised until it has found that all parentheses are closed.
if Something() then ( DoSomething() ) else ( DoSomethingElse() )

29

Chapter 7. Advanced Programming with GEL

Returning Functions
It is possible to return functions as value. This way you can build functions that construct special purpose functions according to some parameters. The tricky bit is what variables does the function see. The way this works in GEL is that when a function returns another function, all identiers referenced in the function body that went out of scope are prepended a private dictionary of the returned function. So the function will see all variables that were in scope when it was dened. For example, we dene a function that returns a function that adds 5 to its argument.
function f() = ( k = 5; (x) = (x+k) )

Notice that the function adds k to x. You could use this as follows.
g = f(); g(5)

And g(5) should return 10. One thing to note is that the value of k that is used is the one thats in effect when the f returns. For example:
function f() = ( k := 5; function r(x) = (x+k); k := 10; r )

will return a function that adds 10 to its argument rather than 5. This is because the extra dictionary is created only when the context in which the function was dened ends, which is when the function f returns. This is consistent with how you would expect the function r to work inside the function f according to the rules of scope of variables in GEL. Only those variables are added to the extra dictionary that are in the context that just ended and no longer exists. Variables used in the function that are in still valid contexts will work as usual, using the current value of the variable. The only difference is with global variables and functions. All identiers that referenced global variables at time of the function denition are not added to the private dictionary. This is to avoid much unnecessary work when returning functions and would rarely be a problem. For example, suppose that you delete the "k=5" from the function f, and at the top level you dene k to be say 5. Then when you run f, the function r will not put k into the private dictionary because it was global (toplevel) at the time of denition of r. Sometimes it is better to have more control over how variables are copied into the private dictionary. Since version 1.0.7, you can specify which variables are copied into the private dictionary by putting extra square brackets after the arguments with the list of variables to be copied separated by commas. If you do this, then variables are copied into the private dictionary at time of the function denition, and the private dictionary is not touched afterwards. For example
function f() = ( k := 5; function r(x) [k] = (x+k); k := 10; r )

will return a function that when called will add 5 to its argument. The local copy of k was created when the function was dened. 30

Chapter 7. Advanced Programming with GEL When you want the function to not have any private dictionary then put empty square brackets after the argument list. Then no private dictionary will be created at all. Doing this is good to increase efciency when a private dictionary is not needed or when you want the function to lookup all variables as it sees them when called. For example suppose you want the function returned from f to see the value of k from the toplevel despite there being a local variable of the same name during denition. So the code
function f() = ( k := 5; function r(x) [] = (x+k); r ); k := 10; g = f(); g(10)

will return 20 and not 15, which would happen if k with a value of 5 was added to the private dictionary.

True Local Variables

When passing functions into other functions, the normal scoping of variables might be undesired. For example:
k := 10; function r(x) = (x+k); function f(g,x) = ( k := 5; g(x) ); f(r,1)

you probably want the function r when passed as g into f to see k as 10 rather than 5, so that the code returns 11 and not 6. However, as written, the function when executed will see the k that is equal to 5. There are two ways to solve this. One would be to have r get k in a private dictionary using the square bracket notation section Returning Functions. But there is another solution. Since version 1.0.7 there are true local variables. These are variables that are visible only from the current context and not from any called functions. We could dene k as a local variable in the function f. To do this add a local statement as the rst statement in the function (it must always be the rst statement in the function). You can also make any arguments be local variables as well. That is,
function f(g,x) = ( local g,x,k; k := 5; g(x) );

Then the code will work as expected and prints out 11. Note that the local statement initializes all the refereced variables (except for function arguments) to a null. If all variables are to be created as locals you can just pass an asterix instead of a list of variables. In this case the variables will not be initialized until they are actually set of course. So the following denition of f will also work:
function f(g,x) = ( local *; k := 5; g(x) );

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Chapter 7. Advanced Programming with GEL

It is good practice that all functions that take other functions as arguments use local variables. This way the passed function does not see implementation details and get confused.

GEL Startup Procedure

First the program looks for the installed library le (the compiled version lib.cgel) in the installed directory, then it looks into the current directory, and then it tries to load an uncompiled le called ~/.geniusinit. If you ever change the the library its installed place, youll have to rst compile it with genius --compile loader.gel > lib.cgel

Loading Programs
Sometimes you have a larger program that you wrote into a le and want to read in that le. In these situations, you have two options. You can keep the functions you use most inside the ~/.geniusinit le. Or if you want to load up a le in a middle of a session (or from within another le), you can type load <list of lenames> at the prompt. This has to be done on the top level and not inside any function or whatnot, and it cannot be part of any expression. It also has a slightly different syntax than the rest of genius, more similiar to a shell. You can enter the le in quotes. If you use the quotes, you will get exactly the string that you typed, if you use the "" quotes, special characters will be unescaped as they are for strings. Example:
load program1.gel program2.gel load "Weird File Name With SPACES.gel"

There are also cd, pwd and ls commands built in. cd will take one argument, ls will take an argument that is like the glob in the unix shell (i.e., you can use wildcards). pwd takes no arguments. For example:
cd directory_with_gel_programs ls *.gel

32

Chapter 8. Matrices in GEL

Genius has support for vectors and matrices and a sizable library of matrix manipulation and linear algebra functions.

Entering Matrices
To enter matrixes, you can use one of the following two syntaxes. You can either enter the matrix on one line, separating values by commas and rows by semicolons. Or you can enter each row on one line, separating values by commas. You can also just combine the two methods. So to enter a 3x3 matrix of numbers 1-9 you could do
[1,2,3;4,5,6;7,8,9]

or
[1, 2, 3 4, 5, 6 7, 8, 9]

Do not use both ; and return at once on the same line though. You can also use the matrix expansion functionality to enter matricies. For example you can do:
a = [ 1, 2, 3 4, 5, 6 7, 8, 9] b = [ a, 10 11, 12]

and you should get

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 11, 11, 10 10 10 12]

similiarly you can build matricies out of vectors and other stuff like that. Another thing is that non-specied spots are initialized to 0, so
[1, 2, 3 4, 5 6]

will end up being

[1, 2, 3 4, 5, 0 6, 0, 0]

When matrices are evaluated, they are evaluated and traversed row-wise. This is just like the M@(j) operator which traverses the matrix row-wise.
Note: Be careful about using returns for expressions inside the [ ] brackets, as they have a slightly different meaning there. You will start a new row.

33

Chapter 8. Matrices in GEL

Conjugate Transpose and Transpose Operator

You can conjugate transpose a matrix by using the operator. That is the entry in the ith column and the jth row will be the complex conjugate of the entry in the jth column and the ith row of the original matrix. For example:
[1,2,3]*[4,5,6]

We transpose the second vector to make matrix multiplication possible. If you just want to transpose a matrix without conjugating it, you would use the . operator. For example:
[1,2,3]*[4,5,6i].

Note that normal transpose, that is the . operator, is much faster and will not create a new copy of the matrix in memory. The conjugate transpose does create a new copy unfortunately. It is recommended to always use the . operator when working with real matrices and vectors.

Linear Algebra
Genius implements many useful linear algebra and matrix manipulation routines. See the Linear Algebra and Matrix Manipulation sections of the GEL function listing. The linear algebra routines implemented in GEL do not currently come from a well tested numerical package, and thus should not be used for critical numerical computation. On the other hand, Genius implements very well many linear algebra operations with rational and integer coefcients. These are inherently exact and in fact will give you much better results than common double precision routines for linear algebra. For example, it is pointless to compute the rank and nullspace of a oating point matrix since for all practical purposes, we need to consider the matrix as having some slight errors. You are likely to get a different result than you expect. The problem is that under a small perturbation every matrix is of full rank and invertible. If the matrix however is of rational numbers, then the rank and nullspace are always exact. In general when Genius computes the basis of a certain vectorspace (for example with the NullSpace) it will give the basis as a matrix, in which the columns are the vectors of the basis. That is, when Genius talks of a linear subspace it means a matrix whose column space is the given linear subspace. It should be noted that Genius can remember certain properties of a matrix. For example, it will remember that a matrix is in row reduced form. If many calls are made to functions that internally use row reduced form of the matrix, we can just row reduce the matrix beforehand once. Successive calls to rref will be very fast.

34

Chapter 9. Polynomials in GEL

Currently Genius can handle polynomials of one variable written out as vectors, and do some basic operations with these. It is planned to expand this support further.

Using Polynomials
Currently polynomials in one variable are just horizontal vectors with value only nodes. The power of the term is the position in the vector, with the rst position being 0. So,
[1,2,3]

translates to a polynomial of
1 + 2*x + 3*x^2

You can add, subtract and multiply polynomials using the AddPoly, SubtractPoly, and MultiplyPoly functions respectively. You can print a polynomial using the PolyToString function. For example,
PolyToString([1,2,3],"y")

gives
3*y^2 + 2*y + 1

You can also get a function representation of the polynomial so that you can evaluate it. This is done by using PolyToFunction, which returns an anonymous function.
f = PolyToFunction([0,1,1]) f(2)

It is also possible to nd roots of polynomials of degrees 1 through 4 by using the function PolynomialRoots, which calls the appropriate formula function. Higher degree polynomials must be converted to functions and solved numerically using a function such as FindRootBisection, FindRootFalsePosition, FindRootMullersMethod, or FindRootSecant. See the Section called Polynomials in Chapter 11 in the function list for the rest of functions acting on polynomials.

35

Chapter 9. Polynomials in GEL

36

Chapter 10. Set Theory in GEL

Genius has some basic set theoretic functionality built in. Currently a set is just a vector (or a matrix). Every distinct object is treated as a different element.

Using Sets
Just like vectors, objects in sets can include numbers, strings, null, matrices and vectors. It is planned in the future to have a dedicated type for sets, rather than using vectors. Note that oating point numbers are distinct from integers, even if they appear the same. That is, Genius will treat 0 and 0.0 as two distinct elements. The null is treated as an empty set. To build a set out of a vector, use the MakeSet function. Currently, it will just return a new vector where every element is unique.
genius> MakeSet([1,2,2,3])

= [1, 2, 3]

Similarly there are functions Union, Intersection, SetMinus, which are rather self explanatory. For example:
genius> Union([1,2,3], [1,2,4])

= [1, 2, 4, 3]

Note that no order is guaranteed for the return values. If you wish to sort the vector you should use the SortVector function. For testing membership, there are functions IsIn and IsSubset, which return a boolean value. For example:
genius> IsIn (1, [0,1,2])

= true

The input IsIn(x,X) is of course equivalent to IsSubset([x],X). Note that since the empty set is a subset of every set, IsSubset(null,X) is always true.

37

Chapter 10. Set Theory in GEL

38

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions

To get help on a specic function from the console type:
help FunctionName

Commands
help
help help FunctionName

Print help (or help on a function/command). load

load "file.gel"

Load a le into the interpretor. The le will execute as if it were typed onto the command line. cd
cd /directory/name

Change working directory to /directory/name. pwd

pwd

Print the current working directory. ls

ls

List les in the current directory. plugin

plugin plugin_name

Load a plugin. Plugin of that name must be installed on the system in the proper directory.

Basic
AskButtons
AskButtons (query) AskButtons (query, button1, ...)

Asks a question and presents a list of buttons to the user (or a menu of options in text mode). Returns the 1-based index of the button pressed. That is, returns 1 if the rst button was pressed, 2 if the second button was pressed, and so on. If the user closes the window (or simply hits enter in text mode), then null is returned. The execution of the program is blocked until the user responds.

39

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions AskString

AskString (query) AskString (query, default)

Asks a question and lets the user enter a string which it then returns. If the user cancels or closes the window, then null is returned. The execution of the program is blocked until the user responds. If default is given, then it is pre-typed in for the user to just press enter on. Compose
Compose (f,g)

Compose two functions and return a function that is the composition of f and g. ComposePower
ComposePower (f,n,x)

Compose and execute a function with itself n times, passing x as argument. Returning x if n equals 0. Example:
genius> function f(x) = x^2 ; genius> ComposePower (f,3,7)

= 5764801
genius> f(f(f(7)))

= 5764801

Evaluate
Evaluate (str)

Parses and evaluates a string. GetCurrentModulo

GetCurrentModulo

Get current modulo from the context outside the function. That is, if outside of the function was executed in modulo (using mod) then this returns what this modulo was. Normally the body of the function called is not executed in modular arithmetic, and this builtin function makes it possible to make GEL functions aware of modular arithmetic. Identity
Identity (x)

Identity function, returns its argument. IntegerFromBoolean

IntegerFromBoolean (bval)

Make integer (0 for false or 1 for true) from a boolean value. bval can also be a number in which case a non-zero value will be interpreted as true and zero will be interpreted as false. IsBoolean
IsBoolean (arg)

Check if argument is a boolean (and not a number). IsDened

IsDefined (id)

Check if an id is dened. You should pass a string or and identier. If you pass a matrix, each entry will be evaluated separately and the matrix should contain strings or identiers. 40

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions IsFunction

IsFunction (arg)

Check if argument is a function. IsFunctionOrIdentier

IsFunctionOrIdentifier (arg)

Check if argument is a function or an identier. IsFunctionRef

IsFunctionRef (arg)

Check if argument is a function reference. This includes variable references. IsMatrix

IsMatrix (arg)

Check if argument is a matrix. Even though null is sometimes considered an empty matrix, the function IsMatrix does not consider null a matrix. IsNull
IsNull (arg)

Check if argument is a null. IsString

IsString (arg)

Check if argument is a text string. IsValue

IsValue (arg)

Check if argument is a number. Parse

Parse (str)

Parses but does not evaluate a string. Note that certain pre-computation is done during the parsing stage. SetFunctionFlags
SetFunctionFlags (id,flags...)

