Summary from previous lecture

Laplace transform
L [f (t)] F (s) = Z
+

f (t)est dt. 1 . s

L [u(t)] U (s) = L e
at

h i L f (t) = sF (s) f (0). L Z

t

f ( )d =
0

Transfer functions and impedances

f (t) x(t)
Ts (s)
J

1 . = s+a

F (s ) . s

( s)
b

TF(s) =

X (s) F (s) F ( s) X (s)

ZJ = Js;
TF(s) :=

F (s)

X ( s)
Z (s) =

(s) 1 . = Ts (s) Js + b

Zb = b;

TF(s) =

1 ZJ + Zb

2.004 Fall 07

Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12

Goals for today

Dynamical variables in electrical systems: charge, current, voltage. Electrical elements: resistors, capacitors, inductors, amplifiers. Transfer Functions of electrical systems (networks) Next lecture (Friday): DC motor (electro-mechanical element) model DC motor Transfer Function

2.004 Fall 07

Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12

Electrical dynamical variables: charge, current, voltage

charge q charge ow current i(t) voltage (aka potential) v (t)

+

Coulomb [Cb] Amp ere [A]=[Cb]/[sec] Volt [V]

v ( t)
+ + + + + + +

d q ( t) i(t) := dt

2.004 Fall 07

Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12

Electrical resistance +
+

v ( t)
+
+

+ +
+

+
+
+

i(t)
Collisions between the mobile charges and the material fabric (ions, generally disordered) lead to energy dissipation (loss). As result, energy must be expended to generate current along the resistor; i.e., the current flow requires application of potential across the resistor

V (s ) v (t) = Ri(t) V (s) = RI (s) = R ZR I (s)

The quantity ZR=R is called the resistance (unit: Ohms, or ) The quantity GR=1/R is called the conductance (unit: Mhos or -1)
2.004 Fall 07 Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12

Capacitance +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + dielectric (insulator)

v ( t)
electrode (conductor) + +

i(t)
+ +

+ + +

E (t)

i(t)
+

electrode (conductor)

Since similar charges repel, the potential v is necessary to prevent the charges from flowing away from the electrodes (discharge) Each change in potential v(t+t)=v(t)+v results in change of the energy stored in the capacitor, in the form of charges moving to/away from the electrodes ( change in electric field)
2.004 Fall 07 Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12

Capacitance +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + dielectric (insulator)

v ( t)
electrode (conductor) + +

i(t)
+ +

+ + +

E (t)

i(t)
+

electrode (conductor)

dv (t) dq (t) i(t) = C Capacitance C: q (t) = Cv (t) dt dt V (s) 1 ZC (s) = in Laplace domain: I (s) = CsV (s) I (s) Cs
2.004 Fall 07 Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12

Inductance

v ( t)
+
B (t)
i(t)
Current flow i around a loop results in magnetic field B pointing normal to the loop plane. The magnetic field counteracts changes in current; therefore, to effect a change in current i(t+t)=i(t)+i a potential v must be applied (i.e., energy expended) Inductance L:

di(t) v ( t) = L dt

in Laplace domain:

V (s ) ZL (s) = Ls V (s) = LsI (s) I (s)

Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12

2.004 Fall 07

Summary: passive electrical elements; Sources

Table removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see: Table 2.3 in Nise, Norman S. Control Systems Engineering. 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2004.

Electrical inputs: voltage source, current source +

Ground: potential reference

Voltage source: v (t) independent of current through.

Current source: i(t) independent of voltage across.

v ( t) = 0 always

2.004 Fall 07

Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12

Combining electrical elements: networks

+ -

v ( t) V (s )

vC (t)
VC (s)

Courtesy of Prof. David Trumper. Used with permission.

