The Physics GRE Solution Guide

Sample Test

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http://groups.yahoo.com/group/physicsgre_v2

November 3, 2009
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Author:
David S. Latchman
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David S. Latchman ©2009

Preface

This solution guide initially started out on the Yahoo Groups web site and was pretty

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successful at the time. Unfortunately, the group was lost and with it, much of the the
hard work that was put into it. This is my attempt to recreate the solution guide and
make it more widely avaialble to everyone. If you see any errors, think certain things
could be expressed more clearly, or would like to make suggestions, please feel free to
do so.
David Latchman
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Document Changes
05-11-2009 1. Added diagrams to GR0177 test questions 1-25
2. Revised solutions to GR0177 questions 1-25

04-15-2009 First Version

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David S. Latchman ©2009

Contents

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Preface i

1 Classical Mechanics 1
1.1 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Newton’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Work & Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
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1.4 Oscillatory Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Dynamics of Systems of Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 Central Forces and Celestial Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.8 Three Dimensional Particle Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.9 Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.10 Non-inertial Reference Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
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1.11 Hamiltonian and Lagrangian Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Electromagnetism 15
2.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Currents and DC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Magnetic Fields in Free Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Lorentz Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5 Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6 Maxwell’s Equations and their Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.7 Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
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2.8 AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.9 Magnetic and Electric Fields in Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.10 Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.11 Energy in a Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.12 Energy in an Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.13 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.14 Current Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.15 Current Density of Moving Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.16 Resistance and Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.17 Resistivity and Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

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2.18 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.19 Kirchoff’s Loop Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.20 Kirchoff’s Junction Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.21 RC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.22 Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
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2.23 Speed of Propagation of a Light Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.24 Relationship between E and B Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.25 Energy Density of an EM wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.26 Poynting’s Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3 Optics & Wave Phonomena 25

3.1 Wave Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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3.3 Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4 Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.5 Geometrical Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.6 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.7 Doppler Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.8 Snell’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4 Thermodynamics & Statistical Mechanics 27

4.1 Laws of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2 Thermodynamic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

David S. Latchman ©2009

Contents v
4.3 Equations of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.4 Ideal Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.5 Kinetic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.6 Ensembles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.7 Statistical Concepts and Calculation of Thermodynamic Properties . . . 28
4.8 Thermal Expansion & Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.9 Heat Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.10 Specific Heat Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.11 Heat and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.12 First Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

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4.13 Work done by Ideal Gas at Constant Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.14 Heat Conduction Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.15 Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.16 Stefan-Boltzmann’s FormulaStefan-Boltzmann’s Equation . . . . . . . . 30
4.17 RMS Speed of an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
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4.18 Translational Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.19 Internal Energy of a Monatomic gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.20 Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.21 Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.22 Equipartition of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.23 Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.24 Second Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
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5 Quantum Mechanics 35
5.1 Fundamental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2 Schrödinger Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.3 Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.4 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.5 Wave Funtion Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.6 Elementary Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

6 Atomic Physics 43
6.1 Properties of Electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

©2009 David S. Latchman

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6.2 Bohr Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.3 Energy Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.4 Atomic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.5 Atomic Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.6 Selection Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.7 Black Body Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.8 X-Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.9 Atoms in Electric and Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

7 Special Relativity 51

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7.1 Introductory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.2 Time Dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.3 Length Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.4 Simultaneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.5 Energy and Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.6 Four-Vectors and Lorentz Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
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7.7 Velocity Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.8 Relativistic Doppler Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.9 Lorentz Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.10 Space-Time Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

8 Laboratory Methods 57
8.1 Data and Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
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8.2 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.3 Radiation Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.4 Counting Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.5 Interaction of Charged Particles with Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.6 Lasers and Optical Interferometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.7 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.8 Fundamental Applications of Probability and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . 60

9 Sample Test 61
9.1 Period of Pendulum on Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

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Contents vii
9.2 Work done by springs in series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
9.3 Central Forces I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
9.4 Central Forces II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
9.5 Electric Potential I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
9.6 Electric Potential II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9.7 Faraday’s Law and Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9.8 AC Circuits: RL Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9.9 AC Circuits: Underdamped RLC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.10 Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

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9.11 Nuclear Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.12 Ionization of Lithium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.13 Electron Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.14 Effects of Temperature on Speed of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.15 Polarized Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
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9.16 Electron in symmetric Potential Wells I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
9.17 Electron in symmetric Potential Wells II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.18 Relativistic Collisions I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.19 Relativistic Collisions II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.20 Thermodynamic Cycles I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.21 Thermodynamic Cycles II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.22 Distribution of Molecular Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
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9.23 Temperature Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

9.24 Counting Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.25 Thermal & Electrical Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.26 Nonconservation of Parity in Weak Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.27 Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.28 Lorentz Force Law I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.29 Lorentz Force Law II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.30 Nuclear Angular Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.31 Potential Step Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

©2009 David S. Latchman

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A Constants & Important Equations 87
A.1 Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
A.2 Vector Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
A.3 Commutators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
A.4 Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

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List of Tables

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4.22.1Table of Molar Specific Heats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

9.4.1 Table of Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

A.1.1Something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
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x List of Tables

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List of Figures

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9.5.1 Diagram of Uniformly Charged Circular Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
9.8.1 Schematic of Inductance-Resistance Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.8.2 Potential Drop across Resistor in a Inductor-Resistance Circuit . . . . . . 68
9.9.1 LRC Oscillator Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.9.2 Forced Damped Harmonic Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.15.1Waves that are not plane-polarized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
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9.15.2φ = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
9.22.1Maxwell-Boltzmann Speed Distribution of Nobel Gases . . . . . . . . . . 79
9.27.1Hoop and S-shaped wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.28.1Charged particle moving parallel to a positively charged current carry-
ing wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.31.1Wavefunction of particle through a potential step barrier . . . . . . . . . 85
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xii List of Figures

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Chapter 1
Classical Mechanics

1.1

1.1.1
Kinematics

Linear Motion

Average Velocity FT
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∆x x2 − x1
v= = (1.1.1)
∆t t2 − t1

Instantaneous Velocity

∆x dx
v = lim = = v(t) (1.1.2)
∆t→0 ∆t dt

Kinematic Equations of Motion

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The basic kinematic equations of motion under constant acceleration, a, are

v = v0 + at (1.1.3)
v2 = v20 + 2a (x − x0 ) (1.1.4)
1
x − x0 = v0 t + at2 (1.1.5)
2
1
x − x0 = (v + v0 ) t (1.1.6)
2

1.1.2 Circular Motion

In the case of Uniform Circular Motion, for a particle to move in a circular path, a
radial acceleration must be applied. This acceleration is known as the Centripetal
2 Classical Mechanics
Acceleration

Centripetal Acceleration

v2
a= (1.1.7)
r

Angular Velocity

v
ω= (1.1.8)
r
We can write eq. (1.1.7) in terms of ω

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a = ω2 r (1.1.9)

Rotational Equations of Motion

The equations of motion under a constant angular acceleration, α, are

ω = ω0 + αt (1.1.10)
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ω + ω0
θ= t (1.1.11)
2
1
θ = ω0 t + αt2 (1.1.12)
2
ω2 = ω20 + 2αθ (1.1.13)

1.2 Newton’s Laws

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1.2.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion

First Law A body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion unless acted upon
by an external unbalanced force.

Second Law The net force on a body is proportional to its rate of change of momentum.

dp
F= = ma (1.2.1)
dt

Third Law When a particle A exerts a force on another particle B, B simultaneously

exerts a force on A with the same magnitude in the opposite direction.

FAB = −FBA (1.2.2)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Work & Energy 3
1.2.2 Momentum
p = mv (1.2.3)

1.2.3 Impulse
w
∆p = J = Fdt = Favg dt (1.2.4)

1.3 Work & Energy

1.3.1 Kinetic Energy

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1
K ≡ mv2 (1.3.1)
2

1.3.2 The Work-Energy Theorem

The net Work done is given by
Wnet = K f − Ki (1.3.2)
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1.3.3 Work done under a constant Force
The work done by a force can be expressed as
W = F∆x (1.3.3)
In three dimensions, this becomes
W = F · ∆r = F∆r cos θ (1.3.4)
For a non-constant force, we have
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wx f
W= F(x)dx (1.3.5)
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1.3.4 Potential Energy

The Potential Energy is
dU(x)
F(x) = − (1.3.6)
dx
for conservative forces, the potential energy is
wx
U(x) = U0 − F(x0 )dx0 (1.3.7)
x0

©2009 David S. Latchman

4 Classical Mechanics
1.3.5 Hooke’s Law

F = −kx (1.3.8)
where k is the spring constant.

