The Symbols of Logic

Weve already seen j used to mean therefore, signifying the conclusion of our argument. It is also customary to express: Propositions with capital letters: P, Q, R, ... Propositional variables with lowercase letters in italics: x, y, z, .... Predicates as functions: P(x), R(y, z), ... Implications with arrows: P  Q Disjunctions with this symbol: P Z Q Conjunctions with this symbol: P Y Q Negation with this symbol: P For all with ~ and there exists with }
Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis Introduction to Logic IN #1

Getting English from Symbols

Symbol P Q R S 1. P Y Q 2. R  S 3. (R Y P)  Q 4. R  (P Z S) 5. P  [(Q  S) Y (S  Q)] Symbol 29 is a prime number 29 is the sum of two squares 29 leaves a remainder of 1 when divided by 4 There is a perfect square which is 1 less than a multiple of 29

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Introduction to Logic IN #2

Getting English from Symbols

Symbol E(x) M(s, t) S(t) T(a, b) L(a, b) B(a, t) Bob eats x s has seen t Beth has seen t a and b are sides of the same triangle a and b have the same length a belongs to t Meaning

1. E(tomatoes) 2. ~x E(x) 3. M(Rachel, The Princess Bride) 4. ~x M(Rachel, x)

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Introduction to Logic IN #3

Getting English from Symbols

5. ~t (S(t)  M(Betty, t) ) 6. }h S(h) 7. T(a, b)  L(a, b)

8. (B(x, y) Y T(w, x) )  B(w, y)

9. ~a ~b ~c [(T(a, b) Y T(b, c) )  T(a, c)]

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Introduction to Logic IN #4

Implications
Given an implication, P  Q, we can form three variants: Original Converse Inverse Contrapositive PQ QP P  Q Q  P

These can be arranged as follows:

Notice that the inverse and converse are contrapositives of one another
Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis Introduction to Logic TSP #5

Implication Variations
Find the inverse, converse and contrapositive of each of these implications: If it rains, then I will not go to the beach Converse Inverse Contrapositive I play well if I get enough sleep Inverse Converse Contrapositive

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Introduction to Logic TSP #6

Compound Propositions
A compound proposition is one that is built from simpler propositions using the connectives Y, Z,  and . (There are others, but they dont concern us here.) Some sample compound propositions: 1. P Y Q 2. R  S 3. (R Y P)  Q 4. R  (P Z S) 5. P  [(Q  S) Y (S  Q)] Note that the truth value of a compound proposition can be determined from the truth values of its simple components.
Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis Introduction to Logic TSP #7

Compound Propositions
Suppose I tell you that: P is True, Q is False, R is True, S is False

What is the value of each of the following: 1. P Y Q 2. R  S 3. (R Y P)  Q 4. R  (P Z S) 5. P  [(Q  S) Y (S  Q)]

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Introduction to Logic TSP #8

Truth Tables Tedious but Foolproof

Given a compound proposition with k simple components we can build the truth table which has a column for each simple proposition, a column for the compound proposition (and perhaps some other columns to help with the construction) and a row for each k-tuple of truth values that the simple propositions can have. (Thats 2k rows altogether.) P Q R (R ; P) (R ; P)  Q

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Introduction to Logic TSP #9

Truth Tables
We can build a truth table for any comound proposition, no matter how complex, as long as we know how to build the truth tables for the simplest compound propositions: P Z Q, P Y Q, P  Q, and P All other compound expressions are just repeated applications of these:

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Introduction to Logic TSP #10

Simplest Truth Tables

Here are the simplest truth tables. P Q T T T F F T F F PYQ T F F F P Q T T T F F T F F P T F P F T PZQ T T T F

P Q PQ T T T F F T F F T F T T

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Introduction to Logic TSP #11

Your Turn
Construct truth tables for the following compound propositions: Q  P

(R Z P) Y (R Z Q)

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Introduction to Logic TSP #12

Logical Equivalence
Two compound propositions are said to be logically equivalent if they have the same truth values regardless of the truth values of the underlying simpler propositions. We use the symbol  to denote logical equivalence. Examples: Q  P  P  Q (R Z P) Y (R Z Q)  P Z Q (P Y Q)  P Z Q (P Z Q)  P Y Q (These last two are called DeMorgans rules, and are generally helpful for negating compound propositions.)
Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis Introduction to Logic TSP #13