Set ags for a function, currently "PropagateMod" and "NoModuloArguments". If "PropagateMod" is set, then the body of the function is evaluated in modular arithmetic when the function is called inside a block that was evaluated using modular arithmetic (using mod). If "NoModuloArguments", then the arguments of the function are never evaluated using modular arithmetic. SetHelp
SetHelp (id,category,desc)

Set the category and help description line for a function. SetHelpAlias
SetHelpAlias (id,alias)

Sets up a help alias.

41

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions chdir

chdir (dir)

Changes current directory, same as the cd. CurrentTime

CurrentTime

Returns the current UNIX time with microsecond precision as a oating point number. That is, returns the number of seconds since January 1st 1970. display
display (str,expr)

Display a string and an expression with a colon to separate them. error

error (str)

Prints a string to the error stream (onto the console). exit

exit

Aliases: quit Exits the program. false

false

Aliases: False FALSE The false boolean value. manual

manual

Displays the user manual. print

print (str)

Prints an expression and then print a newline. The argument str can be any expression. It is made into a string before being printed. printn
printn (str)

Prints an expression without a trailing newline. The argument str can be any expression. It is made into a string before being printed. protect
protect (id)

Protect a variable from being modied. This is used on the internal GEL functions to avoid them being accidentally overridden. ProtectAll
ProtectAll ()

Protect all currently dened variables, parameters and functions from being modied. This is used on the internal GEL functions to avoid them being ac42

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions cidentally overridden. Normally Genius Mathematics Tool considers unprotected variables as user dened. set
set (id,val)

Set a global variable. The id can be either a string or a quoted identier as follows. For example:
set(x,1)

will set the global variable x to the value 1. string

string (s)

Make a string. This will make a string out of any argument. true
true

Aliases: True TRUE The true boolean value. undene

undefine (id)

Alias: Undefine Undene a variable. This includes locals and globals, every value on all context levels is wiped. This function should really not be used on local variables. A vector of identiers can also be passed to undene several variables. UndeneAll
UndefineAll ()

Undene all unprotected global variables (including functions and parameters). Normally Genius Mathematics Tool considers protected variables as system dened functions and variables. Note that UndefineAll only removes the global denition of symbols not local ones, so that it may be run from inside other functions safely. unprotect
unprotect (id)

Unprotect a variable from being modied. UserVariables

UserVariables ()

Return a vector of identiers of user dened (unprotected) global variables. wait

wait (secs)

Waits a specied number of seconds. secs must be non-negative. Zero is accepted and nothing happens in this case, except possibly user interface events are processed. version
version

43

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions Returns the version of Genius as a horizontal 3-vector with major version rst, then minor version and nally the patch level. warranty
warranty

Gives the warranty information.

Parameters
ChopTolerance
ChopTolerance = number

Tolerance of the Chop function. ContinuousNumberOfTries

ContinuousNumberOfTries = number

How many iterations to try to nd the limit for continuity and limits. ContinuousSFS
ContinuousSFS = number

How many successive steps to be within tolerance for calculation of continuity. ContinuousTolerance
ContinuousTolerance = number

Tolerance for continuity of functions and for calculating the limit. DerivativeNumberOfTries
DerivativeNumberOfTries = number

How many iterations to try to nd the limit for derivative. DerivativeSFS

DerivativeSFS = number

How many successive steps to be within tolerance for calculation of derivative. DerivativeTolerance
DerivativeTolerance = number

Tolerance for calculating the derivatives of functions. ErrorFunctionTolerance

ErrorFunctionTolerance = number

Tolerance of the ErrorFunction. FloatPrecision

FloatPrecision = number

Floating point precision. FullExpressions

FullExpressions = boolean

Print full expressions, even if more than a line. 44

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions GaussDistributionTolerance

GaussDistributionTolerance = number

Tolerance of the GaussDistribution function. IntegerOutputBase

IntegerOutputBase = number

Integer output base. IsPrimeMillerRabinReps

IsPrimeMillerRabinReps = number

Number of extra Miller-Rabin tests to run on a number before declaring it a prime in IsPrime. LinePlotDrawLegends
LinePlotDrawLegends = true

Tells genius to draw the legends for line plotting functions such as LinePlot. LinePlotVariableNames
LinePlotVariableNames = ["x","y","z","t"]

Tells genius which variable names are used as default names for line plotting functions such as LinePlot and friends. LinePlotWindow
LinePlotWindow = [x1,x2,y1,y2]

Sets the limits for line plotting functions such as LinePlot. MaxDigits
MaxDigits = number

Maximum digits to display. MaxErrors

MaxErrors = number

Maximum errors to display. MixedFractions

MixedFractions = boolean

If true, mixed fractions are printed. NumericalIntegralFunction

NumericalIntegralFunction = function

The function used for numerical integration in NumericalIntegral. NumericalIntegralSteps

NumericalIntegralSteps = number

Steps to perform in NumericalIntegral. OutputChopExponent

OutputChopExponent = number

When another number in the object being printed (a matrix or a value) is greater than 10-OutputChopWhenExponent, and the number being printed is less than 10-OutputChopExponent, then display 0.0 instead of the number. 45

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions Output is never chopped if OutputChopExponent is zero. It must be a nonnegative integer. If you want output always chopped according to OutputChopExponent, then set OutputChopWhenExponent, to something greater than or equal to OutputChopExponent. OutputChopWhenExponent
OutputChopWhenExponent = number

When to chop output. See OutputChopExponent. OutputStyle

OutputStyle = string

Output style, this can be normal, latex, mathml or troff. This affects mostly how matrices and fractions are printed out and is useful for pasting into documents. For example you can set this to the latex by:
OutputStyle = "latex"

ResultsAsFloats
ResultsAsFloats = boolean

Convert all results to oats before printing. ScienticNotation

ScientificNotation = boolean

Use scientic notation. SlopeeldTicks

SlopefieldTicks = [vertical,horizontal]

Sets the number of vertical and horizontal ticks in a slopeeld plot. (See SlopefieldPlot). SumProductNumberOfTries
SumProductNumberOfTries = number

How many iterations to try for InfiniteSum and InfiniteProduct. SumProductSFS

SumProductSFS = number

How many successive steps to be within tolerance for InfiniteSum and

InfiniteProduct.

SumProductTolerance
SumProductTolerance = number

Tolerance for InfiniteSum and InfiniteProduct. SurfacePlotVariableNames

SurfacePlotVariableNames = ["x","y","z"]

Tells genius which variable names are used as default names for surface plotting functions using SurfacePlot. Note that the z does not refer to the dependent (vertical) axis, but to the indepent complex variable z=x+iy.

46

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions SurfacePlotWindow

SurfacePlotWindow = [x1,x2,y1,y2,z1,z2]

Sets the limits for surface plotting (See SurfacePlot). VectoreldNormalized

VectorfieldNormalized = true

Should the vectoreld plotting have normalized arrow length. If true, vector elds will only show direction and not magnitude. (See VectorfieldPlot). VectoreldTicks
VectorfieldTicks = [vertical,horizontal]

Sets the number of vertical and horizontal ticks in a vectoreld plot. (See VectorfieldPlot).

Constants
CatalanConstant
CatalanConstant

Catalans Constant, approximately 0.915... It is dened to be the series where terms are (-1^k)/((2*k+1)^2), where k ranges from 0 to innity. See Mathworld1 for more information. EulerConstant
EulerConstant

Aliases: gamma Eulers Constant gamma. Sometimes called the Euler-Mascheroni constant. See Wikipedia2 or Planetmath3 or Mathworld4 for more information. GoldenRatio
GoldenRatio

The Golden Ratio. See Wikipedia5 or Planetmath6 or Mathworld7 for more information. Gravity
Gravity

Free fall acceleration at sea level. See Wikipedia8 for more information. e
e

The base of the natural logarithm. e^x is the exponential function exp. This is the number approximately 2.71828182846... See Wikipedia9 or Planetmath10 or Mathworld11 for more information. pi
pi

The number pi, that is the ratio of a circles circumference to its diameter. This is approximately 3.14159265359... 47

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions See Wikipedia12 or Planetmath13 or Mathworld14 for more information.

Numeric
AbsoluteValue
AbsoluteValue (x)

Aliases: abs Absolute value of a number and if x is a complex value the modulus of x. I.e. this the distance of x to the origin. See Wikipedia15, Planetmath (absolute value)16, Planetmath (modulus)17, Mathworld (absolute value)18 or Mathworld (complex modulus)19 for more information. Chop
Chop (x)

Replace very small number with zero. ComplexConjugate

ComplexConjugate (z)

Aliases: conj Conj Calculates the complex conjugate of the complex number z. If z is a vector or matrix, all its elements are conjugated. See Wikipedia20 for more information. Denominator
Denominator (x)

Get the denominator of a rational number. See Wikipedia21 for more information. FractionalPart
FractionalPart (x)

Return the fractional part of a number. See Wikipedia22 for more information. Im
Im (z)

Aliases: ImaginaryPart Get the imaginary part of a complex number. See Wikipedia23 for more information. IntegerQuotient
IntegerQuotient (m,n)

Division without remainder. IsComplex

IsComplex (num)

Check if argument is a complex (non-real) number. 48

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions IsComplexRational

IsComplexRational (num)

Check if argument is a possibly complex rational number. That is, if both real and imaginary parts are given as rational numbers. Of course rational simply means "not stored as a oating point number." IsFloat
IsFloat (num)

Check if argument is a oating point number (non-complex). IsGaussInteger

IsGaussInteger (num)

Aliases: IsComplexInteger Check if argument is a possibly complex integer. IsInteger

IsInteger (num)

Check if argument is an integer (non-complex). IsNonNegativeInteger

IsNonNegativeInteger (num)

Check if argument is a non-negative real integer. IsPositiveInteger

IsPositiveInteger (num)

Aliases: IsNaturalNumber Check if argument is a positive real integer. Note that we accept the convention that 0 is not a natural number. IsRational
IsRational (num)

Check if argument is a rational number (non-complex). Of course rational simply means "not stored as a oating point number." IsReal
IsReal (num)

Check if argument is a real number. Numerator

Numerator (x)

Get the numerator of a rational number. See Wikipedia24 for more information. Re
Re (z)

Aliases: RealPart Get the real part of a complex number. See Wikipedia25 for more information.

49

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions Sign

Sign (x)

Aliases: sign Return the sign of a number. That is returns -1 if value is negative, 0 if value is zero and 1 if value is positive. If x is a complex value then Sign returns the direction or 0. ceil
ceil (x)

Aliases: Ceiling Get the lowest integer more than or equal to n. Examples:
genius> ceil(1.1)

= 2
genius> ceil(-1.1)

= -1

Note that you should be careful and notice that oating point numbers are stored an binary and so may not be what you expect. For example ceil(420/4.2) returns 101 instead of the expected 100. This is because 4.2 is actually very slightly less than 4.2. Use rational representation 42/10 if you want exact arithmetic. exp
exp (x)

The exponential function. This is the function e^x where e is the base of the natural logarithm. See Wikipedia26 or Planetmath27 or Mathworld28 for more information. oat
float (x)

Make number a oating point value. That is returns the oating point representation of the number x. oor
floor (x)

Aliases: Floor Get the highest integer less than or equal to n. ln

ln (x)

The natural logarithm, the logarithm to base e. log

log (x) log (x,b)

Logarithm of x base b (calls DiscreteLog if in modulo mode), if base is not given, e is used. log10
log10 (x)

Logarithm of x base 10.

50

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions log2

log2 (x)

Aliases: lg Logarithm of x base 2. max

max (a,args...)

Aliases: Max Maximum Returns the maximum of arguments or matrix. min

min (a,args...)

Aliases: Min Minimum Returns the minimum of arguments or matrix. rand

rand (size...)

Generate random oat in the range [0,1). If size is given then a matrix (if two numbers are specied) or vector (if one number is specied) of the given size returned. randint
randint (max,size...)

Generate random integer in the range [0,max). If size is given then a matrix (if two numbers are specied) or vector (if one number is specied) of the given size returned. For example,
genius> randint(4)

= 3
genius> randint(4,2)

= [0 = [2 0

1]

genius> randint(4,2,3)

2 0

1 3]

round
round (x)

Aliases: Round Round a number. sqrt

sqrt (x)

Aliases: SquareRoot The square root. When operating modulo some integer will return either a null or a vector of the square roots. Examples:
genius> sqrt(2)

= 1.41421356237
genius> sqrt(-1)

= 1i
genius> sqrt(4) mod 7

= [2

5]

51

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions

genius> 2*2 mod 7

= 4

See Planetmath29 for more information. trunc

trunc (x)

Aliases: Truncate IntegerPart Truncate number to an integer (return the integer part).