1.3.6 Potential Energy of a Spring

1
U(x) = kx2 (1.3.9)
2

1.4 Oscillatory Motion

1.4.1 Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion

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x(t) = A sin (ωt + δ) (1.4.1)
where the Amplitude, A, measures the displacement from equilibrium, the phase, δ, is
the angle by which the motion is shifted from equilibrium at t = 0.
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1.4.2 Period of Simple Harmonic Motion

2π
T= (1.4.2)
ω

1.4.3 Total Energy of an Oscillating System

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Given that
x = A sin (ωt + δ) (1.4.3)
and that the Total Energy of a System is

E = KE + PE (1.4.4)

The Kinetic Energy is

1
KE = mv2
2
1 dx
= m
2 dt
1
= mA2 ω2 cos2 (ωt + δ) (1.4.5)
2

David S. Latchman ©2009

Oscillatory Motion 5
The Potential Energy is
1
U = kx2
2
1
= kA2 sin2 (ωt + δ) (1.4.6)
2
Adding eq. (1.4.5) and eq. (1.4.6) gives
1
E = kA2 (1.4.7)
2

1.4.4 Damped Harmonic Motion

dx
Fd = −bv = −b (1.4.8)

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dt
where b is the damping coefficient. The equation of motion for a damped oscillating
system becomes
dx d2 x
− kx − b = m 2 (1.4.9)
dt dt
Solving eq. (1.4.9) goves
x = Ae−αt sin (ω0 t + δ) (1.4.10)
We find that
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b
α= (1.4.11)
2m
r
k b2
ω0 = −
m 4m2
r
b2
= ω20 −
4m2
q
= ω20 − α2 (1.4.12)
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1.4.5 Small Oscillations

The Energy of a system is

1
E = K + V(x) = mv(x)2 + V(x) (1.4.13)
2
We can solve for v(x), r
2
v(x) = (E − V(x)) (1.4.14)
m
where E ≥ V(x) Let the particle move in the potential valley, x1 ≤ x ≤ x2 , the potential
can be approximated by the Taylor Expansion
" # " 2 #
dV(x) 1 2 d V(x)
V(x) = V(xe ) + (x − xe ) + (x − xe ) + ··· (1.4.15)
dx x=xe 2 dx2 x=xe

©2009 David S. Latchman

6 Classical Mechanics
At the points of inflection, the derivative dV/dx is zero and d V/dx2 is positive. This
2

means that the potential energy for small oscillations becomes

1
V(x) u V(xe ) + k(x − xe )2 (1.4.16)
2
where " #
d2 V(x)
k≡ ≥0 (1.4.17)
dx2 x=xe

As V(xe ) is constant, it has no consequences to physical motion and can be dropped.

We see that eq. (1.4.16) is that of simple harmonic motion.

1.4.6 Coupled Harmonic Oscillators

FT
Consider the case of a simple pendulum of length, `, and the mass of the bob is m1 .
For small displacements, the equation of motion is

θ̈ + ω0 θ = 0

We can express this in cartesian coordinates, x and y, where

(1.4.18)
RA
x = ` cos θ ≈ ` (1.4.19)
y = ` sin θ ≈ `θ (1.4.20)

eq. (1.4.18) becomes

ÿ + ω0 y = 0 (1.4.21)
This is the equivalent to the mass-spring system where the spring constant is
mg
k = mω20 = (1.4.22)
`
D

This allows us to to create an equivalent three spring system to our coupled pendulum
system. The equations of motion can be derived from the Lagrangian, where

L=T−V
1 2 1 2 1 2 1
2 1 2
 
= m ẏ1 + m ẏ2 − ky1 + κ y2 − y1 + ky2
2 2 2 2 2
1  2  1  
2 
= m y˙1 + y˙2 2 − k y21 + y22 + κ y2 − y1 (1.4.23)
2 2
We can find the equations of motion of our system

d ∂L ∂L
!
= (1.4.24)
dt ∂ ẏn ∂yn
1
Add figure with coupled pendulum-spring system

David S. Latchman ©2009

Oscillatory Motion 7
The equations of motion are
m ÿ1 = −ky1 + κ y2 − y1


(1.4.25)
m ÿ2 = −ky2 + κ y2 − y1


(1.4.26)
We assume solutions for the equations of motion to be of the form
y1 = cos(ωt + δ1 ) y2 = B cos(ωt + δ2 )
(1.4.27)
ÿ1 = −ωy1 ÿ2 = −ωy2
Substituting the values for ÿ1 and ÿ2 into the equations of motion yields
 
k + κ − mω2 y1 − κy2 = 0 (1.4.28)
 
−κy1 + k + κ − mω2 y2 = 0 (1.4.29)
We can get solutions from solving the determinant of the matrix

FT
 k + κ − mω2


−κ
 = 0 (1.4.30)
 −κ k + κ − mω2 
Solving the determinant gives
 2  
mω2 − 2mω2 (k + κ) + k2 + 2kκ = 0 (1.4.31)
This yields
g

k
=


`

ω2 =  m
RA

(1.4.32)

 k + 2κ g 2κ
= +


m ` m

We can now determine exactly how the masses move with each mode by substituting
ω2 into the equations of motion. Where
k
ω2 = We see that
m
k + κ − mω2 = κ (1.4.33)
Substituting this into the equation of motion yields
y1 = y2 (1.4.34)
D

We see that the masses move in phase with each other. You will also notice
the absense of the spring constant term, κ, for the connecting spring. As the
masses are moving in step, the spring isn’t stretching or compressing and hence
its absence in our result.
k+κ
ω2 = We see that
m
k + κ − mω2 = −κ (1.4.35)
Substituting this into the equation of motion yields
y1 = −y2 (1.4.36)
Here the masses move out of phase with each other. In this case we see the
presence of the spring constant, κ, which is expected as the spring playes a role.
It is being stretched and compressed as our masses oscillate.

©2009 David S. Latchman

8 Classical Mechanics
1.4.7 Doppler Effect

The Doppler Effect is the shift in frequency and wavelength of waves that results from
a source moving with respect to the medium, a receiver moving with respect to the
medium or a moving medium.

Moving Source If a source is moving towards an observer, then in one period, τ0 , it

moves a distance of vs τ0 = vs / f0 . The wavelength is decreased by
vs v − vs
λ0 = λ − − (1.4.37)
f0 f0
The frequency change is
v v
 
f0 = = f0 (1.4.38)
λ0 v − vs

FT
Moving Observer As the observer moves, he will measure the same wavelength, λ, as
if at rest but will see the wave crests pass by more quickly. The observer measures
a modified wave speed.
v0 = v + |vr | (1.4.39)
The modified frequency becomes
v0 vr
 
f0 = = f0 1 + (1.4.40)
λ
RA
v

Moving Source and Moving Observer We can combine the above two equations
v − vs
λ0 = (1.4.41)
f0
v = v − vr
0
(1.4.42)

To give a modified frequency of

v0 v − vr
 
f = 0 =
0
f0 (1.4.43)
λ v − vs
D

1.5 Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis

1.5.1 Moment of Inertia

Z
I= R2 dm (1.5.1)

1.5.2 Rotational Kinetic Energy

1
K = Iω2 (1.5.2)
2

David S. Latchman ©2009

Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis 9
1.5.3 Parallel Axis Theorem

I = Icm + Md2 (1.5.3)

1.5.4 Torque

τ=r×F (1.5.4)
τ = Iα (1.5.5)

where α is the angular acceleration.

1.5.5 Angular Momentum

we can find the Torque FT

L = Iω

dL
(1.5.6)
RA
τ= (1.5.7)
dt

1.5.6 Kinetic Energy in Rolling

With respect to the point of contact, the motion of the wheel is a rotation about the
point of contact. Thus
1
K = Krot = Icontact ω2 (1.5.8)
2
D

Icontact can be found from the Parallel Axis Theorem.

Icontact = Icm + MR2 (1.5.9)

Substitute eq. (1.5.8) and we have

1 
K= Icm + MR2 ω2
2
1 1
= Icm ω2 + mv2 (1.5.10)
2 2

The kinetic energy of an object rolling without slipping is the sum of hte kinetic energy
of rotation about its center of mass and the kinetic energy of the linear motion of the
object.

©2009 David S. Latchman

10 Classical Mechanics
1.6 Dynamics of Systems of Particles

1.6.1 Center of Mass of a System of Particles

Position Vector of a System of Particles

m1 r1 + m2 r2 + m3 r3 + · · · + mN rN
R= (1.6.1)
M

Velocity Vector of a System of Particles

dR
V=

FT
dt
m1 v1 + m2 v2 + m3 v3 + · · · + mN vN
= (1.6.2)
M

Acceleration Vector of a System of Particles

dV
A=
dt
RA
m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 + · · · + mN aN
= (1.6.3)
M

1.7 Central Forces and Celestial Mechanics

1.7.1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

GMm
 
F=− r̂ (1.7.1)
r2
D

1.7.2 Potential Energy of a Gravitational Force

GMm
U(r) = − (1.7.2)
r

1.7.3 Escape Speed and Orbits

The energy of an orbiting body is

E=T+U
1 GMm
= mv2 − (1.7.3)
2 r

David S. Latchman ©2009

Central Forces and Celestial Mechanics 11
The escape speed becomes
1 GMm
E = mv2esc − =0 (1.7.4)
2 RE
Solving for vesc we find
r
2GM
vesc = (1.7.5)
Re

1.7.4 Kepler’s Laws

First Law The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the sun at a focus.

Second Law A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal

FT
intervals of time.

Third Law The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the
cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

T2
=C (1.7.6)
R3
where C is a constant whose value is the same for all planets.
RA
1.7.5 Types of Orbits

The Energy of an Orbiting Body is defined in eq. (1.7.3), we can classify orbits by their
eccentricities.