Negating Compound Propositions

It is sometimes useful to be able to negate a compound proposition. For example, on one homework problem we were asked to prove (A  E), but it was easier to prove if we rewrote the negation as (A Y E). For example, suppose we wish to prove P, and we know that P  Q. Then it would suffice to prove Q. But if Q is a compound proposition, then we may need to negate it first. Again, if you can negate the simplest compound propositions, you can negate anything. (P Z Q)  P Y Q (P Y Q)  P Z Q (P  Q)  P Y Q (P) P
Introduction to Logic TSP #14

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Your Turn
Negate each of these compound propositions. Your final answers should have no negations of compound expressions. P  (Q Y R)

(P Z Q)  (S  T)

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Introduction to Logic TSP #15

Negating English
Lets try negating some English expressions. Quadrilateral ABCD is a trapezoid if AB is parallel to CD or BC is parallel to AD. Let us suppose ABCD is not a trapezoid. Then...

Quadrilateral ABCD is a rhombus if its diagonals bisect one another and are perpendicular to one another. Let us suppose that ABCD is not a rhombus. Then...

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Introduction to Logic TSP #16

Rhombus
Notice that OR was the right connective between diagonals not perpendicular to one another and diagonals do not bisect one another.

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Introduction to Logic TSP #17

Negating Quantified Expressions

For the third problem on the handout we needed to negate the statement: for every point D on l, the area of ABD equals the area of ABC. This is a quantified expression of the form: ~D P(D) What would it mean for this to be false? }D P(D) We thus have two general rules for negating quantified expressions: (~x P(x) ) (}x P(x) )  }x P(x), and  ~x P(x).
Introduction to Logic TSP #18

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Handout #1  English from Symbols

Here are some propositions: Symbol P Q R S 29 is a prime number 29 is the sum of two squares 29 leaves a remainder of 1 when divided by 4 There is a perfect square which is 1 less than a multiple of 29 Symbol

Please translate each of the following symbolic expressions into English. 1. PYQ

2.

RS

3.

(R Y P)  Q

4.

R  (P Z S)

5.

P  [(Q  S) Y (S  Q)]

Which of the above statements do you think are true?

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Introduction to Logic HO #1

Handout #2  English from Symbols

Here are some predicates: Symbol E(x) M(s, t) S(t) T(a, b) L(a, b) B(a, t) Bob eats x s has seen t Beth has seen t a and b are sides of the same triangle a and b have the same length a belongs to t Meaning Universes of Discourse x: The set of vegetables s: Americans t: The set of movies t: The set of movies a, b: a, b: Sides of a triangle Sides of a triangle

a: Sides of a triangle t: Triangles

Please translate each of the following symbolic expressions into English. 1. E(tomatoes) 2. ~x E(x)

3. M(Rachel, The Princess Bride)

4. ~x M(Rachel, x)

5. }h S(h)

6. ~t (S(t)  M(Betty, t) )

7. T(a, b)  L(a, b)

8. (B(x, y) Y T(w, x) )  B(w, y)

9. ~a ~b ~c [(T(a, b) Y T(b, c) )  T(a, c)]

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Introduction to Logic HO #2

Handout #3  Truth Tables

Construct truth tables for each of the following compound propositions: Q  P

(R Z P) Y (R Z Q)

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Introduction to Logic HO #3

Handout #4  Negating Compound Propositions

Negate each of the compound propositions below. In each case, your final answer should have no negations except on the component simple propositions. P  (Q Y R)

(P Z Q)  (S  T)

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis

Introduction to Logic HO #4

Handout #5  Negating English Expressions

In these two problems you need to negate an English expression. Quadrilateral ABCD is a trapezoid if AB is parallel to CD or BC is parallel to AD. Let us suppose ABCD is not a trapezoid. Then...

Quadrilateral ABCD is a rhombus if its diagonals bisect one another and are perpendicular to one another. Let us suppose that ABCD is not a rhombus. Then...

Suppose A and B are two points in the plane and point C is not on the line m through A and B. Draw a line l through C. Then l is parallel to m if for every point D on l, the area of ABD equals the area of ABC. Suppose l is not parallel to m. Then ...