Trigonometry
acos
acos (x)

Aliases: arccos The arccos (inverse cos) function. acosh

acosh (x)

Aliases: arccosh The arccosh (inverse cosh) function. acot

acot (x)

Aliases: arccot The arccot (inverse cot) function. acoth

acoth (x)

Aliases: arccoth The arccoth (inverse coth) function. acsc

acsc (x)

Aliases: arccsc The inverse cosecant function. acsch

acsch (x)

Aliases: arccsch The inverse hyperbolic cosecant function. asec

asec (x)

Aliases: arcsec The inverse secant function.

52

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions asech

asech (x)

Aliases: arcsech The inverse hyperbolic secant function. asin

asin (x)

Aliases: arcsin The arcsin (inverse sin) function. asinh

asinh (x)

Aliases: arcsinh The arcsinh (inverse sinh) function. atan

atan (x)

Aliases: arctan Calculates the arctan (inverse tan) function. See Wikipedia30 or Mathworld31 for more information. atanh
atanh (x)

Aliases: arctanh The arctanh (inverse tanh) function. atan2

atan2 (y, x)

Aliases: arctan2 Calculates the arctan2 function. If x>0 then it returns atan(y/x). If x<0 then it returns sign(y) * (pi - atan(|y/x|). When x=0 it returns sign(y) * pi/2. atan2(0,0) returns 0 rather then failing. See Wikipedia32 or Mathworld33 for more information. cos
cos (x)

Calculates the cosine function. See Planetmath34 for more information. cosh
cosh (x)

Calculates the hyperbolic cosine function. See Planetmath35 for more information. cot
cot (x)

The cotangent function. See Planetmath36 for more information. 53

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions coth

coth (x)

The hyperbolic cotangent function. See Planetmath37 for more information. csc
csc (x)

The cosecant function. See Planetmath38 for more information. csch

csch (x)

The hyperbolic cosecant function. See Planetmath39 for more information. sec
sec (x)

The secant function. See Planetmath40 for more information. sech

sech (x)

The hyperbolic secant function. See Planetmath41 for more information. sin
sin (x)

Calculates the sine function. See Planetmath42 for more information. sinh
sinh (x)

Calculates the hyperbolic sine function. See Planetmath43 for more information. tan
tan (x)

Calculates the tan function. See Planetmath44 for more information. tanh
tanh (x)

The hyperbolic tangent function. See Planetmath45 for more information.

54

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions

Number Theory
AreRelativelyPrime
AreRelativelyPrime (a,b)

Are the real integers a and b relatively prime? Returns true or false. See Planetmath46 or Mathworld47 for more information. BernoulliNumber
BernoulliNumber (n)

Return the nth Bernoulli number. See Wikipedia48 or Mathworld49 for more information. ChineseRemainder
ChineseRemainder (a,m)

Aliases: CRT Find the x that solves the system given by the vector a and modulo the elements of m, using the Chinese Remainder Theorem. See Wikipedia50 or Planetmath51 or Mathworld52 for more information. CombineFactorizations
CombineFactorizations (a,b)

Given two factorizations, give the factorization of the product. See Factorize. ConvertFromBase
ConvertFromBase (v,b)

Convert a vector of values indicating powers of b to a number. ConvertToBase

ConvertToBase (n,b)

Convert a number to a vector of powers for elements in base b. DiscreteLog

DiscreteLog (n,b,q)

Find discrete log of n base b in Fq, the nite eld of order q, where q is a prime, using the Silver-Pohlig-Hellman algorithm. See Wikipedia53 or Planetmath54 or Mathworld55 for more information. Divides
Divides (m,n)

Checks divisibility (if m divides n). EulerPhi

EulerPhi (n)

Compute the Euler phi function for n, that is the number of integers between 1 and n relatively prime to n. See Wikipedia56 or Planetmath57 or Mathworld58 for more information.

55

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions ExactDivision

ExactDivision (n,d)

Return n/d but only if d divides n. If d does not divide n then this function returns garbage. This is a lot faster for very large numbers than the operation n/d, but of course only useful if you know that the division is exact. Factorize
Factorize (n)

Return factorization of a number as a matrix. The rst row is the primes in the factorization (including 1) and the second row are the powers. So for example:
genius> Factorize(11*11*13)

= [1 1

11 2

13 1]

See Wikipedia59 for more information. Factors

Factors (n)

Return all factors of n in a vector. This includes all the non-prime factors as well. It includes 1 and the number itself. So for example to print all the perfect numbers (those that are sums of their factors) up to the number 1000 you could do (this is of course very inefcient)
for n=1 to 1000 do ( if MatrixSum (Factors(n)) == 2*n then print(n) )

FermatFactorization
FermatFactorization (n,tries)

Attempt Fermat factorization of n into (t-s)*(t+s), returns t and s as a vector if possible, null otherwise. tries species the number of tries before giving up. This is a fairly good factorization if your number is the product of two factors that are very close to each other. See Wikipedia60 for more information. FindPrimitiveElementMod
FindPrimitiveElementMod (q)

Find the rst primitive element in Fq, the nite group of order q. Of course q must be a prime. FindRandomPrimitiveElementMod
FindRandomPrimitiveElementMod (q)

Find a random primitive element in Fq, the nite group of order q (q must be a prime). IndexCalculus
IndexCalculus (n,b,q,S)

Compute discrete log base b of n in Fq, the nite group of order q (q a prime), using the factor base S. S should be a column of primes possibly with second column precalculated by IndexCalculusPrecalculation.

56

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions IndexCalculusPrecalculation

IndexCalculusPrecalculation (b,q,S)

Run the precalculation step of IndexCalculus for logarithms base b in Fq, the nite group of order q (q a prime), for the factor base S (where S is a column vector of primes). The logs will be precalculated and returned in the second column. IsEven
IsEven (n)

Tests if an integer is even. IsMersennePrimeExponent

IsMersennePrimeExponent (p)

Tests if a positive integer p is a Mersenne prime exponent. That is if 2p-1 is a prime. It does this by looking it up in a table of known values which is relatively short. See also MersennePrimeExponents and LucasLehmer. See Wikipedia61, Planetmath62, Mathworld63 or GIMPS64 for more information. IsNthPower
IsNthPower (m,n)

Tests if a rational number m is a perfect nth power. See also IsPerfectPower and IsPerfectSquare. IsOdd
IsOdd (n)

Tests if an integer is odd. IsPerfectPower

IsPerfectPower (n)

Check an integer is any perfect power, ab. IsPerfectSquare

IsPerfectSquare (n)

Check an integer for being a perfect square of an integer. The number must be a real integer. Negative integers are of course never perfect squares of real integers. IsPrime
IsPrime (n)

Tests primality of integers, for numbers less than 2.5e10 the answer is deterministic (if Riemann hypothesis is true). For numbers larger, the probability of a false positive depends on IsPrimeMillerRabinReps. That is the probability of false positive is 1/4 to the power IsPrimeMillerRabinReps. The default value of 22 yields a probability of about 5.7e-14. If false is returned, you can be sure that the number is a composite. If you want to be absolutely sure that you have a prime you can use MillerRabinTestSure but it may take a lot longer. See Planetmath65 or Mathworld66 for more information. IsPrimitiveMod
IsPrimitiveMod (g,q)

Check if g is primitive in Fq, the nite group of order q, where q is a prime. If q is not prime results are bogus. 57

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions IsPrimitiveModWithPrimeFactors

IsPrimitiveModWithPrimeFactors (g,q,f)

Check if g is primitive in Fq, the nite group of order q, where q is a prime and f is a vector of prime factors of q-1. If q is not prime results are bogus. IsPseudoprime
IsPseudoprime (n,b)

If n is a pseudoprime base b but not a prime, that is if b^(n-1) == 1 mod n. This calles the PseudoprimeTest IsStrongPseudoprime
IsStrongPseudoprime (n,b)

Test if n is a strong pseudoprime to base b but not a prime. Jacobi

Jacobi (a,b)

Aliases: JacobiSymbol Calculate the Jacobi symbol (a/b) (b should be odd). JacobiKronecker
JacobiKronecker (a,b)

Aliases: JacobiKroneckerSymbol Calculate the Jacobi symbol (a/b) with the Kronecker extension (a/2)=(2/a) when a odd, or (a/2)=0 when a even. LeastAbsoluteResidue
LeastAbsoluteResidue (a,n)

Return the residue of a mod n with the least absolute value (in the interval -n/2 to n/2). Legendre
Legendre (a,p)

Aliases: LegendreSymbol Calculate the Legendre symbol (a/p). See Planetmath67 or Mathworld68 for more information. LucasLehmer
LucasLehmer (p)

Test if 2p-1 is a Mersenne prime using the Lucas-Lehmer test. See also MersennePrimeExponents and IsMersennePrimeExponent. See Wikipedia69 or Planetmath70 or Mathworld71 for more information. LucasNumber
LucasNumber (n)

Returns the nth Lucas number. See Wikipedia72 or Planetmath73 or Mathworld74 for more information.

58

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions MaximalPrimePowerFactors

MaximalPrimePowerFactors (n)

Return all maximal prime power factors of a number. MersennePrimeExponents

MersennePrimeExponents

A vector of known Mersenne prime exponents, that is a list of positive integers p such that 2p-1 is a prime. See also IsMersennePrimeExponent and LucasLehmer. See Wikipedia75, Planetmath76, Mathworld77 or GIMPS78 for more information. MillerRabinTest
MillerRabinTest (n,reps)

Use the Miller-Rabin primality test on n, reps number of times. The probability of false positive is (1/4)^reps. It is probably usually better to use IsPrime since that is faster and better on smaller integers. See Wikipedia79 or Planetmath80 or Mathworld81 for more information. MillerRabinTestSure
MillerRabinTestSure (n)

Use the Miller-Rabin primality test on n with enough bases that assuming the Generalized Reimann Hypothesis the result is deterministic. See Wikipedia82 or Planetmath83 or Mathworld84 for more information. ModInvert
ModInvert (n,m)

Returns inverse of n mod m. See Mathworld85 for more information. MoebiusMu

MoebiusMu (n)

Return the Moebius mu function evaluated in n. That is, it returns 0 if n is not a product of distinct primes and (-1)^k if it is a product of k distinct primes. See Planetmath86 or Mathworld87 for more information. NextPrime
NextPrime (n)

Returns the least prime greater than n. Negatives of primes are considered prime and so to get the previous prime you can use -NextPrime(-n). This function uses the GMPs mpz_nextprime which in turn uses the probabilistic Miller-Rabin test (See also MillerRabinTest). The probability of false positive is not tunable, but is low enough for all practical purposes. See Planetmath88 or Mathworld89 for more information. PadicValuation
PadicValuation (n,p)

Returns the p-adic valuation (number of trailing zeros in base p). See Planetmath90 for more information.

59

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions PowerMod

PowerMod (a,b,m)

Compute a^b mod m. The bs power of a modulo m. It is not neccessary to use this function as it is automatically used in modulo mode. Hence a^b mod m is just as fast. Prime
Prime (n)

Aliases: prime Return the nth prime (up to a limit). See Planetmath91 or Mathworld92 for more information. PrimeFactors
PrimeFactors (n)

Return all prime factors of a number as a vector. See Mathworld93 for more information. PseudoprimeTest
PseudoprimeTest (n,b)

Pseudoprime test, returns true if and only if b^(n-1) == 1 mod n See Planetmath94 or Mathworld95 for more information. RemoveFactor
RemoveFactor (n,m)

Removes all instances of the factor m from the number n. That is divides by the largest power of m, that divides n. See Planetmath96 or Mathworld97 for more information. SilverPohligHellmanWithFactorization
SilverPohligHellmanWithFactorization (n,b,q,f)

Find discrete log of n base b in Fq, the nite group of order q, where q is a prime using the Silver-Pohlig-Hellman algorithm, given f being the factorization of q1. SqrtModPrime
SqrtModPrime (n,p)

Find square root of n modulo p (where p is a prime). Null is returned if not a quadratic residue. See Planetmath98 or Mathworld99 for more information. StrongPseudoprimeTest
StrongPseudoprimeTest (n,b)

Run the strong pseudoprime test base b on n. See Planetmath100 or Mathworld101 for more information. gcd
gcd (a,args...)

Aliases: GCD

60

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions Greatest common divisor of integers. You can enter as many integers in the argument list, or you can give a vector or a matrix of integers. If you give more than one matrix of the same size then GCD is done element by element. See Planetmath102 or Mathworld103 for more information. lcm
lcm (a,args...)

Aliases: LCM Least common multiplier of integers. You can enter as many integers in the argument list, or you can give a vector or a matrix of integers. If you give more than one matrix of the same size then LCM is done element by element. See Planetmath104 or Mathworld105 for more information.