Circular Orbit A circular orbit occurs when there is an eccentricity of 0 and the orbital
energy is less than 0. Thus
D

1 2 GM
v − =E<0 (1.7.7)
2 r
The Orbital Velocity is
r
GM
v= (1.7.8)
r

Elliptic Orbit An elliptic orbit occurs when the eccentricity is between 0 and 1 but the
specific energy is negative, so the object remains bound.
r
2 1
 
v= GM − (1.7.9)
r a

where a is the semi-major axis

©2009 David S. Latchman

12 Classical Mechanics
Parabolic Orbit A Parabolic Orbit occurs when the eccentricity is equal to 1 and the
orbital velocity is the escape velocity. This orbit is not bounded. Thus

1 2 GM
v − =E=0 (1.7.10)
2 r
The Orbital Velocity is
r
2GM
v = vesc = (1.7.11)
r

Hyperbolic Orbit In the Hyperbolic Orbit, the eccentricity is greater than 1 with an
orbital velocity in excess of the escape velocity. This orbit is also not bounded.
r
GM
v∞ =

FT
(1.7.12)
a

1.7.6 Derivation of Vis-viva Equation

The total energy of a satellite is

1 GMm
E = mv2 − (1.7.13)
RA
2 r
For an elliptical or circular orbit, the specific energy is

GMm
E=− (1.7.14)
2a
Equating we get
2 1
 
v = GM −
2
(1.7.15)
r a
D

1.8 Three Dimensional Particle Dynamics

1.9 Fluid Dynamics

When an object is fully or partially immersed, the buoyant force is equal to the weight
of fluid displaced.

1.9.1 Equation of Continuity

ρ1 v1 A1 = ρ2 v2 A2 (1.9.1)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Non-inertial Reference Frames 13
1.9.2 Bernoulli’s Equation
1
P + ρv2 + ρgh = a constant (1.9.2)
2

1.10 Non-inertial Reference Frames

1.11 Hamiltonian and Lagrangian Formalism

1.11.1 Lagrange’s Function (L)

L=T−V (1.11.1)

FT
where T is the Kinetic Energy and V is the Potential Energy in terms of Generalized
Coordinates.

1.11.2 Equations of Motion(Euler-Lagrange Equation)

∂L d ∂L
!
= (1.11.2)
RA
∂q dt ∂q̇

1.11.3 Hamiltonian

H =T+V
= pq̇ − L(q, q̇) (1.11.3)

where
D

∂H
= q̇ (1.11.4)
∂p
∂H ∂L
=−
∂q ∂x
= −ṗ (1.11.5)

©2009 David S. Latchman

14 Classical Mechanics

FT
RA
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Chapter 2
Electromagnetism

2.1

2.1.1
Electrostatics

Coulomb’s Law
FT
The force between two charged particles, q1 and q2 is defined by Coulomb’s Law.
RA
!
1 q1 q2
F12 = r̂12 (2.1.1)
4π0 r212

where 0 is the permitivitty of free space, where

0 = 8.85 × 10−12 C2 N.m2 (2.1.2)

2.1.2 Electric Field of a point charge

D

The electric field is defined by mesuring the magnitide and direction of an electric
force, F, acting on a test charge, q0 .
F
E≡ (2.1.3)
q0
The Electric Field of a point charge, q is

1 q
E= r̂ (2.1.4)
4π0 r2

In the case of multiple point charges, qi , the electric field becomes

n
1 X qi
E(r) = r̂i (2.1.5)
4π0 i=1 r2i
16 Electromagnetism
Electric Fields and Continuous Charge Distributions

If a source is distributed continuously along a region of space, eq. (2.1.5) becomes

Z
1 1
E(r) = r̂dq (2.1.6)
4π0 r2
If the charge was distributed along a line with linear charge density, λ,
dq
λ= (2.1.7)
dx
The Electric Field of a line charge becomes

λ
Z
1
E(r) = r̂dx (2.1.8)
4π0 r2

FT
line

In the case where the charge is distributed along a surface, the surface charge density
is, σ
Q dq
σ= = (2.1.9)
A dA
The electric field along the surface becomes

σ
Z
1
E(r) = r̂dA (2.1.10)
RA
4π0 r2
Surface

In the case where the charge is distributed throughout a volume, V, the volume charge
density is
Q dq
ρ= = (2.1.11)
V dV
The Electric Field is
ρ
Z
1
E(r) = r̂dV (2.1.12)
4π0 r2
Volume
D

2.1.3 Gauss’ Law

The electric field through a surface is

I I
Φ= dΦ = E · dA (2.1.13)
surface S surface S

The electric flux through a closed surface encloses a net charge.

I
Q
E · dA = (2.1.14)
0
where Q is the charge enclosed by our surface.

David S. Latchman ©2009

Electrostatics 17
2.1.4 Equivalence of Coulomb’s Law and Gauss’ Law

The total flux through a sphere is

I
q
E · dA = E(4πr2 ) = (2.1.15)
0
From the above, we see that the electric field is
q
E= (2.1.16)
4π0 r2

2.1.5 Electric Field due to a line of charge

Consider an infinite rod of constant charge density, λ. The flux through a Gaussian

FT
cylinder enclosing the line of charge is
Z Z Z
Φ= E · dA + E · dA + E · dA (2.1.17)
top surface bottom surface side surface

At the top and bottom surfaces, the electric field is perpendicular to the area vector, so
for the top and bottom surfaces,
E · dA = 0 (2.1.18)
RA
At the side, the electric field is parallel to the area vector, thus

E · dA = EdA (2.1.19)

Thus the flux becomes, Z Z

Φ= E · dA = E dA (2.1.20)
side sirface

The area in this case is the surface area of the side of the cylinder, 2πrh.
D

Φ = 2πrhE (2.1.21)

Applying Gauss’ Law, we see that Φ = q/0 . The electric field becomes

λ
E= (2.1.22)
2π0 r

2.1.6 Electric Field in a Solid Non-Conducting Sphere

Within our non-conducting sphere or radius, R, we will assume that the total charge,
Q is evenly distributed throughout the sphere’s volume. So the charge density of our
sphere is
Q Q
ρ= = 4 (2.1.23)
V 3
πR 3

©2009 David S. Latchman

18 Electromagnetism
The Electric Field due to a charge Q is
Q
E= (2.1.24)
4π0 r2
As the charge is evenly distributed throughout the sphere’s volume we can say that
the charge density is
dq = ρdV (2.1.25)
where dV = 4πr2 dr. We can use this to determine the field inside the sphere by
summing the effect of infinitesimally thin spherical shells
Z E Z r
dq
E= dE = 2
0 0 4πr
ρ
Z r
= dr
0 0

FT
Qr
= 4 (2.1.26)
3
π 0 R3

2.1.7 Electric Potential Energy

1
U(r) = qq0 r (2.1.27)
4π0
RA
2.1.8 Electric Potential of a Point Charge

The electrical potential is the potential energy per unit charge that is associated with a
static electrical field. It can be expressed thus
U(r) = qV(r) (2.1.28)
And we can see that
1 q
V(r) = (2.1.29)
D

4π0 r
A more proper definition that includes the electric field, E would be
Z
V(r) = − E · d` (2.1.30)
C

where C is any path, starting at a chosen point of zero potential to our desired point.
The difference between two potentials can be expressed such
Z b Z a
V(b) − V(a) = − E · d` + E · d`
Z b
=− E · d` (2.1.31)
a

David S. Latchman ©2009

Electrostatics 19
This can be further expressed
Z b
V(b) − V(a) = (∇V) · d` (2.1.32)
a

And we can show that

E = −∇V (2.1.33)

2.1.9 Electric Potential due to a line charge along axis

Let us consider a rod of length, `, with linear charge density, λ. The Electrical Potential
due to a continuous distribution is

FT
Z Z
1 dq
V= dV = (2.1.34)
4π0 r

The charge density is

dq = λdx (2.1.35)
Substituting this into the above equation, we get the electrical potential at some distance
x along the rod’s axis, with the origin at the start of the rod.
RA
1 dq
dV =
4π0 x
1 λdx
= (2.1.36)
4π0 x
This becomes
λ x2
 
V= ln (2.1.37)
4π0 x1
where x1 and x2 are the distances from O, the end of the rod.
Now consider that we are some distance, y, from the axis of the rod of length, `. We
D

again look at eq. (2.1.34), where r is the distance of the point P from the rod’s axis.
Z
1 dq
V=
4π0 r
Z `
1 λdx
=
4π0 0 x2 + y2
12
λ
   12 `
= ln x + x2 + y2
4π0 0
λ  12 
 
= ln ` + `2 + y2 − ln y
4π0

1 
λ  ` + `2 + y2 2 
= ln   (2.1.38)
4π0  d


©2009 David S. Latchman

20 Electromagnetism
2.2 Currents and DC Circuits

2.3 Magnetic Fields in Free Space

2.4 Lorentz Force

FT
4

2.5 Induction

5
RA
2.6 Maxwell’s Equations and their Applications

2.7 Electromagnetic Waves

D

2.8 AC Circuits

2.9 Magnetic and Electric Fields in Matter

David S. Latchman ©2009

Capacitance 21
2.10 Capacitance
Q = CV (2.10.1)

2.11 Energy in a Capacitor

Q2
U=
2C
CV 2
=
2
QV

FT
= (2.11.1)
2

2.12 Energy in an Electric Field

U 0 E2
u≡ = (2.12.1)
volume 2
RA
2.13 Current
dQ
I≡ (2.13.1)
dt

2.14 Current Destiny

D

Z
I= J · dA (2.14.1)
A

2.15 Current Density of Moving Charges

I
J= = ne qvd (2.15.1)
A

2.16 Resistance and Ohm’s Law

V
R≡ (2.16.1)
I

©2009 David S. Latchman

22 Electromagnetism
2.17 Resistivity and Conductivity

L
R=ρ (2.17.1)
A

E = ρJ (2.17.2)