Network analysis relies on two physical principles Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL) charge conservation
i1

Kirchhoff Voltage Law (KVL) energy conservation

vk

ik

P
2.004 Fall 07

+
v1

ik (t) = 0
I k (s ) = 0

Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12

vk (t) = 0 Vk (s) = 0

Impedances in series and in parallel

I1

Z1
+ V1 +

Z2

I2

Z1
I1

Z2

+ V2

V1

I2

V2

Impedances in series KCL: I1 = I2 I . KVL: V = V1 + V2 . From denition of impedances: Z1 = V1 ; I1 Z2 = V2 . I2

Impedances in parallel KCL: I = I1 + I2 . KVL: V1 + V2 V . From denition of impedances: Z1 = V1 ; I1 Z2 = V2 . I2

Therefore, equivalent circuit has 1 1 1 = + . Z = Z1 + Z2 G G1 G2

Therefore, equivalent circuit has 1 1 1 = G = G1 + G2 . + Z Z1 Z2

+
2.004 Fall 07

Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12

The voltage divider

Z1
+ + +
Equivalent circuit for computing the current I .

Vi

Z2

V2

Vi

Since the two impedances are in series, they combine to an equivalent impedance Z = Z1 + Z2 . The current owing through the combined impedance is I= Therefore, the voltage drop across Z2 is V2 = Z2 I = Z2 V2 Z2 V = . Z Vi Z1 + Z2 V . Z
Block diagram & Transfer Function

Vi

Z2 Z1 + Z2

V2

2.004 Fall 07

Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12

Example: the RC circuit

Z1 = R
+ + +
Block diagram & Transfer Function

Vi

Z2 =

1 Cs

VC

Vi

1 1 + RCs

VC

We recognize the voltage divider conguration, with the voltage across the capacitor as output. The transfer function is obtained as TF(s) = 1/Cs 1 1 VC ( s ) = = = , Vi (s) R + 1/Cs 1 + RCs 1 + s

2.004 Fall 07

where RC . Further, we note the similarity to the transfer function of the rotational mechanical system consisting of a motor, inertia J and viscous friction coecient b that we saw in Lecture 3. [The transfer function was 1/b(1 + s), i.e. identical within a multiplicative constant, and the time constant was dened as J/b.] We can use the analogy to establish properties of the RC system without rederiving them: e.g., the response to a step input Vi = V0 u(t) (step response) is t/ u(t), where now = RC. V C ( t) = V 0 1 e
Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12

Interpretation of the RC step response

Z1 = R
+ + + + +

Vi

Z2 =

1 Cs

VC
+ + +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

VC (t) = V0 1 e

t/

u(t),

= RC.

V0 = 1 Volt R = 2k

C = 1F

+ +

VC (t) [Volts]

Charging of a capacitor: becomes progressively more difficult as charges accumulate. Capacity (steady-state) is reached asymptotically (VCV0 as t)

t [msec]
2.004 Fall 07 Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12

Example: RLC circuit with voltage source

+
R L
+ -

VL (s)

VR (s)

Ls
C vC(t)

R
1 Cs

v(t)

+ -

V (s)

i (t)

VC (s)

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Figure 2.3

V(s) s2 +

1 LC R 1 s + L LC

VC(s)

Figure 2.4

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

2.004 Fall 07

Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12

Example: two-loop network

Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see: Fig. 2.6 and 2.7 in Nise, Norman S. Control Systems Engineering. 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2004.

2.004 Fall 07

Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12

The operational amplifier (op-amp)

(a) Generally, vo = A (v2 v1 ), where A is the amplier gain.
+V +v1(t) +v2(t) + A -V vo(t) v1(t)

vo(t)

(b) When v2 is grounded, as is often the case in practice, then vo = Av1 . (Inverting amplier.) (c) Often, A is large enough that we can approximate A . Rather than connecting the input directly, the opamp should then instead be used in the feedback conguration of Fig. (c). We have: V1 = 0; Ia = 0

Z2(s) Vi(s) Z1(s) I1(s) V1(s) Ia(s) + I2(s)

Vo(s)

(because Vo must remain nite) therefore I1 + I2 = 0; Vi V1 = Vi = I1 Z1 ; Vo V1 = Vo = I2 Z2 .

Figure 2.10

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Combining, we obtain Vo ( s ) Z2 (s) . = Z1 ( s ) Vi ( s )

2.004 Fall 07

Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12