Matrix Manipulation
ApplyOverMatrix
ApplyOverMatrix (a,func)

Apply a function over all entries of a matrix and return a matrix of the results. ApplyOverMatrix2
ApplyOverMatrix2 (a,b,func)

Apply a function over all entries of 2 matrices (or 1 value and 1 matrix) and return a matrix of the results. ColumnsOf
ColumnsOf (M)

Gets the columns of a matrix as a horizontal vector. ComplementSubmatrix

ComplementSubmatrix (m,r,c)

Remove column(s) and row(s) from a matrix. CompoundMatrix

CompoundMatrix (k,A)

Calculate the kth compound matrix of A. CountZeroColumns

CountZeroColumns (M)

Count the number of zero columns in a matrix. For example Once you column reduce a matrix you can use this to nd the nullity. See cref and Nullity. DeleteColumn
DeleteColumn (M,col)

Delete a column of a matrix. DeleteRow

DeleteRow (M,row)

Delete a row of a matrix. 61

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions DiagonalOf

DiagonalOf (M)

Gets the diagonal entries of a matrix as a column vector. See Wikipedia106 for more information. DotProduct
DotProduct (u,v)

Get the dot product of two vectors. The vectors must be of the same size. No conjugates are taken so this is a bilinear form even if working over the complex numbers. See Planetmath107 for more information. ExpandMatrix
ExpandMatrix (M)

Expands a matrix just like we do on unquoted matrix input. That is we expand any internal matrices as blocks. This is a way to construct matrices out of smaller ones and this is normally done automatically on input unless the matrix is quoted. HermitianProduct
HermitianProduct (u,v)

Aliases: InnerProduct Get the Hermitian product of two vectors. The vectors must be of the same size. This is a sesquilinear form using the identity matrix. See Mathworld108 for more information. I
I (n)

Aliases: eye Return an identity matrix of a given size, that is n by n. If n is zero, returns null. See Planetmath109 for more information. IndexComplement
IndexComplement (vec,msize)

Return the index complement of a vector of indexes. Everything is one based. For example for vector [2,3] and size 5, we return [1,4,5]. If msize is 0, we always return null. IsDiagonal
IsDiagonal (M)

Is a matrix diagonal. See Wikipedia110 or Planetmath111 for more information. IsIdentity

IsIdentity (x)

Check if a matrix is the identity matrix. Automatically returns false if the matrix is not square. Also works on numbers, in which case it is equivalent to x==1. When x is null (we could think of that as a 0 by 0 matrix), no error is generated and false is returned. 62

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions IsLowerTriangular

IsLowerTriangular (M)

Is a matrix lower triangular. That is, are all the entries above the diagonal zero. IsMatrixInteger
IsMatrixInteger (M)

Check if a matrix is a matrix of an integers (non-complex). IsMatrixNonnegative

IsMatrixNonnegative (M)

Check if a matrix is non-negative, that is if each element is non-negative. Do not confuse positive matrices with positive semi-denite matrices. See Wikipedia112 for more information. IsMatrixPositive
IsMatrixPositive (M)

Check if a matrix is positive, that is if each element is positive (and hence real). In particular, no element is 0. Do not confuse positive matrices with positive denite matrices. See Wikipedia113 for more information. IsMatrixRational
IsMatrixRational (M)

Check if a matrix is a matrix of rational (non-complex) numbers. IsMatrixReal

IsMatrixReal (M)

Check if a matrix is a matrix of real (non-complex) numbers. IsMatrixSquare

IsMatrixSquare (M)

Check if a matrix is square, that is its width is equal to its height. IsUpperTriangular
IsUpperTriangular (M)

Is a matrix upper triangular? That is, a matrix is upper triangular if all all the entries below the diagonal are zero. IsValueOnly
IsValueOnly (M)

Check if a matrix is a matrix of numbers only. Many internal functions make this check. Values can be any number including complex numbers. IsVector
IsVector (v)

Is argument a horizontal or a vertical vector. Genius does not distinguish between a matrix and a vector and a vector is just a 1 by n or n by 1 matrix.

63

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions IsZero

IsZero (x)

Check if a matrix is composed of all zeros. Also works on numbers, in which case it is equivalent to x==0. When x is null (we could think of that as a 0 by 0 matrix), no error is generated and true is returned as the condition is vacuous. LowerTriangular
LowerTriangular (M)

Returns a copy of the matrix M with all the entries above the diagonal set to zero. MakeDiagonal
MakeDiagonal (v,arg...)

Aliases: diag Make diagonal matrix from a vector. Alternatively you can pass in the values to put on the diagonal as arguments. So MakeDiagonal([1,2,3]) is the same as MakeDiagonal(1,2,3). See Wikipedia114 or Planetmath115 for more information. MakeVector
MakeVector (A)

Make column vector out of matrix by putting columns above each other. Returns null when given null. MatrixProduct
MatrixProduct (A)

Calculate the product of all elements in a matrix or vector. That is we multiply all the elements and return a number that is the product of all the elements. MatrixSum
MatrixSum (A)

Calculate the sum of all elements in a matrix or vector. That is we add all the elements and return a number that is the sum of all the elements. MatrixSumSquares
MatrixSumSquares (A)

Calculate the sum of squares of all elements in a matrix or vector. OuterProduct

OuterProduct (u,v)

Get the outer product of two vectors. That is, suppose that u and v are vertical vectors, then the outer product is v * u.. ReverseVector
ReverseVector (v)

Reverse elements in a vector. Return null if given null RowSum

RowSum (m)

Calculate sum of each row in a matrix and return a vertical vector with the result.

64

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions RowSumSquares

RowSumSquares (m)

Calculate sum of squares of each row in a matrix and return a vertical vector with the results. RowsOf
RowsOf (M)

Gets the rows of a matrix as a vertical vector. Each element of the vector is a horizontal vector which is the corresponding row of M. This function is useful if you wish to loop over the rows of a matrix. For example, as for r in RowsOf(M) do something(r). SetMatrixSize
SetMatrixSize (M,rows,columns)

Make new matrix of given size from old one. That is, a new matrix will be returned to which the old one is copied. Entries that dont t are clipped and extra space is lled with zeros. if rows or columns are zero then null is returned. ShufeVector
ShuffleVector (v)

Shufe elements in a vector. Return null if given null SortVector

SortVector (v)

Sort vector elements in an increasing order. StripZeroColumns

StripZeroColumns (M)

Removes any all-zero columns of M. StripZeroRows

StripZeroRows (M)

Removes any all-zero rows of M. Submatrix

Submatrix (m,r,c)

Return column(s) and row(s) from a matrix. This is just equivalent to m@(r,c). r and c should be vectors of rows and columns (or single numbers if only one row or column is needed). SwapRows
SwapRows (m,row1,row2)

Swap two rows in a matrix. UpperTriangular

UpperTriangular (M)

Returns a copy of the matrix M with all the entries below the diagonal set to zero. columns
columns (M)

Get the number of columns of a matrix. 65

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions elements

elements (M)

Get the total number of elements of a matrix. This is the number of columns times the number of rows. ones
ones (rows,columns...)

Make an matrix of all ones (or a row vector if only one argument is given). Returns null if either rows or columns are zero. rows
rows (M)

Get the number of rows of a matrix. zeros

zeros (rows,columns...)

Make a matrix of all zeros (or a row vector if only one argument is given). Returns null if either rows or columns are zero.

Linear Algebra
AuxiliaryUnitMatrix
AuxiliaryUnitMatrix (n)

Get the auxiliary unit matrix of size n. This is a square matrix matrix with that is all zero except the superdiagonal being all ones. It is the Jordan block matrix of one zero eigenvalue. See Planetmath116 or Mathworld117 for more information on Jordan Cannonical Form. BilinearForm
BilinearForm (v,A,w)

Evaluate (v,w) with respect to the bilinear form given by the matrix A. BilinearFormFunction
BilinearFormFunction (A)

Return a function that evaluates two vectors with respect to the bilinear form given by A. CharacteristicPolynomial
CharacteristicPolynomial (M)

Aliases: CharPoly Get the characteristic polynomial as a vector. That is, return the coefcients of the polynomial starting with the constant term. This is the polynomial dened by det(M-xI). The roots of this polynomial are the eigenvalues of M. See also CharacteristicPolynomialFunction. See Planetmath118 for more information.

66

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions CharacteristicPolynomialFunction

CharacteristicPolynomialFunction (M)

Get the characteristic polynomial as a function. This is the polynomial dened by det(M-xI). The roots of this polynomial are the eigenvalues of M. See also CharacteristicPolynomial. See Planetmath119 for more information. ColumnSpace
ColumnSpace (M)

Get a basis matrix for the columnspace of a matrix. That is, return a matrix whose columns are the basis for the column space of M. That is the space spanned by the columns of M. CommutationMatrix
CommutationMatrix (m, n)

Return the commutation matrix K(m,n) which is the unique m*n by m*n matrix such that K(m,n) * MakeVector(A) = MakeVector(A.) for all m by n matrices A. CompanionMatrix
CompanionMatrix (p)

Companion matrix of a polynomial (as vector). ConjugateTranspose

ConjugateTranspose (M)

Conjugate transpose of a matrix (adjoint). This is the same as the operator. See Planetmath120 for more information. Convolution
Convolution (a,b)

Aliases: convol Calculate convolution of two horizontal vectors. ConvolutionVector

ConvolutionVector (a,b)

Calculate convolution of two horizontal vectors. Return result as a vector and not added together. CrossProduct
CrossProduct (v,w)

CrossProduct of two vectors in R3 as a column vector. DeterminantalDivisorsInteger

DeterminantalDivisorsInteger (M)

Get the determinantal divisors of an integer matrix (not its characteristic). DirectSum
DirectSum (M,N...)

Direct sum of matrices.

67

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions DirectSumMatrixVector

DirectSumMatrixVector (v)

Direct sum of a vector of matrices. Eigenvalues

Eigenvalues (M)

Aliases: eig Get the eigenvalues of a square matrix. Currently only works for matrices of size up to 4 by 4, or for triangular matrices (for which the eigenvalues are on the diagonal). See Wikipedia121 or Planetmath122 or Mathworld123 for more information. Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors (M) Eigenvectors (M, &eigenvalues) Eigenvectors (M, &eigenvalues, &multiplicities)

Get the eigenvectors of a square matrix. Optionally get also the eigenvalues and their algebraic multiplicities. Currently only works for matrices of size up to 2 by 2. See Wikipedia124 or Planetmath125 or Mathworld126 for more information. GramSchmidt
GramSchmidt (v,B...)

Apply the Gram-Schmidt process (to the columns) with respect to inner product given by B. If B is not given then the standard Hermitian product is used. B can either be a sesquilinear function of two arguments or it can be a matrix giving a sesquilinear form. The vectors will be made orthonormal with respect to B. See Planetmath127 for more information. HankelMatrix
HankelMatrix (c,r)

Hankel matrix. HilbertMatrix

HilbertMatrix (n)

Hilbert matrix of order n. See Planetmath128 for more information. Image

Image (T)

Get the image (columnspace) of a linear transform. InfNorm

InfNorm (v)

Get the Inf Norm of a vector, sometimes called the sup norm or the max norm. InvariantFactorsInteger
InvariantFactorsInteger (M)

Get the invariant factors of a square integer matrix (not its characteristic). 68

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions InverseHilbertMatrix

InverseHilbertMatrix (n)

Inverse Hilbert matrix of order n. See Planetmath129 for more information. IsHermitian
IsHermitian (M)

Is a matrix Hermitian. That is, is it equal to its conjugate transpose. See Planetmath130 for more information. IsInSubspace
IsInSubspace (v,W)

Test if a vector is in a subspace. IsInvertible

IsInvertible (n)

Is a matrix (or number) invertible (Integer matrix is invertible if and only if it is invertible over the integers). IsInvertibleField
IsInvertibleField (n)

Is a matrix (or number) invertible over a eld. IsNormal

IsNormal (M)

Is M a normal matrix. That is, does M*M == M*M. See Planetmath131 or Mathworld132 for more information. IsPositiveDenite
IsPositiveDefinite (M)

Is M a Hermitian positive denite matrix. That is if HermitianProduct(M*v,v) is always strictly positive for any vector v. M must be square and Hermitian to be positive denite. The check that is performed is that every principal submatrix has a non-negative determinant. (See HermitianProduct) Note that some authors (for example Mathworld) do not require that M be Hermitian, and then the condition is on the real part of the inner product, but we do not take this view. If you wish to perform this check, just check the Hermitian part of the matrix M as follows: IsPositiveDefinite(M+M). See Planetmath133 or Mathworld134 for more information. IsPositiveSemidenite
IsPositiveSemidefinite (M)

Is

M a Hermitian positive semidenite matrix. That is if HermitianProduct(M*v,v) is always non-negative for any vector v. M must be

square and Hermitian to be positive semidenite. The check that is performed is that every principal submatrix has a non-negative determinant. (See HermitianProduct) Note that some authors do not require that M be Hermitian, and then the condition is on the real part of the inner product, but we do not take this view. If you wish to perform this check, just check the Hermitian part of the matrix M as follows: IsPositiveSemidefinite(M+M). 69

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions See Planetmath135 or Mathworld136 for more information. IsSkewHermitian
IsSkewHermitian (M)

Is a matrix skew-Hermitian. That is, is the conjugate transpose equal to negative of the matrix. See Planetmath137 for more information. IsUnitary
IsUnitary (M)

Is a matrix unitary? That is, does M*M and M*M equal the identity. See Planetmath138 or Mathworld139 for more information. JordanBlock
JordanBlock (n,lambda)

Aliases: J Get the Jordan block corresponding to the eigenvalue lambda with multiplicity n. See Planetmath140 or Mathworld141 for more information. Kernel
Kernel (T)

Get the kernel (nullspace) of a linear transform. (See NullSpace) LUDecomposition

LUDecomposition (A, L, U)

Get the LU decomposition of A and store the result in the L and U which should be references. It returns true if successful. For example suppose that A is a square matrix, then after running:
genius> LUDecomposition(A,&L,&U)

You will have the lower matrix stored in a variable called L and the upper matrix in a variable called U. This is the LU decomposition of a matrix aka Crout and/or Cholesky reduction. (ISBN 0-201-11577-8 pp.99-103) The upper triangular matrix features a diagonal of values 1 (one). This is not Doolittles Method which features the 1s diagonal on the lower matrix. Not all matrices have LU decompositions, for example [0,1;1,0] does not and this function returns false in this case and sets L and U to null. See Planetmath142 or Mathworld143 for more information. Minor
Minor (M,i,j)

Get the i-j minor of a matrix. See Planetmath144 for more information. NonPivotColumns
NonPivotColumns (M)

Return the columns that are not the pivot columns of a matrix. 70

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions Norm

Norm (v,p...)