J = σE (2.17.3)

2.18 Power

2.19 Kirchoff’s Loop Rules

Write Here
FT
P = VI (2.18.1)
RA
2.20 Kirchoff’s Junction Rule

Write Here

2.21 RC Circuits
D

Q
E − IR − =0 (2.21.1)
C

2.22 Maxwell’s Equations

2.22.1 Integral Form

Gauss’ Law for Electric Fields

w Q
E · dA = (2.22.1)
0
closed surface

David S. Latchman ©2009

Speed of Propagation of a Light Wave 23
Gauss’ Law for Magnetic Fields
w
B · dA = 0 (2.22.2)
closed surface

Ampère’s Law
z d w
B · ds = µ0 I + µ0 0 E · dA (2.22.3)
dt
surface

Faraday’s Law
z d w
E · ds = − B · dA (2.22.4)
dt
surface

2.22.2 Differential Form

Gauss’ Law for Electric Fields

Gauss’ Law for Magnetism

Ampère’s Law
FT
∇·E=

∇·B=0
ρ
0
(2.22.5)

(2.22.6)
RA
∂E
∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 0 (2.22.7)
∂t
Faraday’s Law
∂B
∇·E=− (2.22.8)
∂t

2.23 Speed of Propagation of a Light Wave

1
D

c= √ (2.23.1)
µ0 0
In a material with dielectric constant, κ,
√ c
c κ = (2.23.2)
n
where n is the refractive index.

2.24 Relationship between E and B Fields

E = cB (2.24.1)
E·B=0 (2.24.2)

©2009 David S. Latchman

24 Electromagnetism
2.25 Energy Density of an EM wave
!
1 B2
u= + 0 E2 (2.25.1)
2 µ0

2.26 Poynting’s Vector

1
S= E×B (2.26.1)
µ0

FT
RA
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Chapter 3
Optics & Wave Phonomena

3.1
1

3.2
Wave Properties

Superposition
FT
RA
2

3.3 Interference
3
D

3.4 Diffraction
4

3.5 Geometrical Optics

5

3.6 Polarization
6
26 Optics & Wave Phonomena
3.7 Doppler Effect
7

3.8 Snell’s Law

3.8.1 Snell’s Law

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 (3.8.1)

3.8.2 Critical Angle and Snell’s Law

FT
The critical angle, θc , for the boundary seperating two optical media is the smallest
angle of incidence, in the medium of greater index, for which light is totally refelected.
From eq. (3.8.1), θ1 = 90 and θ2 = θc and n2 > n1 .

n1 sin 90 = n2 sinθc
sin θc =
n1
(3.8.2)
RA
n2
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Chapter 4
Thermodynamics & Statistical Mechanics

4.1
1

4.2
FT
Laws of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic Processes
RA
2

4.3 Equations of State

3
D

4.4 Ideal Gases

4

4.5 Kinetic Theory

5

4.6 Ensembles
6
28 Thermodynamics & Statistical Mechanics
4.7 Statistical Concepts and Calculation of Thermody-
namic Properties

4.8 Thermal Expansion & Heat Transfer

FT
4.9 Heat Capacity
 
Q = C T f − Ti (4.9.1)

where C is the Heat Capacity and T f and Ti are the final and initial temperatures
respectively.
RA
4.10 Specific Heat Capacity
 
Q = cm T f − ti (4.10.1)

where c is the specific heat capacity and m is the mass.

D

4.11 Heat and Work

Z Vf
W= PdV (4.11.1)
Vi

4.12 First Law of Thermodynamics

dEint = dQ − dW (4.12.1)

where dEint is the internal energy of the system, dQ is the Energy added to the system
and dW is the work done by the system.

David S. Latchman ©2009

Work done by Ideal Gas at Constant Temperature 29
4.12.1 Special Cases to the First Law of Thermodynamics
Adiabatic Process During an adiabatic process, the system is insulated such that there
is no heat transfer between the system and its environment. Thus dQ = 0, so

∆Eint = −W (4.12.2)

If work is done on the system, negative W, then there is an increase in its internal
energy. Conversely, if work is done by the system, positive W, there is a decrease
in the internal energy of the system.

Constant Volume (Isochoric) Process If the volume is held constant, then the system
can do no work, δW = 0, thus
∆Eint = Q (4.12.3)

FT
If heat is added to the system, the temperature increases. Conversely, if heat is
removed from the system the temperature decreases.

Closed Cycle In this situation, after certain interchanges of heat and work, the system
comes back to its initial state. So ∆Eint remains the same, thus

∆Q = ∆W (4.12.4)

The work done by the system is equal to the heat or energy put into it.
RA
Free Expansion In this process, no work is done on or by the system. Thus ∆Q =
∆W = 0,
∆Eint = 0 (4.12.5)

4.13 Work done by Ideal Gas at Constant Temperature

Starting with eq. (4.11.1), we substitute the Ideal gas Law, eq. (4.15.1), to get
D

Z Vf
dV
W = nRT
Vi V
Vf
= nRT ln (4.13.1)
Vi

4.14 Heat Conduction Equation

The rate of heat transferred, H, is given by

Q TH − TC
H= = kA (4.14.1)
t L
where k is the thermal conductivity.

©2009 David S. Latchman

30 Thermodynamics & Statistical Mechanics
4.15 Ideal Gas Law
PV = nRT (4.15.1)
where
n = Number of moles
P = Pressure
V = Volume
T = Temperature
and R is the Universal Gas Constant, such that
R ≈ 8.314 J/mol. K

FT
We can rewrite the Ideal gas Law to say
PV = NkT (4.15.2)
where k is the Boltzmann’s Constant, such that
R
k= ≈ 1.381 × 10−23 J/K
NA
RA
4.16 Stefan-Boltzmann’s FormulaStefan-Boltzmann’s Equa-
tion
P(T) = σT4 (4.16.1)

4.17 RMS Speed of an Ideal Gas

D

r
3RT
vrms = (4.17.1)
M

4.18 Translational Kinetic Energy

3
K̄ = kT (4.18.1)
2

4.19 Internal Energy of a Monatomic gas

3
Eint = nRT (4.19.1)
2

David S. Latchman ©2009

Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume 31
4.20 Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume

Let us define, CV such that

Q = nCV ∆T (4.20.1)

Substituting into the First Law of Thermodynamics, we have

∆Eint + W = nCV ∆T (4.20.2)

At constant volume, W = 0, and we get

1 ∆Eint

FT
CV = (4.20.3)
n ∆T

Substituting eq. (4.19.1), we get

3
CV = R = 12.5 J/mol.K (4.20.4)
2
RA
4.21 Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure

Starting with
Q = nCp ∆T (4.21.1)

and
D

∆Eint = Q − W
⇒ nCV ∆T = nCp ∆T + nR∆T
∴ CV = Cp − R (4.21.2)

4.22 Equipartition of Energy

!
f
CV = R = 4.16 f J/mol.K (4.22.1)
2

where f is the number of degrees of freedom.

©2009 David S. Latchman

Thermodynamics & Statistical Mechanics

©2009
FT Degrees of Freedom Predicted Molar Specific Heats
CP = CV + R
RA
Molecule Translational Rotational Vibrational Total ( f ) CV
3 5
Monatomic 3 0 0 3 2
R 2
R
5 7
Diatomic 3 2 2 5 2
R 2
R
Polyatomic (Linear) 3 3 3n − 5 6 3R 4R
Polyatomic (Non-Linear) 3 3 3n − 6 6 3R 4R
Table 4.22.1: Table of Molar Specific Heats
D

David S. Latchman
32
Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas 33
4.23 Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas
PV γ = a constant (4.23.1)
where γ = CCVP .
We can also write
TV γ−1 = a constant (4.23.2)

4.24 Second Law of Thermodynamics

Something.

FT
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©2009 David S. Latchman

34 Thermodynamics & Statistical Mechanics

FT
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David S. Latchman ©2009

Chapter 5
Quantum Mechanics

5.1
1

5.2
Fundamental Concepts

Schrödinger Equation
FT
RA
Let us define Ψ to be
Ψ = Ae−iω(t− v )
x
(5.2.1)
Simplifying in terms of Energy, E, and momentum, p, we get
i(Et−px)
Ψ = Ae− ~ (5.2.2)

We obtain Schrödinger’s Equation from the Hamiltonian

D

H =T+V (5.2.3)

To determine E and p,

∂2 Ψ p2
= − Ψ (5.2.4)
∂x2 ~2
∂Ψ iE
= Ψ (5.2.5)
∂t ~
and
p2
H= +V (5.2.6)
2m
This becomes

EΨ = HΨ (5.2.7)
36 Quantum Mechanics
~ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ 2
EΨ = − p2 Ψ = −~2 2
i ∂t ∂x
The Time Dependent Schrödinger’s Equation is

∂Ψ ~ 2 ∂2 Ψ
i~ =− + V(x)Ψ (5.2.8)
∂t 2m ∂x2
The Time Independent Schrödinger’s Equation is

~ 2 ∂2 Ψ
EΨ = − + V(x)Ψ (5.2.9)
2m ∂x2

5.2.1 Infinite Square Wells

FT
Let us consider a particle trapped in an infinite potential well of size a, such that

for 0 < x < a

(
0
V(x) =
∞ for |x| > a,

so that a nonvanishing force acts only at ±a/2. An energy, E, is assigned to the system
such that the kinetic energy of the particle is E. Classically, any motion is forbidden
outside of the well because the infinite value of V exceeds any possible choice of E.
RA
Recalling the Schrödinger Time Independent Equation, eq. (5.2.9), we substitute V(x)
and in the region (−a/2, a/2), we get

~2 d2 ψ
− = Eψ (5.2.10)
2m dx2
This differential is of the form
d2 ψ
2
+ k2 ψ = 0 (5.2.11)
dx
where
D

r
2mE
k= (5.2.12)
~2
We recognize that possible solutions will be of the form

cos kx and sin kx

As the particle is confined in the region 0 < x < a, we say

A cos kx + B sin kx for 0 < x < a

(
ψ(x) =
0 for |x| > a

We have known boundary conditions for our square well.