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Introduction to Logic HO #5

Exercises Introduction to Logic Warm-up Problems:

1. P T T F F Fill in each of these simple truth tables: Q T F T F PYQ P T T F F Q T F T F PZQ P T T F F Q T F T F PQ P T F P

2. 3.

What should P and Q be so that If I had a hammer, Id hammer in the morning is of the form P  Q? Negate the phrase If I have a hammer, then I hammer in the morning.

Presentation Problems:
4. As we saw in class, if you negate an expression twice, then you end up with the expression with which you started. This sometimes has interesting consequences. For example, negate P  Q twice using the rules we saw in class to obtain the disjunctive form of implication. Use truth tables to show that in implication is logically equivalent to its disjunctive form, as obtained in the previous problem. Build a truth table for the expression (P  Q) Y (Q  P). Yesterday we saw how to use syllogisms to show that some collection of premises implied some conclusion. There is a cheesier, more tedious way, too. In this method you build a truth table which includes columns for all your givens and your conclusion. Then you visually inspect to see if in all those rows in which the givens are all true, the conclusion is also true. If this is the case, then you have a (cheesy) proof of the conclusion. Use this cheesy method to prove that: a. P and (P  Q) imply Q. b. (R Z P) and (R Z Q) imply (P Z Q) Why does the expression (P  Q)  R need parentheses, but the expression P Z Q Z R does not? Does the expression P Y Q Y R need parentheses? How about P Z Q Y R?

5. 6. 7.

8.

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis.

Introduction to Logic EX #1

9.

The resolution syllogism states that [(R Z P) Y (R Z Q)]  (P Z Q). Negate this expression, and then put into words what a counterexample to the resolution argument might look like.

10. Negate each of the following statements: a. Every good boy does fine b. All quadrilaterals have an interior angle greater than or equal to 90 degrees c. If the four vertices of quadrilateral ABCD lie on a circle, then angles ABC and CDA are supplementary, and angles BCD and DAB are supplementary. (For the record, angles are supplementary if they add to 180 degrees.) d. There is a triangle whose angles have integral degree measure, are in arithmetic progression, and the smallest one is 40 degrees.

Extension Problems:
11. If you havent yet, please do the extension problems from yesterday. 12. Find a logical expression that yields the truth table shown to the right. Note that there is a method for doing problems like these, in which for each true row in the target column, one builds a conjunction that makes only that row true, and then takes the disjunction of these conjunctions. 13. Define P @ Q to mean (P  Q) Y (Q  P). Does the expression P @ Q @ R need parentheses? P T T T T F F F F Q T T F F T T F F R T F T F T F T F ??? F F T F T T T T

Copyright 2004 Discrete Teaching by Hochberg and DeBellis.

Introduction to Logic EX #2

Discrete Math Resource Book on Introduction to Logic

Workshop Outline Introduction to Logic I. Recap of symbols A. When writing logical expressions we use various symbols for and (Y), or (Z), not ( or ~), implies () and therefore (j) B. Predicates are depicted in functional notation, such as P(x) or M(x, y). C. Getting English from symbols is a two-step process 1. Translate the symbolic expression literally 2. Rephrase the translation so that it reads more smoothly D. When translating predicate expressions from symbols into English, make sure to take the universe of discourse of all variables into account Implications A. The contrapositive is the converse of the inverse, and is also the inverse of the converse B. The contrapositive is logically equivalent to the original C. The inverse and the converse are logically equivalent to each other, since they are contrapositives of one another. D. An implication such as P  Q can appear several ways in English: 1. If P, then Q, Q if P, Whenever P, Q, P implies Q, P only if Q E. The pair of implications P  Q and Q  P can be written P @ Q and is said P if and only if Q or P iff Q. It means that they have the same truth value.

II.

III. Compound Propositions A. Compound propositions are built by connecting together simple propositions with Y, Z, , and parentheses as needed B. The simple propositions are the compound propositions component propositions C. The truth value of a compound proposition is determined by the truth values of its component propositions D. We can thus build a table showing the truth value of the compound proposition under all assignments of values to its component propositions 1. This table is called the truth table of the compound proposition 2. It has 2k rows, where k is the number of variables present in the compound proposition 3. The truth table will frequently have helper columns which contain partial results in the computation of the truth values

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Introduction to Logic RES #1