Aliases: norm Get the p Norm (or 2 Norm if no p is supplied) of a vector. NullSpace
NullSpace (T)

Get the nullspace of a matrix. That is the kernel of the linear mapping that the matrix represents. This is returned as a matrix whose column space is the nullspace of T. See Planetmath145 for more information. Nullity
Nullity (M)

Aliases: nullity Get the nullity of a matrix. That is, return the dimension of the nullspace; the dimension of the kernel of M. See Planetmath146 for more information. OrthogonalComplement
OrthogonalComplement (M)

Get the orthogonal complement of the columnspace. PivotColumns

PivotColumns (M)

Return pivot columns of a matrix, that is columns which have a leading 1 in row reduced form. Also returns the row where they occur. Projection
Projection (v,W,B...)

Projection of vector v onto subspace W with respect to inner product given by B. If B is not given then the standard Hermitian product is used. B can either be a sesquilinear function of two arguments or it can be a matrix giving a sesquilinear form. QRDecomposition
QRDecomposition (A, Q)

Get the QR decomposition of a square matrix A, returns the upper triangular matrix R and sets Q to the orthogonal (unitary) matrix. Q should be a reference or null if you dont want any return. For example:
genius> R = QRDecomposition(A,&Q)

You will have the upper triangular matrix stored in a variable called R and the orthogonal (unitary) matrix stored in Q. See Planetmath147 or Mathworld148 for more information. RayleighQuotient
RayleighQuotient (A,x)

Return the Rayleigh quotient (also called the Rayleigh-Ritz quotient or ratio) of a matrix and a vector. See Planetmath149 for more information. 71

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions RayleighQuotientIteration

RayleighQuotientIteration (A,x,epsilon,maxiter,vecref)

Find eigenvalues of A using the Rayleigh quotient iteration method. x is a guess at a eigenvector and could be random. It should have nonzero imaginary part if it will have any chance at nding complex eigenvalues. The code will run at most maxiter iterations and return null if we cannot get within an error of epsilon. vecref should either be null or a reference to a variable where the eigenvector should be stored. See Planetmath150 for more information on Rayleigh quotient. Rank
Rank (M)

Aliases: rank Get the rank of a matrix. See Planetmath151 for more information. RosserMatrix
RosserMatrix ()

Returns the Rosser matrix, which is a classic symmetric eigenvalue test problem. Rotation2D
Rotation2D (angle)

Aliases: RotationMatrix Return the matrix corresponding to rotation around origin in R2. Rotation3DX
Rotation3DX (angle)

Return the matrix corresponding to rotation around origin in R3 about the x-axis. Rotation3DY
Rotation3DY (angle)

Return the matrix corresponding to rotation around origin in R3 about the y-axis. Rotation3DZ
Rotation3DZ (angle)

Return the matrix corresponding to rotation around origin in R3 about the z-axis. RowSpace
RowSpace (M)

Get a basis matrix for the rowspace of a matrix. SesquilinearForm

SesquilinearForm (v,A,w)

Evaluate (v,w) with respect to the sesquilinear form given by the matrix A. SesquilinearFormFunction
SesquilinearFormFunction (A)

Return a function that evaluates two vectors with respect to the sesquilinear form given by A. 72

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions SmithNormalFormField

SmithNormalFormField (A)

Smith Normal Form for elds (will end up with 1s on the diagonal). SmithNormalFormInteger
SmithNormalFormInteger (M)

Smith Normal Form for square integer matrices (not its characteristic). SolveLinearSystem
SolveLinearSystem (M,V,args...)

Solve linear system Mx=V, return solution V if there is a unique solution, null otherwise. Extra two reference parameters can optionally be used to get the reduced M and V. ToeplitzMatrix
ToeplitzMatrix (c, r...)

Return the Toeplitz matrix constructed given the rst column c and (optionally) the rst row r. If only the column c is given then it is conjugated and the nonconjugated version is used for the rst row to give a Hermitian matrix (if the rst element is real of course). See Planetmath152 for more information. Trace
Trace (M)

Aliases: trace Calculate the trace of a matrix. That is the sum of the diagonal elements. See Planetmath153 for more information. Transpose
Transpose (M)

Transpose of a matrix. This is the same as the . operator. See Planetmath154 for more information. VandermondeMatrix
VandermondeMatrix (v)

Aliases: vander Return the Vandermonde matrix. VectorAngle

VectorAngle (v,w,B...)

The angle of two vectors with respect to inner product given by B. If B is not given then the standard Hermitian product is used. B can either be a sesquilinear function of two arguments or it can be a matrix giving a sesquilinear form. VectorSpaceDirectSum
VectorSpaceDirectSum (M,N)

The direct sum of the vector spaces M and N.

73

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions VectorSubspaceIntersection

VectorSubspaceIntersection (M,N)

Intersection of the subspaces given by M and N. VectorSubspaceSum

VectorSubspaceSum (M,N)

The sum of the vector spaces M and N, that is {w | w=m+n, m in M, n in N}. adj
adj (m)

Aliases: Adjugate Get the classical adjoint (adjugate) of a matrix. cref

cref (M)

Aliases: CREF ColumnReducedEchelonForm Compute the Column Reduced Echelon Form. det
det (M)

Aliases: Determinant Get the determinant of a matrix. See Wikipedia155 or Planetmath156 for more information. ref
ref (M)

Aliases: REF RowEchelonForm Get the row echelon form of a matrix. That is, apply gaussian elimination but not backaddition to M. The pivot rows are divided to make all pivots 1. See Wikipedia157 or Planetmath158 for more information. rref
rref (M)

Aliases: RREF ReducedRowEchelonForm Get the reduced row echelon form of a matrix. That is, apply gaussian elimination together with backaddition to M. See Wikipedia159 or Planetmath160 for more information.

Combinatorics
Catalan
Catalan (n)

Get nth Catalan number. See Planetmath161 for more information.

74

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions Combinations

Combinations (k,n)

Get all combinations of k numbers from 1 to n as a vector of vectors. (See also NextCombination) DoubleFactorial
DoubleFactorial (n)

Double factorial: n(n-2)(n-4)... See Planetmath162 for more information. Factorial

Factorial (n)

Factorial: n(n-1)(n-2)... See Planetmath163 for more information. FallingFactorial

FallingFactorial (n,k)

Falling factorial: (n)_k = n(n-1)...(n-(k-1)) See Planetmath164 for more information. Fibonacci
Fibonacci (x)

Aliases: fib Calculate nth Fibonacci number. That is the number dened recursively by Fibonacci(n) = Fibonacci(n-1) + Fibonacci(n-2) and Fibonacci(1) = Fibonacci(2) = 1. See Wikipedia165 or Planetmath166 or Mathworld167 for more information. FrobeniusNumber
FrobeniusNumber (v,arg...)

Calculate the Frobenius number. That is calculate smallest number that cannot be given as a non-negative integer linear combination of a given vector of nonnegative integers. The vector can be given as separate numbers or a single vector. All the numbers given should have GCD of 1. See Mathworld168 for more information. GaloisMatrix
GaloisMatrix (combining_rule)

Galois matrix given a linear combining rule (a_1*x_+...+a_n*x_n=x_(n+1)). GreedyAlgorithm

FrobeniusNumber (n,v)

Find the vector c of non-negative integers such that taking the dot product with v is equal to n. If not possible returns null. v should be given sorted in increasing order and should consist of non-negative integers. See Mathworld169 for more information. HarmonicNumber
HarmonicNumber (n,r)

Aliases: HarmonicH 75

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions Harmonic Number, the nth harmonic number of order r. Hofstadter
Hofstadter (n)

Hofstadters function q(n) dened by q(1)=1, q(2)=1, q(n)=q(n-q(n-1))+q(n-q(n2)). LinearRecursiveSequence

LinearRecursiveSequence (seed_values,combining_rule,n)

Compute linear recursive sequence using Galois stepping. Multinomial

Multinomial (v,arg...)

Calculate multinomial coefcients. Takes a vector of k non-negative integers and computes the multinomial coefcient. This corresponds to the coefcient in the homogeneous polynomial in k variables with the corresponding powers. The formula for Multinomial(a,b,c) can be written as:
(a+b+c)! / (a!b!c!)

In other words, if we would have only two elements, then Multinomial(a,b) is the same thing as Binomial(a+b,a) or Binomial(a+b,b). See Planetmath170, Mathworld171, or Wikipedia172 for more information. NextCombination
NextCombination (v,n)

Get combination that would come after v in call to combinations, rst combination should be [1:k]. This function is useful if you have many combinations to go through and you dont want to waste memory to store them all. For example with Combination you would normally write a loop like:
for n in Combinations (4,6) do ( SomeFunction (n) );

But with NextCombination you would write something like:

n:=[1:4]; do ( SomeFunction (n) ) while not IsNull(n:=NextCombination(n,6));

See also Combinations. Pascal

Pascal (i)

Get the Pascals triangle as a matrix. This will return an i+1 by i+1 lower diagonal matrix which is the Pascals triangle after i iterations. See Planetmath173 for more information. Permutations
Permutations (k,n)

Get all permutations of k numbers from 1 to n as a vector of vectors. See Mathworld174 or Wikipedia175 for more information.

76

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions RisingFactorial

RisingFactorial (n,k)

Aliases: Pochhammer (Pochhammer) Rising factorial: (n)_k = n(n+1)...(n+(k-1)). See Planetmath176 for more information. StirlingNumberFirst
StirlingNumberFirst (n,m)

Aliases: StirlingS1 Stirling number of the rst kind. See Planetmath177 or Mathworld178 for more information. StirlingNumberSecond
StirlingNumberSecond (n,m)

Aliases: StirlingS2 Stirling number of the second kind. See Planetmath179 or Mathworld180 for more information. Subfactorial
Subfactorial (n)

Subfactorial: n! times sum_{k=1}^n (-1)^k/k!. Triangular

Triangular (nth)

Calculate the nth triangular number. See Planetmath181 for more information. nCr
nCr (n,r)

Aliases: Binomial Calculate combinations, that is, the binomial coefcient. n can be any real number. See Planetmath182 for more information. nPr
nPr (n,r)

Calculate the number of permutations of size rof numbers from 1 to n. See Mathworld183 or Wikipedia184 for more information.