ψ(0) = ψ(a) = 0 (5.2.13)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Schrödinger Equation 37
It shows that

⇒ A cos 0 + B sin 0 = 0
∴A=0 (5.2.14)

We are now left with

B sin ka = 0
ka = 0; π; 2π; 3π; · · ·
(5.2.15)

While mathematically, n can be zero, that would mean there would be no wave function,
so we ignore this result and say

FT
nπ
kn = for n = 1, 2, 3, · · ·
a
Substituting this result into eq. (5.2.12) gives
√
nπ 2mEn
kn = = (5.2.16)
a ~
Solving for En gives
RA
n2 π2 ~2
En = (5.2.17)
2ma2
We cna now solve for B by normalizing the function
Z a
a
|B|2 sin2 kxdx = |A|2 = 1
0 2
2
So |A|2 = (5.2.18)
a
So we can write the wave function as
D

r
2 nπx
 
ψn (x) = sin (5.2.19)
a a

5.2.2 Harmonic Oscillators

Classically, the harmonic oscillator has a potential energy of

1
V(x) = kx2 (5.2.20)
2
So the force experienced by this particle is

dV
F=− = −kx (5.2.21)
dx

©2009 David S. Latchman

38 Quantum Mechanics
where k is the spring constant. The equation of motion can be summed us as

d2 x
m 2 = −kx (5.2.22)
dt
And the solution of this equation is
 
x(t) = A cos ω0 t + φ (5.2.23)

where the angular frequency, ω0 is

r
k
ω0 = (5.2.24)
m
The Quantum Mechanical description on the harmonic oscillator is based on the eigen-

FT
function solutions of the time-independent Schrödinger’s equation. By taking V(x)
from eq. (5.2.20) we substitute into eq. (5.2.9) to get

d2 ψ 2m k 2
!
mk 2 2E
 
= x − E ψ = x − ψ
dx2 ~2 2 ~2 k

With some manipulation, we get

√
d2 ψ  mk 2 2E m 
r 
RA
~
√ 2
=  x −  ψ
mk dx ~ ~ k 

This step allows us to to keep some of constants out of the way, thus giving us
√
mk 2
ξ2 = x (5.2.25)
~r
2E m 2E
and λ = = (5.2.26)
~ k ~ω0
This leads to the more compact
D

d2 ψ  2 
= ξ − λ ψ (5.2.27)
dξ2
where the eigenfunction ψ will be a function of ξ. λ assumes an eigenvalue anaglaous
to E.
From eq. (5.2.25), we see that the maximum value can be determined to be
√
mk 2
ξmax =
2
A (5.2.28)
~
Using the classical connection between A and E, allows us to say
√
mk 2E
ξmax =
2
=λ (5.2.29)
~ k

David S. Latchman ©2009

Schrödinger Equation 39
From eq. (5.2.27), we see that in a quantum mechanical oscillator, there are non-
vanishing solutions in the forbidden regions, unlike in our classical case.
A solution to eq. (5.2.27) is
ψ(ξ) = e−ξ /2
2
(5.2.30)
where
dψ
= −ξe−ξ /2
2

dξ
dψ 2 −xi2 /2 −ξ2 /2
e−ξ /2
  2
and 2
= ξ e − e = ξ 2
− 1
dξ
This gives is a special solution for λ where

λ0 = 1 (5.2.31)

FT
Thus eq. (5.2.26) gives the energy eigenvalue to be
~ω0 ~ω0
E0 = λ0 = (5.2.32)
2 2
The eigenfunction e−ξ /2 corresponds to a normalized stationary-state wave function
2

! 18 √
mk mk x2 /2~ −iE0 t/~
Ψ0 (x, t) = 2 2 e−
RA
e (5.2.33)
π~
This solution of eq. (5.2.27) produces the smallest possibel result of λ and E. Hence,
Ψ0 and E0 represents the ground state of the oscillator. and the quantity ~ω0 /2 is the
zero-point energy of the system.

5.2.3 Finite Square Well

For the Finite Square Well, we have a potential region where

D

(
−V0 for −a ≤ x ≤ a
V(x) =
0 for |x| > a

We have three regions

Region I: x < −a In this region, The potential, V = 0, so Schrödinger’s Equation be-

comes
~2 d2 ψ
− = Eψ
2m dx2
d2 ψ
⇒ 2 = κ2 ψ
√ dx
−2mE
where κ=
~

©2009 David S. Latchman

40 Quantum Mechanics
This gives us solutions that are

ψ(x) = A exp(−κx) + B exp(κx)

As x → ∞, the exp(−κx) term goes to ∞; it blows up and is not a physically

realizable function. So we can drop it to get

ψ(x) = Beκx for x < −a (5.2.34)

Region II: −a < x < a In this region, our potential is V(x) = V0 . Substitutin this into
the Schrödinger’s Equation, eq. (5.2.9), gives

~2 d2 ψ
− − V0 ψ = Eψ
2m dx2

FT
d2 ψ
or 2
= −l2 ψ
p dx
2m (E + V0 )
where l ≡ (5.2.35)
~
We notice that E > −V0 , making l real and positive. Thus our general solution
becomes
ψ(x) = C sin(lx) + D cos(lx) for −a < x < a (5.2.36)
RA
Region III: x > a Again this Region is similar to Region III, where the potential, V = 0.
This leaves us with the general solution

ψ(x) = F exp(−κx) + G exp(κx)

As x → ∞, the second term goes to infinity and we get

ψ(x) = Fe−κx for x > a (5.2.37)

This gives us
D

 κx

 Be for x < a
ψ(x) =  for 0 < x < a

D cos(lx) (5.2.38)

for x > a

 Fe−κx


5.2.4 Hydrogenic Atoms

5.3 Spin
3

David S. Latchman ©2009

Angular Momentum 41
5.4 Angular Momentum
4

5.5 Wave Funtion Symmetry

5

5.6 Elementary Perturbation Theory

FT
6
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©2009 David S. Latchman

42 Quantum Mechanics

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David S. Latchman ©2009

Chapter 6
Atomic Physics

6.1
1

6.2
Properties of Electrons

Bohr Model
FT
RA
To understand the Bohr Model of the Hydrogen atom, we will take advantage of our
knowlegde of the wavelike properties of matter. As we are building on a classical
model of the atom with a modern concept of matter, our derivation is considered to be
‘semi-classical’. In this model we have an electron of mass, me , and charge, −e, orbiting
a proton. The cetripetal force is equal to the Coulomb Force. Thus

1 e2 me v2
= (6.2.1)
4π0 r2 r
D

The Total Energy is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies, so

p2
E=K+U = − | f race2 4π0 r (6.2.2)
2me
We can further reduce this equation by subsituting the value of momentum, which we
find to be
p2 1 e2
= me v2 = (6.2.3)
2me 2 8π0 r
Substituting this into eq. (6.2.2), we get

e2 e2 e2
E= − =− (6.2.4)
8π0 r 4π0 r 8π0 r
At this point our classical description must end. An accelerated charged particle, like
one moving in circular motion, radiates energy. So our atome here will radiate energy
44 Atomic Physics
and our electron will spiral into the nucleus and disappear. To solve this conundrum,
Bohr made two assumptions.

1. The classical circular orbits are replaced by stationary states. These stationary
states take discreet values.

2. The energy of these stationary states are determined by their angular momentum
which must take on quantized values of ~.

L = n~ (6.2.5)

We can find the angular momentum of a circular orbit.

L = m3 vr (6.2.6)

FT
From eq. (6.2.1) we find v and by substitution, we find L.
r
m3 r
L=e (6.2.7)
4π0

Solving for r, gives

L2
r= (6.2.8)
me e2 /4π0
RA
We apply the condition from eq. (6.2.5)

n2 ~2
rn = = n2 a0 (6.2.9)
me e2 /4π0

where a0 is the Bohr radius.

a0 = 0.53 × 10−10 m (6.2.10)
Having discreet values for the allowed radii means that we will also have discreet
values for energy. Replacing our value of rn into eq. (6.2.4), we get
D

!
me e2 13.6
En = − 2 = − 2 eV (6.2.11)
2n 4π0 ~ n

6.3 Energy Quantization

3

6.4 Atomic Structure

4

David S. Latchman ©2009

Atomic Spectra 45
6.5 Atomic Spectra

6.5.1 Rydberg’s Equation

1 1 1
 
= RH 02 − 2 (6.5.1)
λ n n
where RH is the Rydberg constant.
For the Balmer Series, n0 = 2, which determines the optical wavelengths. For n0 = 3, we
get the infrared or Paschen series. The fundamental n0 = 1 series falls in the ultraviolet
region and is known as the Lyman series.