Calculus
CompositeSimpsonsRule
CompositeSimpsonsRule (f,a,b,n)

Integration of f by Composite Simpsons Rule on the interval [a,b] with n subintervals with error of max(f)*h^4*(b-a)/180, note that n should be even. See Planetmath185 for more information. 77

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions CompositeSimpsonsRuleTolerance

CompositeSimpsonsRuleTolerance (f,a,b,FourthDerivativeBound,Tolerance)

Integration of f by Composite Simpsons Rule on the interval [a,b] with the number of steps calculated by the fourth derivative bound and the desired tolerance. See Planetmath186 for more information. Derivative
Derivative (f,x0)

Attempt to calculate derivative by trying rst symbolically and then numerically. EvenPeriodicExtension
EvenPeriodicExtension (f,L)

Return a function which is even periodic extension of f with half period L. That is a function dened on the interval [0,L] extended to be even on [-L,L] and then extended to be periodic with period 2*L. See also OddPeriodicExtension and PeriodicExtension. FourierSeriesFunction
FourierSeriesFunction (a,b,L)

Return a function which is a Fourier series with the coefcients given by the vectors a (sines) and b (cosines). Note that a@(1) is the constant coefcient! That is, a@(n) refers to the term cos(x*(n-1)*pi/L), while b@(n) refers to the term sin(x*n*pi/L). Either a or b can be null. See Wikipedia187 or Mathworld188 for more information. InniteProduct
InfiniteProduct (func,start,inc)

Try to calculate an innite product for a single parameter function. InniteProduct2

InfiniteProduct2 (func,arg,start,inc)

Try to calculate an innite product for a double parameter function with func(arg,n). InniteSum
InfiniteSum (func,start,inc)

Try to calculate an innite sum for a single parameter function. InniteSum2

InfiniteSum2 (func,arg,start,inc)

Try to calculate an innite sum for a double parameter function with func(arg,n). IsContinuous
IsContinuous (f,x0)

Try and see if a real-valued function is continuous at x0 by calculating the limit there. IsDifferentiable
IsDifferentiable (f,x0)

Test for differentiability by approximating the left and right limits and comparing. 78

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions LeftLimit

LeftLimit (f,x0)

Calculate the left limit of a real-valued function at x0. Limit

Limit (f,x0)

Calculate the limit of a real-valued function at x0. Tries to calculate both left and right limits. MidpointRule
MidpointRule (f,a,b,n)

Integration by midpoint rule. NumericalDerivative

NumericalDerivative (f,x0)

Aliases: NDerivative Attempt to calculate numerical derivative. NumericalFourierSeriesCoefcients

NumericalFourierSeriesCoefficients (f,L,N)

Return a vector of vectors [a,b] where a are the cosine coefcients and b are the sine coefcients of the Fourier series of f with half-period L (that is dened on [-L,L] and extended periodically) with coefcients up to Nth harmonic computed numerically. The coefcients are computed by numerical integration using NumericalIntegral. See Wikipedia189 or Mathworld190 for more information. NumericalFourierSeriesFunction
NumericalFourierSeriesFunction (f,L,N)

Return a function which is the Fourier series of f with half-period L (that is dened on [-L,L] and extended periodically) with coefcients up to Nth harmonic computed numerically. This is the trigonometric real series composed of sines and cosines. The coefcients are computed by numerical integration using NumericalIntegral. See Wikipedia191 or Mathworld192 for more information. NumericalFourierCosineSeriesCoefcients
NumericalFourierCosineSeriesCoefficients (f,L,N)

Return a vector of coefcients of the the cosine Fourier series of f with halfperiod L. That is, we take f dened on [0,L] take the even periodic extension and compute the Fourier series, which only has cosine terms. The series is computed up to the Nth harmonic. The coefcients are computed by numerical integration using NumericalIntegral. Note that a@(1) is the constant coefcient! That is, a@(n) refers to the term cos(x*(n-1)*pi/L). See Wikipedia193 or Mathworld194 for more information. NumericalFourierCosineSeriesFunction
NumericalFourierCosineSeriesFunction (f,L,N)

Return a function which is the cosine Fourier series of f with half-period L. That is, we take f dened on [0,L] take the even periodic extension and compute the Fourier series, which only has cosine terms. The series is computed up to 79

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions the Nth harmonic. The coefcients are computed by numerical integration using NumericalIntegral. See Wikipedia195 or Mathworld196 for more information. NumericalFourierSineSeriesCoefcients
NumericalFourierSineSeriesCoefficients (f,L,N)

Return a vector of coefcients of the the sine Fourier series of f with half-period L. That is, we take f dened on [0,L] take the odd periodic extension and compute the Fourier series, which only has sine terms. The series is computed up to the Nth harmonic. The coefcients are computed by numerical integration using NumericalIntegral. See Wikipedia197 or Mathworld198 for more information. NumericalFourierSineSeriesFunction
NumericalFourierSineSeriesFunction (f,L,N)

Return a function which is the sine Fourier series of f with half-period L. That is, we take f dened on [0,L] take the odd periodic extension and compute the Fourier series, which only has sine terms. The series is computed up to the Nth harmonic. The coefcients are computed by numerical integration using NumericalIntegral. See Wikipedia199 or Mathworld200 for more information. NumericalIntegral
NumericalIntegral (f,a,b)

Integration by rule set in NumericalIntegralFunction of f from a to b using NumericalIntegralSteps steps. NumericalLeftDerivative

NumericalLeftDerivative (f,x0)

Attempt to calculate numerical left derivative. NumericalLimitAtInnity

NumericalLimitAtInfinity (_f,step_fun,tolerance,successive_for_success,N)

Attempt to calculate the limit of f(step_fun(i)) as i goes from 1 to N. NumericalRightDerivative

NumericalRightDerivative (f,x0)

Attempt to calculate numerical right derivative. OddPeriodicExtension

OddPeriodicExtension (f,L)

Return a function which is odd periodic extension of f with half period L. That is a function dened on the interval [0,L] extended to be odd on [-L,L] and then extended to be periodic with period 2*L. See also EvenPeriodicExtension and PeriodicExtension. OneSidedFivePointFormula
OneSidedFivePointFormula (f,x0,h)

Compute one-sided derivative using ve point formula.

80

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions OneSidedThreePointFormula

OneSidedThreePointFormula (f,x0,h)

Compute one-sided derivative using three-point formula. PeriodicExtension

PeriodicExtension (f,a,b)

Return a function which is the periodic extension of f dened on the interval

[a,b] and has period b-a.

See also OddPeriodicExtension and EvenPeriodicExtension. RightLimit

RightLimit (f,x0)

Calculate the right limit of a real-valued function at x0. TwoSidedFivePointFormula

TwoSidedFivePointFormula (f,x0,h)

Compute two-sided derivative using ve-point formula. TwoSidedThreePointFormula

TwoSidedThreePointFormula (f,x0,h)

Compute two-sided derivative using three-point formula.

Functions
Argument
Argument (z)

Aliases: Arg arg argument (angle) of complex number. DirichletKernel

DirichletKernel (n,t)

Dirichlet kernel of order n. DiscreteDelta

DiscreteDelta (v)

Returns 1 if and only if all elements are zero. ErrorFunction

ErrorFunction (x)

Aliases: erf The error function, 2/sqrt(pi) * int_0^x e^(-t^2) dt. See Planetmath201 for more information. FejerKernel
FejerKernel (n,t)

Fejer kernel of order n evaluated at t See Planetmath202 for more information. 81

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions GammaFunction

GammaFunction (x)

Aliases: Gamma The Gamma function. Currently only implemented for real values. See Planetmath203 for more information. KroneckerDelta
KroneckerDelta (v)

Returns 1 if and only if all elements are equal. MinimizeFunction

MinimizeFunction (func,x,incr)

Find the rst value where f(x)=0. MoebiusDiskMapping

MoebiusDiskMapping (a,z)

Moebius mapping of the disk to itself mapping a to 0. See Planetmath204 for more information. MoebiusMapping
MoebiusMapping (z,z2,z3,z4)

Moebius mapping using the cross ratio taking z2,z3,z4 to 1,0, and innity respectively. See Planetmath205 for more information. MoebiusMappingInftyToInfty
MoebiusMappingInftyToInfty (z,z2,z3)

Moebius mapping using the cross ratio taking innity to innity and z2,z3 to 1 and 0 respectively. See Planetmath206 for more information. MoebiusMappingInftyToOne
MoebiusMappingInftyToOne (z,z3,z4)

Moebius mapping using the cross ratio taking innity to 1 and z3,z4 to 0 and innity respectively. See Planetmath207 for more information. MoebiusMappingInftyToZero
MoebiusMappingInftyToZero (z,z2,z4)

Moebius mapping using the cross ratio taking innity to 0 and z2,z4 to 1 and innity respectively. See Planetmath208 for more information. PoissonKernel
PoissonKernel (r,sigma)

Poisson kernel on D(0,1) (not normalized to 1, that is integral of this is 2pi).

82

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions PoissonKernelRadius

PoissonKernelRadius (r,sigma)

Poisson kernel on D(0,R) (not normalized to 1). RiemannZeta

RiemannZeta (x)

Aliases: zeta The Riemann zeta function. Currently only implemented for real values. See Planetmath209 for more information. UnitStep
UnitStep (x)

The unit step function is 0 for x<0, 1 otherwise. This is the integral of the Dirac Delta function. Also called the Heaviside function. See Wikipedia210 for more information. cis
cis (x)

The cis function, that is the same as cos(x)+1i*sin(x) deg2rad

deg2rad (x)

Convert degrees to radians. rad2deg

rad2deg (x)

Convert radians to degrees.

Equation Solving
CubicFormula
CubicFormula (p)

Compute roots of a cubic (degree 3) polynomial using the cubic formula. The polynomial should be given as a vector of coefcients. That is 4*x^3 + 2*x + 1 corresponds to the vector [1,2,0,4]. Returns a column vector of the three solutions. The rst solution is always the real one as a cubic always has one real solution. See Planetmath211, Mathworld212, or Wikipedia213 for more information. EulersMethod
EulersMethod (f,x0,y0,x1,n)

Use classical Eulers method to numerically solve y=f(x,y) for initial x0, y0 going to x1 with n increments, returns y at x1. Systems can be solved by just having y be a (column) vector everywhere. That is, y0 can be a vector in which case f should take a number x and a vector of the same size for the second argument and should return a vector of the same size. See Mathworld214, or Wikipedia215 for more information.

83

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions EulersMethodFull

EulersMethodFull (f,x0,y0,x1,n)

Use classical Eulers method to numerically solve y=f(x,y) for initial x0, y0 going to x1 with n increments, returns a 2 by n+1 matrix with the x and y values. Suitable for plugging into LinePlotDrawLine. Systems can be solved by just having y be a (column) vector everywhere. That is, y0 can be a vector in which case f should take a number x and a vector of the same size for the second argument and should return a vector of the same size. See Mathworld216, or Wikipedia217 for more information. FindRootBisection
FindRootBisection (f,a,b,TOL,N)

Find root of a function using the bisection method. TOL is the desired tolerance and N is the limit on the number of iterations to run, 0 means no limit. The function returns a vector [success,value,iteration], where success is a boolean indicating success, value is the last value computed, and iteration is the number of iterations done. FindRootFalsePosition
FindRootFalsePosition (f,a,b,TOL,N)

Find root of a function using the method of false position. TOL is the desired tolerance and N is the limit on the number of iterations to run, 0 means no limit. The function returns a vector [success,value,iteration], where success is a boolean indicating success, value is the last value computed, and iteration is the number of iterations done. FindRootMullersMethod
FindRootMullersMethod (f,x1,x2,x3,TOL,N)

Find root of a function using the Mullers method. TOL is the desired tolerance and N is the limit on the number of iterations to run, 0 means no limit. The function returns a vector [success,value,iteration], where success is a boolean indicating success, value is the last value computed, and iteration is the number of iterations done. FindRootSecant
FindRootSecant (f,a,b,TOL,N)

Find root of a function using the secant method. TOL is the desired tolerance and N is the limit on the number of iterations to run, 0 means no limit. The function returns a vector [success,value,iteration], where success is a boolean indicating success, value is the last value computed, and iteration is the number of iterations done. PolynomialRoots
PolynomialRoots (p)

Compute roots of a polynomial (degrees 1 through 4) using one of the formulas for such polynomials. The polynomial should be given as a vector of coefcients. That is 4*x^3 + 2*x + 1 corresponds to the vector [1,2,0,4]. Returns a column vector of the solutions. The function calls QuadraticFormula, CubicFormula, and QuarticFormula. QuadraticFormula
QuadraticFormula (p)

84

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions Compute roots of a quadratic (degree 2) polynomial using the quadratic formula. The polynomial should be given as a vector of coefcients. That is 3*x^2 + 2*x + 1 corresponds to the vector [1,2,3]. Returns a column vector of the two solutions. See Planetmath218 or Mathworld219 for more information. QuarticFormula
QuarticFormula (p)

Compute roots of a quartic (degree 4) polynomial using the quartic formula. The polynomial should be given as a vector of coefcients. That is 5*x^4 + 2*x + 1 corresponds to the vector [1,2,0,0,5]. Returns a column vector of the four solutions. See Planetmath220, Mathworld221, or Wikipedia222 for more information. RungeKutta
RungeKutta (f,x0,y0,x1,n)

Use classical non-adaptive fourth order Runge-Kutta method to numerically solve y=f(x,y) for initial x0, y0 going to x1 with n increments, returns y at x1. Systems can be solved by just having y be a (column) vector everywhere. That is, y0 can be a vector in which case f should take a number x and a vector of the same size for the second argument and should return a vector of the same size. See Mathworld223, or Wikipedia224 for more information. RungeKuttaFull
RungeKuttaFull (f,x0,y0,x1,n)

Use classical non-adaptive fourth order Runge-Kutta method to numerically solve y=f(x,y) for initial x0, y0 going to x1 with n increments, returns a 2 by n+1 matrix with the x and y values. Suitable for plugging into LinePlotDrawLine. Systems can be solved by just having y be a (column) vector everywhere. That is, y0 can be a vector in which case f should take a number x and a vector of the same size for the second argument and should return a vector of the same size. See Mathworld225, or Wikipedia226 for more information.