FT
6.6 Selection Rules

6.7 Black Body Radiation

RA
6.7.1 Plank Formula

8π~ f3
u( f, T) = 3 h f /kT (6.7.1)
c e −1

6.7.2 Stefan-Boltzmann Formula

P(T) = σT4 (6.7.2)

D

6.7.3 Wein’s Displacement Law

λmax T = 2.9 × 10−3 m.K (6.7.3)

6.7.4 Classical and Quantum Aspects of the Plank Equation

Rayleigh’s Equation

8π f 2
u( f, T) = 3 kT (6.7.4)
c

©2009 David S. Latchman

46 Atomic Physics
We can get this equation from Plank’s Equation, eq. (6.7.1). This equation is a classical
one and does not contain Plank’s constant in it. For this case we will look at the
situation where h f < kT. In this case, we make the approximation

ex ' 1 + x (6.7.5)

Thus the demonimator in eq. (6.7.1) becomes

hf hf
eh f /kT − 1 ' 1 + −1= (6.7.6)
kT kT
Thus eq. (6.7.1) takes the approximate form

8πh 3 kT 8π f 2
u( f, T) ' f = 3 kT (6.7.7)
c3 hf c

quantum effects.

Quantum
FT
As we can see this equation is devoid of Plank’s constant and thus independent of

At large frequencies, where h f > kT, quantum effects become apparent. We can
RA
estimate that
eh f /kT − 1 ' eh f /kT (6.7.8)
Thus eq. (6.7.1) becomes
8πh 3 −h f /kT
u( f, T) ' f e (6.7.9)
c3

6.8 X-Rays
D

6.8.1 Bragg Condition

2d sin θ = mλ (6.8.1)
for constructive interference off parallel planes of a crystal with lattics spacing, d.

6.8.2 The Compton Effect

The Compton Effect deals with the scattering of monochromatic X-Rays by atomic
targets and the observation that the wavelength of the scattered X-ray is greater than
the incident radiation. The photon energy is given by

hc
E = hυ = (6.8.2)
λ

David S. Latchman ©2009

Atoms in Electric and Magnetic Fields 47
The photon has an associated momentum

E
= pc (6.8.3)
E hυ h
⇒p = = = (6.8.4)
c c λ
The Relativistic Energy for the electron is

E2 = p2 c2 + m2e c4 (6.8.5)

where
p − p0 = P (6.8.6)
Squaring eq. (6.8.6) gives
p2 − 2p · p0 + p02 = P2 (6.8.7)

FT
Recall that E = pc and E 0 = cp0 , we have

c2 p2 − 2c2 p · p0 + c2 p02 = c2 P2
E 2 − 2E E 0 cos θ + E 02 = E2 − m2e c4 (6.8.8)

Conservation of Energy leads to

E + me c2 = E 0 + E (6.8.9)
RA
Solving

E − E 0 = E − me c2
E 2 − 2E E 0 + E 0 = E2 − 2Eme c2 + m2e c4 (6.8.10)
2E E 0 − 2E E 0 cos θ = 2Eme c2 − 2m2e c4 (6.8.11)

Solving leads to
h
∆λ = λ0 − λ = (1 − cos θ) (6.8.12)
me c
D

where λc = h
me c
is the Compton Wavelength.

h
λc = = 2.427 × 10−12 m (6.8.13)
me c

6.9 Atoms in Electric and Magnetic Fields

6.9.1 The Cyclotron Frequency

A test charge, q, with velocity v enters a uniform magnetic field, B. The force acting on
the charge will be perpendicular to v such that

FB = qv × B (6.9.1)

©2009 David S. Latchman

48 Atomic Physics
or more simply FB = qvB. As this traces a circular path, from Newton’s Second Law,
we see that
mv2
FB = = qvB (6.9.2)
R
Solving for R, we get
mv
R= (6.9.3)
qB
We also see that
qB
f = (6.9.4)
2πm
The frequency is depends on the charge, q, the magnetic field strength, B and the mass
of the charged particle, m.

FT
6.9.2 Zeeman Effect

The Zeeman effect was the splitting of spectral lines in a static magnetic field. This is
similar to the Stark Effect which was the splitting in the presence in a magnetic field.
In the Zeeman experiment, a sodium flame was placed in a magnetic field and its
spectrum observed. In the presence of the field, a spectral line of frequency, υ0 was
split into three components, υ0 − δυ, υ0 and υ0 + δυ. A classical analysis of this effect
allows for the identification of the basic parameters of the interacting system.
RA
The application of a constant magnetic field, B, allows for a direction in space in which
the electron motion can be referred. The motion of an electron can be attributed to a
simple harmonic motion under a binding force −kr, where the frequency is
r
1 k
υ0 = (6.9.5)
2π me
The magnetic field subjects the electron to an additional Lorentz Force, −ev × B. This
produces two different values for the angular velocity.
v = 2πrυ
D

The cetripetal force becomes

me v2
= 4π2 υ2 rme
r
Thus the certipetal force is
4π2 υ2 rme = 2πυreB + kr for clockwise motion
4π2 υ2 rme = −2πυreB + kr for counterclockwise motion
We use eq. (6.9.5), to emiminate k, to get
eB
υ2 − υ − υ0 = 0 (Clockwise)
2πme
eB
υ2 + υ − υ0 = 0 (Counterclockwise)
2πme

David S. Latchman ©2009

Atoms in Electric and Magnetic Fields 49
As we have assumed a small Lorentz force, we can say that the linear terms in υ are
small comapred to υ0 . Solving the above quadratic equations leads to

eB
υ = υ0 + for clockwise motion (6.9.6)
4πme
eB
υ = υ0 − for counterclockwise motion (6.9.7)
4πme
We note that the frequency shift is of the form

eB
δυ = (6.9.8)
4πme
If we view the source along the direction of B, we will observe the light to have two
polarizations, a closckwise circular polarization of υ0 + δυ and a counterclosckwise

FT
circular polarization of υ0 − δυ.

6.9.3 Franck-Hertz Experiment

The Franck-Hertz experiment, performed in 1914 by J. Franck and G. L. Hertz, mea-

sured the colisional excitation of atoms. Their experiement studied the current of
electrons in a tub of mercury vapour which revealed an abrupt change in the current
RA
at certain critical values of the applied voltage.1 They interpreted this observation as
evidence of a threshold for inelastic scattering in the colissions of electrons in mer-
cury atoms.The bahavior of the current was an indication that electrons could lose
a discreet amount of energy and excite mercury atoms in their passage through the
mercury vapour. These observations constituted a direct and decisive confirmation of
the existence os quantized energy levels in atoms.
D

1
Put drawing of Franck-Hertz Setup

©2009 David S. Latchman

50 Atomic Physics

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David S. Latchman ©2009

Chapter 7
Special Relativity

7.1

7.1.1
Introductory Concepts

Postulates of Special Relativity

FT
1. The laws of Physics are the same in all inertial frames.
RA
2. The speed of light is the same in all inertial frames.

We can define
1
γ= q (7.1.1)
u2
1− c2

7.2 Time Dilation

D

∆t = γ∆t0 (7.2.1)
where ∆t0 is the time measured at rest relative to the observer, ∆t is the time measured
in motion relative to the observer.

7.3 Length Contraction

L0
L= (7.3.1)
γ
where L0 is the length of an object observed at rest relative to the observer and L is the
length of the object moving at a speed u relative to the observer.
52 Special Relativity
7.4 Simultaneity

7.5 Energy and Momentum

7.5.1 Relativistic Momentum & Energy

In relativistic mechanics, to be conserved, momentum and energy are defined as

FT
Relativistic Momentum
p̄ = γmv̄ (7.5.1)

Relativistic Energy
E = γmc2 (7.5.2)
RA
7.5.2 Lorentz Transformations (Momentum & Energy)

E
 
p0x= γ px − β (7.5.3)
c
py = py
0
(7.5.4)
= pz
p0z (7.5.5)
D

0
E E
 
=γ − βpx (7.5.6)
c c

7.5.3 Relativistic Kinetic Energy

K = E − mc2 (7.5.7)
 
 
 1 
= mc2  q − 1 (7.5.8)
v2
1−
 
c2

= mc2 γ − 1


(7.5.9)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Four-Vectors and Lorentz Transformation 53
7.5.4 Relativistic Dynamics (Collisions)

∆E
 
∆P0x = γ ∆Px − β (7.5.10)
c
∆P y = ∆P y
0
(7.5.11)
∆P0z
= ∆Pz (7.5.12)
∆E0
∆E
 
=γ − β∆Px (7.5.13)
c c

7.6 Four-Vectors and Lorentz Transformation

FT
We can represent an event in S with the column matrix, s,

 x 
 
 y 
s =   (7.6.1)
 z 

ict

A different Lorents frame, S0 , corresponds to another set of space time axes so that
 0 
RA
 x 
 y0 
s0 =  0  (7.6.2)
 
 z 
 0 
ict

The Lorentz Transformation is related by the matrix

 x   γ
 0  
0 0 iγβ   x 
 
 y0   0 1 0 0   y 
 0  =  (7.6.3)
     
 z   0 0 1 0   z 
  
−iγβ 0 0 γ
 0    
ict ict
D

We can express the equation in the form

s0 = L s (7.6.4)

The matrix L contains all the information needed to relate position four–vectors for
any given event as observed in the two Lorentz frames S and S0 . If we evaluate

 x 
 
h i  y 
s s=
T
x y z ict  z  = x + y + z − c t
  2 2 2 2 2
(7.6.5)
 
ict

Similarly we can show that

s0T s0 = x02 + y02 + z02 − c2 t02 (7.6.6)