Statistics
Average
Average (m)

Aliases: average Mean mean Calculate average of an entire matrix. See Mathworld227 for more information. GaussDistribution
GaussDistribution (x,sigma)

Integral of the GaussFunction from 0 to x (area under the normal curve). See Mathworld228 for more information. GaussFunction
GaussFunction (x,sigma)

The normalized Gauss distribution function (the normal curve). 85

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions See Mathworld229 for more information. Median
Median (m)

Aliases: median Calculate median of an entire matrix. See Mathworld230 for more information. PopulationStandardDeviation
PopulationStandardDeviation (m)

Aliases: stdevp Calculate the population standard deviation of a whole matrix. RowAverage
RowAverage (m)

Aliases: RowMean Calculate average of each row in a matrix. See Mathworld231 for more information. RowMedian
RowMedian (m)

Calculate median of each row in a matrix and return a column vector of the medians. See Mathworld232 for more information. RowPopulationStandardDeviation
RowPopulationStandardDeviation (m)

Aliases: rowstdevp Calculate the population standard deviations of rows of a matrix and return a vertical vector. RowStandardDeviation
RowStandardDeviation (m)

Aliases: rowstdev Calculate the standard deviations of rows of a matrix and return a vertical vector. StandardDeviation
StandardDeviation (m)

Aliases: stdev Calculate the standard deviation of a whole matrix.

Polynomials
AddPoly
AddPoly (p1,p2)

Add two polynomials (vectors). 86

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions DividePoly

DividePoly (p,q,&r)

Divide two polynomials (as vectors) using long division. Returns the quotient of the two polynomials. The optional argument r is used to return the remainder. The remainder will have lower degree than q. See Planetmath233 for more information. IsPoly
IsPoly (p)

Check if a vector is usable as a polynomial. MultiplyPoly

MultiplyPoly (p1,p2)

Multiply two polynomials (as vectors). NewtonsMethodPoly

NewtonsMethodPoly (poly,guess,epsilon,maxn)

Run newtons method on a polynomial to attempt to nd a root, returns after two successive values are within epsilon or after maxn tries (then returns null). Poly2ndDerivative
Poly2ndDerivative (p)

Take second polynomial (as vector) derivative. PolyDerivative

PolyDerivative (p)

Take polynomial (as vector) derivative. PolyToFunction

PolyToFunction (p)

Make function out of a polynomial (as vector). PolyToString

PolyToString (p,var...)

Make string out of a polynomial (as vector). SubtractPoly

SubtractPoly (p1,p2)

Subtract two polynomials (as vectors). TrimPoly

TrimPoly (p)

Trim zeros from a polynomial (as vector).

Set Theory
Intersection
Intersection (X,Y)

87

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions Returns a set theoretic intersection of X and Y (X and Y are vectors pretending to be sets). IsIn
IsIn (x,X)

Returns true if the element x is in the set X (where X is a vector pretending to be a set). IsSubset
IsSubset (X, Y)

Returns true if X is a subset of Y (X and Y are vectors pretending to be sets). MakeSet

MakeSet (X)

Returns a vector where every element of X appears only once. SetMinus

SetMinus (X,Y)

Returns a set theoretic difference X-Y (X and Y are vectors pretending to be sets). Union
Union (X,Y)

Returns a set theoretic union of X and Y (X and Y are vectors pretending to be sets).

Commutative Algebra
MacaulayBound
MacaulayBound (c,d)

For a Hilbert function that is c for degree d, given the Macaulay bound for the Hilbert function of degree d+1 (The c^<d> operator from Greens proof). MacaulayLowerOperator
MacaulayLowerOperator (c,d)

The c_<d> operator from Greens proof of Macaulays Theorem. MacaulayRep

MacaulayRep (c,d)

Return the dth Macaulay representation of a positive integer c.

Miscellaneous
ASCIIToString
ASCIIToString (vec)

Convert a vector of ASCII values to a string.

88

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions AlphabetToString

AlphabetToString (vec,alphabet)

Convert a vector of 0-based alphabet values (positions in the alphabet string) to a string. StringToASCII
StringToASCII (str)

Convert a string to a vector of ASCII values. StringToAlphabet

StringToAlphabet (str,alphabet)

Convert a string to a vector of 0-based alphabet values (positions in the alphabet string), -1s for unknown letters.

Symbolic Operations
SymbolicDerivative
SymbolicDerivative (f)

Attempt to symbolically differentiate the function f, where f is a function of one variable. Examples:
genius> SymbolicDerivative(sin)

= ((x)=cos(x))
genius> SymbolicDerivative((x)=7*x^2)

= ((x)=(7*(2*x)))

SymbolicDerivativeTry
SymbolicDerivativeTry (f)

Attempt to symbolically differentiate the function f, where f is a function of one variable, returns null if unsuccessful but is silent. (See SymbolicDerivative) SymbolicNthDerivative
SymbolicNthDerivative (f,n)

Attempt

to

symbolically

differentiate

function

times.

(See

SymbolicDerivative)

SymbolicNthDerivativeTry
SymbolicNthDerivativeTry (f,n)

Attempt to symbolically differentiate a function n times quietly and return null on failure (See SymbolicNthDerivative) SymbolicTaylorApproximationFunction
SymbolicTaylorApproximationFunction (f,x0,n)

Attempt to construct the Taylor approximation function around x0 to the nth degree. (See SymbolicDerivative)

89

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions

Plotting
LinePlot
LinePlot (func1,func2,func3,...) LinePlot (func1,func2,func3,x1,x2,y1,y2)

Plot a function (or several functions) with a line. First up to 10 arguments are functions, then optionally you can specify the limits of the plotting window as x1, x2, y1, y2. If limits are not specied, then the currently set limits apply (See LinePlotWindow) The parameter LinePlotDrawLegends controls the drawing of the legend. Examples:
genius> LinePlot(sin,cos) genius> LinePlot((x)=x^2,-1,1,0,1)

LinePlotClear
LinePlotClear ()

Show the line plot window and clear out functions and any other lines that were drawn. LinePlotDrawLine
LinePlotDrawLine (x1,y1,x2,y2,...) LinePlotDrawLine (v,...)

Draw a line from x1,y1 to x2,y2. x1,y1, x2,y2 can be replaced by an n by 2 matrix for a longer polyline. Extra parameters can be added to specify line color, thickness, arrows, and the plotting window. You can do this by adding a string "color", "thickness", "window", or "arrow", and after it either the color string, the thicknes as an integer, the window as 4-vector, and for arrow either "origin", "end", "both", or "none". For "window" we can specify "fit" rather than a vector in which case, the x range will be set precisely and the y range will be set with ve percent borders around the line. Finally, the legend can be specied by adding "legend" and the string with the legend. Examples:
genius> genius> genius> genius>

LinePlotDrawLine(0,0,1,1,"color","blue","thickness",3) LinePlotDrawLine([0,0;1,-1;-1,-1]) LinePlotDrawLine([0,0;1,1],"arrow","end") LinePlotDrawLine(EulersMethodFull((x,y)=y,0,3,100),"color","blue","legend","The Solu

LinePlotParametric
LinePlotParametric (xfunc,yfunc,...) LinePlotParametric (xfunc,yfunc,t1,t2,tinc) LinePlotParametric (xfunc,yfunc,t1,t2,tinc,x1,x2,y1,y2)

Plot a parametric function with a line. First come the functions for x and y then optionally the t limits as t1,t2,tinc, then optionally the limits as x1,x2,y1,y2. If limits are not specied, then the currently set limits apply (See LinePlotWindow). The parameter LinePlotDrawLegends controls the drawing of the legend. LinePlotCParametric
LinePlotCParametric (func,...) LinePlotCParametric (func,t1,t2,tinc)

90

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions

LinePlotCParametric (func,t1,t2,tinc,x1,x2,y1,y2)

Plot a parametric complex valued function with a line. First comes the function that returns x+iy, then optionally the t limits as t1,t2,tinc, then optionally the limits as x1,x2,y1,y2. If limits are not specied, then the currently set limits apply (See LinePlotWindow). The parameter LinePlotDrawLegends controls the drawing of the legend. SlopeeldClearSolutions
SlopefieldClearSolutions ()

Clears the solutions drawn by the SlopefieldDrawSolution function. SlopeeldDrawSolution

SlopefieldDrawSolution (x, y, dx)

When a slope eld plot is active, draw a solution with the specied initial condition. The standard Runge-Kutta method is used with increment dx. Solutions stay on the graph until a different plot is shown or until you call SlopefieldClearSolutions. You can also use the graphical interface to draw solutions and specify initial conditions with the mouse. SlopeeldPlot
SlopefieldPlot (func) SlopefieldPlot (func,x1,x2,y1,y2)

Plot a slope eld. The function func should take two real numbers x and y, or a single complex number. Optionally you can specify the limits of the plotting window as x1, x2, y1, y2. If limits are not specied, then the currently set limits apply (See LinePlotWindow). The parameter LinePlotDrawLegends controls the drawing of the legend. Examples:
genius> Slopefield((x,y)=sin(x-y),-5,5,-5,5)

SurfacePlot
SurfacePlot (func) SurfacePlot (func,x1,x2,y1,y2,z1,z2)

Plot a surface function which takes either two arguments or a complex number. First comes the function then optionally limits as x1, x2, y1, y2, z1, z2. If limits are not specied, then the currently set limits apply (See SurfacePlotWindow). Genius can only plot a single surface function at this time. Examples:
genius> SurfacePlot(|sin|,-1,1,-1,1,0,1.5) genius> SurfacePlot((x,y)=x^2+y,-1,1,-1,1,-2,2) genius> SurfacePlot((z)=|z|^2,-1,1,-1,1,0,2)

VectoreldClearSolutions
VectorfieldClearSolutions ()

Clears the solutions drawn by the VectorfieldDrawSolution function. VectoreldDrawSolution

VectorfieldDrawSolution (x, y, dt, tlen)

When a vector eld plot is active, draw a solution with the specied initial condition. The standard Runge-Kutta method is used with increment dt for an in91

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions terval of length tlen. Solutions stay on the graph until a different plot is shown or until you call VectorfieldClearSolutions. You can also use the graphical interface to draw solutions and specify initial conditions with the mouse. VectoreldPlot
VectorfieldPlot (funcx, funcy) VectorfieldPlot (funcx, funcy, x1, x2, y1, y2)

Plot a two dimensional vector eld. The function funcx should be the dx/dt of the vectoreld and the function funcy should be the dy/dt of the vectoreld. The functions should take two real numbers x and y, or a single complex number. When the parameter VectorfieldNormalized is true, then the magnitude of the vectors is normalized. That is, only the direction and not the magnitude is shown. Optionally you can specify the limits of the plotting window as x1, x2, y1, y2. If limits are not specied, then the currently set limits apply (See LinePlotWindow). The parameter LinePlotDrawLegends controls the drawing of the legend. Examples:
genius> VectorfieldPlot((x,y)=x^2-y, (x,y)=y^2-x, -1, 1, -1, 1)

Notes
1. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CatalansConstant.html 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler-Mascheroni_constant 3. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/MascheroniConstant.html 4. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Euler-MascheroniConstant.html 5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_ratio 6. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/GoldenRatio.html 7. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GoldenRatio.html 8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_gravity 9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_(mathematical_constant) 10. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/E.html 11. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/e.html 12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi 13. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Pi.html 14. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Pi.html 15. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_value 16. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/AbsoluteValue.html 17. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/ModulusOfComplexNumber.html 18. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/AbsoluteValue.html 19. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ComplexModulus.html 20. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_conjugate 21. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denominator 22. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_part 23. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginary_part 24. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerator 92

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions 25. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_part 26. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_function 27. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/LogarithmFunction.html 28. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ExponentialFunction.html 29. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/SquareRoot.html 30. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctangent 31. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/InverseTangent.html 32. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atan2 33. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/InverseTangent.html 34. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/DenitionsInTrigonometry.html 35. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/HyperbolicFunctions.html 36. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/DenitionsInTrigonometry.html 37. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/HyperbolicFunctions.html 38. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/DenitionsInTrigonometry.html 39. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/HyperbolicFunctions.html 40. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/DenitionsInTrigonometry.html 41. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/HyperbolicFunctions.html 42. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/DenitionsInTrigonometry.html 43. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/HyperbolicFunctions.html 44. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/DenitionsInTrigonometry.html 45. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/HyperbolicFunctions.html 46. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/RelativelyPrime.html 47. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/RelativelyPrime.html 48. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli_number 49. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BernoulliNumber.html 50. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_remainder_theorem 51. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/ChineseRemainderTheorem.html 52. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ChineseRemainderTheorem.html 53. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_logarithm 54. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/DiscreteLogarithm.html 55. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/DiscreteLogarithm.html 56. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_phi 57. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/EulerPhifunction.html 58. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/TotientFunction.html 59. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factorization 60. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermat_factorization 61. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersenne_prime 62. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/MersenneNumbers.html 63. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/MersennePrime.html 64. http://www.mersenne.org/ 65. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/PrimeNumber.html 93