©2009 David S. Latchman

54 Special Relativity
We can take any collection of four physical quantities to be four vector provided that
they transform to another Lorentz frame. Thus we have

 bx 
 
 b 
b =  y  (7.6.7)
 
 bz 
 
ibt

this can be transformed into a set of quantities of b0 in another frame S0 such that it
satisfies the transformation
b0 = L b (7.6.8)
Looking at the momentum-Energy four vector, we have

 px
 


FT
 p 
p =  y (7.6.9)
 
 pz


 
iE/c

Applying the same transformation rule, we have

p0 = L p (7.6.10)

We can also get a Lorentz-invariation relation between momentum and energy such
RA
that
p0T p0 = pT p (7.6.11)
The resulting equality gives

E02 E2
x + p y + pz −
p02 = + +
02 02 2 2 2
px p y p z − (7.6.12)
c2 c2

7.7 Velocity Addition

D

v−u
v0 = (7.7.1)
1 − uv
c2

7.8 Relativistic Doppler Formula

r r
c+u c−u
ῡ = υ0 let r = (7.8.1)
c−u c+u

We have

ῡreceding = rυ0 red-shift (Source Receding) (7.8.2)

υ0
ῡapproaching = blue-shift (Source Approaching) (7.8.3)
r

David S. Latchman ©2009

Lorentz Transformations 55
7.9 Lorentz Transformations
Given two reference frames S(x, y, z, t) and S0 (x0 , y0 , z0 , t0 ), where the S0 -frame is moving
in the x-direction, we have,

x0 = γ (x − ut) x = (x0 − ut0 ) (7.9.1)

y0 = y y = y0 (7.9.2)
z0 = y y0 = y (7.9.3)
u u 0
   
t = γ t − 2x
0
t = γ t + 2x
0
(7.9.4)
c c

7.10 Space-Time Interval

FT
(∆S)2 = (∆x)2 + ∆y 2 + (∆z)2 − c2 (∆t)2


(7.10.1)
Space-Time Intervals may be categorized into three types depending on their separa-
tion. They are

Time-like Interval

c2 ∆t2 > ∆r2 (7.10.2)

RA
∆S2 > 0 (7.10.3)

When two events are separated by a time-like interval, there is a cause-effect

relationship between the two events.

Light-like Interval

c2 ∆t2 = ∆r2 (7.10.4)

S =0
2
(7.10.5)
D

Space-like Intervals

c2 ∆t2 < ∆r2 (7.10.6)

∆S < 0 (7.10.7)

©2009 David S. Latchman

56 Special Relativity

FT
RA
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Chapter 8
Laboratory Methods

8.1

8.1.1
Data and Error Analysis

Addition and Subtraction

FT
x=a+b−c (8.1.1)
RA
The Error in x is
(δx)2 = (δa)2 + (δb)2 + (δc)2 (8.1.2)

8.1.2 Multiplication and Division

a×b
x= (8.1.3)
c
D

The error in x is
!2
δx δa δb δc
 2  2  2
= + + (8.1.4)
x a b c

8.1.3 Exponent - (No Error in b)

x = ab (8.1.5)

The Error in x is
δx δa
 
=b (8.1.6)
x a
58 Laboratory Methods
8.1.4 Logarithms

Base e

x = ln a (8.1.7)
We find the error in x by taking the derivative on both sides, so

d ln a
δx = · δa
da
1
= · δa
a
δa
= (8.1.8)
a

Base 10

The Error in x can be derived as such

δx =
FT
x = log10 a

d(log a)
δa
(8.1.9)
RA
da
ln a
ln 10
= δa
da
1 δa
=
ln 10 a
δa
= 0.434 (8.1.10)
a

8.1.5 Antilogs
D

Base e

x = ea (8.1.11)
We take the natural log on both sides.

ln x = a ln e = a (8.1.12)

Applaying the same general method, we see

d ln x
δx = δa
dx
δx
⇒ = δa (8.1.13)
x

David S. Latchman ©2009

Instrumentation 59
Base 10

x = 10a (8.1.14)

We follow the same general procedure as above to get

log x = a log 10
log x
δx = δa
dx
1 d ln a
δx = δa
ln 10 dx
δx
= ln 10δa (8.1.15)
x

8.2

2
Instrumentation

FT
RA
8.3 Radiation Detection

8.4 Counting Statistics

Let’s assume that for a particular experiment, we are making countung measurements
D

for a radioactive source. In this experiment, we recored N counts in time T. The

counting rate for this trial is R = N/T. This rate should be close to the average
√ rate, R̄.
The standard deviation or the uncertainty of our count is a simply called the N rule.
So
√
σ= N (8.4.1)

Thus we can report our results as

√
Number of counts = N ± N (8.4.2)

We can find the count rate by dividing by T, so

√
N N
R= ± (8.4.3)
T T

©2009 David S. Latchman

60 Laboratory Methods
δN
The fractional uncertainty of our count is N
. We can relate this in terms of the count
rate.
δN
δR T δN
= N
=
R T
N
√
N
=
N
1
= (8.4.4)
N
We see that our uncertainty decreases as we take more counts, as to be expected.

8.5 Interaction of Charged Particles with Matter

5

8.6
6
Lasers and Optical Interferometers
FT
RA
8.7 Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional Analysis is used to understand physical situations involving a mis of
different types of physical quantities. The dimensions of a physical quantity are
associated with combinations of mass, length, time, electric charge, and temperature,
represented by symbols M, L, T, Q, and θ, respectively, each raised to rational powers.
D

8.8 Fundamental Applications of Probability and Statis-

tics
8

David S. Latchman ©2009

Chapter 9
Sample Test

9.1 Period of Pendulum on Moon

The period of the pendulum, T, is

FT
T = 2π
s
`
(9.1.1)
RA
g

where ` is the length of the pendulium string. The relationship between the weight of
an object on the Earth, We , and the Moon, Wm , is

We
Wm = (9.1.2)
6
From eq. (9.1.2), we can determine the acceleration due to gravity on the Moon and on
the Earth; we use the same subscript notation as above.
D

ge
gm = (9.1.3)
6
On Earth, the period of the pendulum, Te , is one second. From eq. (9.1.1), the equation
for the pendulum’s period on Earth is
s
`
Te = 2π = 1s (9.1.4)
ge

and similarly for the moon, the period becomes

s
`
Tm = 2π (9.1.5)
gm
62 Sample Test
Substituting eq. (9.1.3) into eq. (9.1.5) gives
s
`
Tm = 2π
gm
√ √
= 6 Te = 6s

Answer: (D)

9.2 Work done by springs in series

Hooke’s Law tells us that the extension on a spring is proportional to the force applied.

1
FT
F = −kx

k1 = k2
3
(9.2.1)

Springs in series follow the same rule for capacitors, see ??. The spring constants are
related to each other by
(9.2.2)

The springs are massless so we can assume that the weight is transmitted evenly along
RA
both springs, thus from Hooke’s Law the extension is

F1 = −k1 x1 = F2 = −k2 x2 (9.2.3)

where k1 and k2 are the spring constants for the springs S1 and S2 respectively. Thus
we see
k1 x2 1
= = (9.2.4)
k2 x1 3
The work done in stretching a spring or its potential energy is
D

1
W = kx2 (9.2.5)
2

Thus
1 2
W1 k1 x1
= 2
W2 1 2
k2 x
2 2
k1 x1 2
 
= ·
k2 x2
=3 (9.2.6)

Answer: (D)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Central Forces I 63
9.3 Central Forces I

We are given a central force field where

k
V(r) = − (9.3.1)
r

The Angular Momentum of an object is

L=r×p (9.3.2)

and the torque is defined

τ = r × F = r × ṗ (9.3.3)

FT
From eqs. (9.3.2) and (9.3.3), we see that

dL
τ= (9.3.4)
dt

We see that if τ = 0, then L is constant and therefore conserved. This can occur if ṙ = 0,
Ḟ = 0 or F ∝ r.
RA
From 9.3.1, we can determine the force acting on the object since

dV k
F=− = 2 (9.3.5)
dr r
As our force is a central force, the force acts in the direction of our radius vector. Thus
the torque becomes

τ = r × F = rF cos 0
=0
D

We see that this means that our angular momentum is constant.

L = constant (9.3.6)

A constant angular momentum means that r and v remain unchanged. The total
mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies.

E = KE + PE
1 k
= mv2 + 2 (9.3.7)
2 r
Both the kinetic and potential energies will remain constant and thus the total mechan-
ical energy is also conserved.
Answer: (C)

©2009 David S. Latchman

64 Sample Test
9.4 Central Forces II

The motion of particle is governed by its potential energy and for a conservative,
central force the potential energy is

k
V(r) = − (9.4.1)
r

we have shown in the above question that the angular momentum, L, is conserved.
We can define three types of orbits given k and E.

FT
Orbit k Total Energy
Ellipse k>0 E<0
Parabola k>0 E=0
Hyperbola k > 0 or k < 0 E>0

Table 9.4.1: Table of Orbits

RA
From, table 9.4.1, we expect the orbit to be elliptical; this eliminates answers (C), (D)
and (E).