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions 66. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PrimeNumber.html 67. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/LegendreSymbol.html 68. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/LegendreSymbol.html 69. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas%E2%80%93Lehmer_primality_test 70. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/LucasLhemer.html 71. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Lucas-LehmerTest.html 72. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_number 73. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/LucasNumbers.html 74. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/LucasNumber.html 75. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersenne_prime 76. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/MersenneNumbers.html 77. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/MersennePrime.html 78. http://www.mersenne.org/ 79. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Rabin_primality_test 80. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/MillerRabinPrimeTest.html 81. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Rabin-MillerStrongPseudoprimeTest.html 82. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Rabin_primality_test 83. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/MillerRabinPrimeTest.html 84. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Rabin-MillerStrongPseudoprimeTest.html 85. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ModularInverse.html 86. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/MoebiusFunction.html 87. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/MoebiusFunction.html 88. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/PrimeNumber.html 89. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PrimeNumber.html 90. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/PAdicValuation.html 91. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/PrimeNumber.html 92. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PrimeNumber.html 93. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PrimeFactor.html 94. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Pseudoprime.html 95. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Pseudoprime.html 96. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Divisibility.html 97. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Factor.html 98. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/QuadraticResidue.html 99. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/QuadraticResidue.html 100. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/StrongPseudoprime.html 101. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/StrongPseudoprime.html 102. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/GreatestCommonDivisor.html 103. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GreatestCommonDivisor.html 104. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/LeastCommonMultiple.html 105. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/LeastCommonMultiple.html 106. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagonal_of_a_matrix#Matrices 94

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions 107. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/DotProduct.html 108. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/HermitianInnerProduct.html 109. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/IdentityMatrix.html 110. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagonal_matrix 111. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/DiagonalMatrix.html 112. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_matrix 113. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_matrix 114. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagonal_matrix 115. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/DiagonalMatrix.html 116. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/JordanCanonicalFormTheorem.html 117. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/JordanBlock.html 118. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/CharacteristicEquation.html 119. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/CharacteristicEquation.html 120. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/ConjugateTranspose.html 121. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenvalue 122. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Eigenvalue.html 123. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Eigenvalue.html 124. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenvector 125. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Eigenvector.html 126. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Eigenvector.html 127. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/GramSchmidtOrthogonalization.html 128. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/HilbertMatrix.html 129. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/HilbertMatrix.html 130. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/HermitianMatrix.html 131. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/NormalMatrix.html 132. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/NormalMatrix.html 133. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/PositiveDenite.html 134. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PositiveDeniteMatrix.html 135. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/PositiveSemidenite.html 136. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PositiveSemideniteMatrix.html 137. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/SkewHermitianMatrix.html 138. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/UnitaryTransformation.html 139. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/UnitaryMatrix.html 140. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/JordanCanonicalFormTheorem.html 141. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/JordanBlock.html 142. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/LUDecomposition.html 143. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/LUDecomposition.html 144. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Minor.html 145. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Nullspace.html 146. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Nullity.html 147. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/QRDecomposition.html 95

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions 148. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/QRDecomposition.html 149. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/RayleighQuotient.html 150. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/RayleighQuotient.html 151. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/SylvestersLaw.html 152. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/ToeplitzMatrix.html 153. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Trace.html 154. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Transpose.html 155. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinant 156. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Determinant2.html 157. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Row_echelon_form 158. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/RowEchelonForm.html 159. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduced_row_echelon_form 160. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/ReducedRowEchelonForm.html 161. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/CatalanNumbers.html 162. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/DoubleFactorial.html 163. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Factorial.html 164. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/FallingFactorial.html 165. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number 166. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/FibonacciSequence.html 167. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FibonacciNumber.html 168. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FrobeniusNumber.html 169. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GreedyAlgorithm.html 170. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/MultinomialTheorem.html 171. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/MultinomialCoefcient.html 172. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinomial_theorem 173. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/PascalsTriangle.html 174. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Permutation.html 175. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation 176. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/RisingFactorial.html 177. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/StirlingNumbersOfTheFirstKind.html 178. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/StirlingNumberoftheFirstKind.html 179. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/StirlingNumbersSecondKind.html 180. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/StirlingNumberoftheSecondKind.html 181. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/TriangularNumbers.html 182. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Choose.html 183. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Permutation.html 184. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation 185. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/SimpsonsRule.html 186. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/SimpsonsRule.html 187. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series 188. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FourierSeries.html 96

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions 189. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series 190. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FourierSeries.html 191. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series 192. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FourierSeries.html 193. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series 194. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FourierCosineSeries.html 195. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series 196. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FourierCosineSeries.html 197. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series 198. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FourierSineSeries.html 199. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series 200. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FourierSineSeries.html 201. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/ErrorFunction.html 202. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/FejerKernel.html 203. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/GammaFunction.html 204. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/MobiusTransformation.html 205. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/MobiusTransformation.html 206. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/MobiusTransformation.html 207. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/MobiusTransformation.html 208. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/MobiusTransformation.html 209. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/RiemannZetaFunction.html 210. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_step 211. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/CubicFormula.html 212. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CubicFormula.html 213. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_equation 214. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/EulerForwardMethod.html 215. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eulers_method 216. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/EulerForwardMethod.html 217. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eulers_method 218. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/QuadraticFormula.html 219. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/QuadraticFormula.html 220. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/QuarticFormula.html 221. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/QuarticEquation.html 222. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartic_equation 223. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Runge-KuttaMethod.html 224. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runge-Kutta_methods 225. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Runge-KuttaMethod.html 226. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runge-Kutta_methods 227. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ArithmeticMean.html 228. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/NormalDistribution.html 229. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/NormalDistribution.html 97

Chapter 11. List of GEL functions 230. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/StatisticalMedian.html 231. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ArithmeticMean.html 232. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/StatisticalMedian.html 233. http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/PolynomialLongDivision.html

98

Chapter 12. Example Programs in GEL

Here is a function that calculates factorials:
function f(x) = if x <= 1 then 1 else (f(x-1)*x)

With indentation it becomes:

function f(x) = ( if x <= 1 then 1 else (f(x-1)*x) )

This is a direct port of the factorial function from the bc manpage. The syntax seems similar to bc, but different in that in GEL, the last expression is the one that is returned. Using the return function instead, it would be:
function f(x) = ( if (x <= 1) then return (1); return (f(x-1) * x) )

By far the easiest way to dene a factorial function would be using the product loop as follows. This is not only the shortest and fastest, but also probably the most readable version.
function f(x) = prod k=1 to x do k

Here is a larger example, this basically redenes the internal ref function to calculate the row echelon form of a matrix. The function ref is built in and much faster, but this example demonstrates some of the more complex features of GEL.
# Calculate the row-echelon form of a matrix function MyOwnREF(m) = ( if not IsMatrix(m) or not IsValueOnly(m) then (error("MyOwnREF: argument not a value only matrix");bailout); s := min(rows(m), columns(m)); i := 1; d := 1; while d <= s and i <= columns(m) do ( # This just makes the anchor element non-zero if at # all possible if m@(d,i) == 0 then ( j := d+1; while j <= rows(m) do ( if m@(j,i) == 0 then (j=j+1;continue); a := m@(j,); m@(j,) := m@(d,); m@(d,) := a; j := j+1; break ) ); if m@(d,i) == 0 then

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Chapter 12. Example Programs in GEL

(i:=i+1;continue); # Here comes the actual zeroing of all but the anchor # element rows j := d+1; while j <= rows(m)) do ( if m@(j,i) != 0 then ( m@(j,) := m@(j,)-(m@(j,i)/m@(d,i))*m@(d,) ); j := j+1 ); m@(d,) := m@(d,) * (1/m@(d,i)); d := d+1; i := i+1 ); m )

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Chapter 13. Settings

To congure Genius Mathematics Tool, choose SettingsPreferences. There are several basic parameters provided by the calculator in addition to the ones provided by the standard library. These control how the calculator behaves.
Changing Settings with GEL: Many of the settings in Genius are simply global variables, and can be evaluated and assigned to in the same way as normal variables. See the Section called Using Variables in Chapter 5 about evaluating and assigning to variables, and the Section called Parameters in Chapter 11 for a list of settings that can be modied in this way. As an example, you can set the maximum number of digits in a result to 12 by typing:
MaxDigits = 12

Output
Maximum digits to output The maximum digits in a result (MaxDigits) Results as oats If the results should be always printed as oats (ResultsAsFloats) Floats in scientic notation If oats should be in scientic notation (ScientificNotation) Always print full expressions Should we print out full expressions for non-numeric return values (longer than a line) (FullExpressions) Use mixed fractions If fractions should be printed as mixed fractions such as "1 1/3" rather than "4/3". (MixedFractions) Display 0.0 when oating point number is less than 10^-x (0=never chop) How to chop output. But only when other numbers nearby are large. See the documentation of the paramter OutputChopExponent. Only chop numbers when another number is greater than 10^-x When to chop output. This is set by the paramter OutputChopWhenExponent. See the documentation of the paramter OutputChopExponent. Remember output settings across sessions Should the output settings in the Number/Expression output options frame be remembered for next session. Does not apply to the Error/Info output options frame. If unchecked, either the default or any previously saved settings are used each time Genius starts up. Note that settings are saved at the end of the session, so if you wish to change the defaults check this box, restart Genius Mathematics Tool and then uncheck it again.

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Chapter 13. Settings Display errors in a dialog If set the errors will be displayed in a separate dialog, if unset the errors will be printed on the console. Display information messages in a dialog If set the information messages will be displayed in a separate dialog, if unset the information messages will be printed on the console. Maximum errors to display The maximum number of errors to return on one evaluation (MaxErrors). If you set this to 0 then all errors are always returned. Usually if some loop causes many errors, then it is unlikely that you will be able to make sense out of more than a few of these, so seeing a long list of errors is usually not helpful. In addition to these preferences, there are some preferences that can only be changed by setting them in the workspace console. For others that may affect the output see the Section called Parameters in Chapter 11.
IntegerOutputBase

The base that will be used to output integers

OutputStyle

A string, can be "normal", "latex", "mathml" or "troff" and it will effect how matrices (and perhaps other stuff) is printed, useful for pasting into documents. Normal style is the default human readable printing style of Genius Mathematics Tool. The other styles are for typsetting in LaTeX, MathML (XML), or in Troff.

Precision
Floating point precision The oating point precision in bits (FloatPrecision). Note that changing this only affects newly computed quantities. Old values stored in variables are obviously still in the old precision and if you want to have them more precise you will have to recompute them. Exceptions to this are the system constants such as pi or e. Remember precision setting across sessions Should the precision setting be remembered for the next session. If unchecked, either the default or any previously saved setting is used each time Genius starts up. Note that settings are saved at the end of the session, so if you wish to change the default check this box, restart genius and then uncheck it again.

Terminal
Terminal refers to the console in the work area. Scrollback lines Lines of scrollback in the terminal. Font The font to use on the terminal. 102

Chapter 13. Settings Black on white If to use black on white on the terminal. Blinking cursor If the cursor in the terminal should blink when the terminal is in focus. This can sometimes be annoying and it generates idle trafc if you are using Genius remotely.

Memory
Maximum number of nodes to allocate Internally all data is put onto small nodes in memory. This gives a limit on the maximum number of nodes to allocate for computations. This avoids the problem of running out of memory if you do something by mistake which uses too much memory, such as a recursion without end. This could slow your computer and make it hard to even interrupt the program. Once the limit is reached, Genius Mathematics Tool asks if you wish to interrupt the computation or if you wish to continue. If you continue, no limit is applied and it will be possible to run your computer out of memory. The limit will be applied again next time you execute a program or an expression on the Console regardless of how you answered the question. Setting the limit to zero means there is no limit to the amount of memory that genius uses.

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Chapter 14. About Genius Mathematics Tool

Genius Mathematics Tool was written by Ji r (George) Lebl (<[email protected]>). The history of Genius Mathematics Tool goes back to late 1997. It was the rst

calculator program for GNOME, but it then grew beyond being just a desktop calculator. To nd more information about Genius Mathematics Tool, please visit the Genius Web page1. To report a bug or make a suggestion regarding this application or this manual, follow the directions in this document2. This program is distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public license as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. A copy of this license can be found at this link3, or in the le COPYING included with the source code of this program. Ji r Lebl was during various parts of the development partially supported for the work by NSF grant DMS 0900885, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the University of California at San Diego and the University of Wisconsin-Madison. The software has been used for both teaching and research.

Notes
1. http://www.jirka.org/genius.html 2. ghelp:gnome-feedback 3. ghelp:gpl

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Chapter 14. About Genius Mathematics Tool

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