For an elliptical orbit, the total energy is

k
E=− (9.4.2)
2a
D

where a is the length of the semimajor axis. In the case of a circular orbit of radius, r,
eq. (9.4.2) becomes

k
E=− (9.4.3)
2r

Recalling eq. (9.3.1), we see

1
E = V(r) = −K (9.4.4)
2

This is the minimum energy the system can have resulting in a circular orbit.

Answer: (A)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Electric Potential I 65
9.5 Electric Potential I

+z

P2

r2
P1

r1

FT
b

Figure 9.5.1: Diagram of Uniformly Charged Circular Loop

RA
The Electric Potential of a charged ring is given by1

1 Q
V= √ (9.5.1)
4π0 R2 + z2

where R is the radius of our ring and x is the distance from the central axis of the ring.
In our case, the radius of our ring is R = b.
The potential at P1 , where z = b is
1 Q 1 Q
V1 = =
D

√ √ (9.5.2)
4π0 b2 + b2 4π0 b 2

The potential at P2 , where z = 2b is

1 Q 1 Q
V2 = = √ (9.5.3)
4π0 4π0 b 5
q
b2 + (2b)2

Dividing eq. (9.5.3) by eq. (9.5.2) gives us

r
V2 2
= (9.5.4)
V1 5

Answer: (D)
1
Add Derivation

©2009 David S. Latchman

66 Sample Test
9.6 Electric Potential II
The potential energy, U(r), of a charge, q, placed in a potential, V(r), is[1]

U(r) = qV(r) (9.6.1)

The work done in moving our charge through this electrical field is

W = U2 − U1
= qV2 − qV1
= q (V2 − V1 ) (9.6.2)

Answer: (E)

9.7 Faraday’s Law and Electrostatics

FT
We notice that our answers are in the form of differential equations and this leads us
to think of the differential form of Maxwell’s equations[2]. The electrostatics form of
Maxwell’s Equations are[3]
RA
Gauss’s Law
ρ
∇·E= (9.7.1)
0
Maxwell-Faraday Equation
∇×E=0 (9.7.2)

Gauss’ Law for Magnetism

∇·B=0 (9.7.3)

Ampère’s Law
D

∇ × B = µ0 J (9.7.4)

Comparing our answers, we notice that eq. (9.7.2) corresponds to Answer: (C) .
Answer: (C)

9.8 AC Circuits: RL Circuits

An inductor’s characteristics is opposite to that of a capacitor. While a capacitor stores
energy in the electric field, essentially a potential difference between its plates, an
inductor stores energy in the magnetic field, which is produced by a current passing
through the coil. Thus inductors oppose changes in currents while a capacitor opposes
changes in voltages. A fully discharged inductor will initially act as an open circuit

David S. Latchman ©2009

AC Circuits: RL Circuits 67
with the maximum voltage, V, across its terminals. Over time, the current increases
and the potential difference across the inductor decreases exponentially to a minimum,
essentially behaving as a short circuit. As we do not expect this circuit to oscillate, this
leaves us with choices (A) and (B). At t = 0, we expect the voltage across the resistor
to be VR = 0 and increase exponentially. We choose (A).

L
A
I

V R

FT
Figure 9.8.1: Schematic of Inductance-Resistance Circuit

We can see from the above schematic,

V = VL + VR
where VL and VR are the voltages across the inductor and resistor respectively. This
(9.8.1)
RA
can be written as a first order differential equation
dI R
V=L + I (9.8.2)
dt L
Dividing by L leaves
V dI R
= + I (9.8.3)
L dt L
The solution to eq. (9.8.3) leaves
Z
V Rt
 
exp dt + k
D

L L
I=
Rt
 
exp
L
V Rt
 
= + k exp − (9.8.4)
R L
Multiplying eq. (9.8.4) by R gives us the voltage across the resistor
Rt
 
VR = V + kR exp − (9.8.5)
L
at t = 0, VR = 0
0 = V + kR
V
∴k=− (9.8.6)
R

©2009 David S. Latchman

68 Sample Test
Substituting k into eq. (9.8.5) gives us

Rt
  
VR (t) = V 1 − exp − (9.8.7)
L

where τ = L/R is the time constant. Where τ = 2 s

7
V(x)
6

FT
5
Voltage/V

2
RA
1

0
0 5 10 15 20
Time/s

Figure 9.8.2: Potential Drop across Resistor in a Inductor-Resistance Circuit

D

Answer: (A)

9.9 AC Circuits: Underdamped RLC Circuits

When a harmonic oscillator is underdamed, it not only approaches zero much more
quickly than a critically damped oscillator but it also oscillates about that zero. A quick
examination of our choices means we can eliminate all but choices (C) and (E). The
choice we make takes some knowledge and analysis.

David S. Latchman ©2009

AC Circuits: Underdamped RLC Circuits 69
L

V R

A B
C

Figure 9.9.1: LRC Oscillator Circuit

FT
The voltages in the above circuit can be written

V(t) = VL + VR + VC
dI(t) 1
=L + RI(t) + q(t) (9.9.1)
dt C
which can be written as a second order differential equation

d2 q(t) dq(t) 1
RA
L 2
+R + q(t) = V(t) (9.9.2)
dt dt C
or as
d2 q(t) dq(t)
2
+ γ + ω20 q(t) = V(t) (9.9.3)
dt dt
This can be solved by finding the solutions for nonhomogenoeus second order linear
differential equations. For any driving force, we solve for the undriven case,

d2 z dz
2
+ γ + ω20 = 0 (9.9.4)
dt dt
D

where for the underdamped case, the general solution is of the form

z(t) = A exp(−αt) sin(βt + δ) (9.9.5)

where
γ
α=− (9.9.6)
q2
4ω20 − γ2
β= (9.9.7)
2
In the case of a step response, 
1
 t>0
V(t) = 

(9.9.8)
0
 t<0

©2009 David S. Latchman

70 Sample Test
The solution becomes
r  2 
 ω − R
+ δ
 2

sin 0
t 

R
  2L 
q(t) = 1 − exp − t (9.9.9)
2L sin δ
where the phase constant, δ, is
R
cos δ = (9.9.10)
2ω20 L
where ω0 ≈ 3.162 kHz and γ = 5 ΩH−1

1.8
V(x)
1.6

FT
1.4
1.2
Voltage/V

1
0.8
0.6
RA
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time/s

Figure 9.9.2: Forced Damped Harmonic Oscillations

D

So in the case of our forced underdamped oscillator, we would expect the voltage to
raise, overshoot a little and oscillate while slowly decaying. This resembles choice (C).
Answer: (C)

9.10 Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom

Bohr’s theory of the atom proposed the existence of stationary states by blending new
quantum mechanics ideas with old classical mechanics concepts.
Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom starts as a system of two bodies bound together by
the Coulomb attraction. The charges and mass of one particle is −e and m and +Ze and
M for the other. In the case of our hydrogen atom system, Z = 1, M = mp and m = me .

David S. Latchman ©2009

Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom 71
We will be taking into account the motion of both particles in our analysis. Normally,
we expect the mass, M, to be stationary where M/m → ∞ and as the proton-to-electron
mass ratio is very large, we approximate to this limiting condition.
mp
= 1836 (9.10.1)
me
This effect is detectable and should be retained as a small correction. As the effects can
be incorporated with little difficulty, we shall do so.2
We take the center of mass to be at th origin,3 . We can reduce our two body system
to an equivalent one body description in terms of a single vector given by a relative
coordinate.
r = r1 − r2 (9.10.2)
As the center of mass is located at the origin

and
r1 =
FT
mr1 + Mr2 = 0

Solving eqs. (9.10.2) and (9.10.3) gives us

M
M+m
r
(9.10.3)

(9.10.4)
RA
m
r2 = − r (9.10.5)
M+m
Differentiating eqs. (9.10.4) and (9.10.5), gives us the corresponding velocities

M
v1 = v (9.10.6)
M+m
and
m
v2 = − v (9.10.7)
M+m
where the relative velocity is
D

dr
v= (9.10.8)
dt
The total energy can be found from eqs. (9.10.6) and (9.10.7)

1 1
K = mv21 + Mv22
2 2
1 mM 2
= v (9.10.9)
2M+m
We can reduce this to the equivalent of a one body system where the reduced mass
factor is
mM
µ= (9.10.10)
M+m
2
Put figure here
3
as seen in diagram

©2009 David S. Latchman

72 Sample Test
Equation (9.10.9) becomes
1
K = µv2 (9.10.11)
2
As the Coulomb Force is a central force, the total angular momentum of the system
will be constant.

L = mv1 r1 + Mv2 r2
M 2
2
m
  
=m vr + M vr
M+m M+m
= µvr (9.10.12)

The centripetal force of the system is equal to the Coulomb force, thus

mv21 Mv22 µv2 1 Ze2

FT
F= = = = (9.10.13)
r1 r2 r 4π0 r2

The potential energy of the system comes from the Coulomb potential energy

1 Ze2
V=− (9.10.14)
4π0 r

The total energy of the system can be found by adding eqs. (9.10.11) and (9.10.14)
RA
E=K+V
1 2 1 Ze2
= µv − (9.10.15)
2 4π0 r

Substituting eq. (9.10.13) into eq. (9.10.15) gives

1 Ze2
E=− (9.10.16)
2 4π0 r

We expect the total energy of the system to be negative as it is a bound system.

D

We have, so far, adhered to the principles of classical mechanics up to this point.

Beyond this point, we must introduce quantum mechanical concepts. To produce
the stationary states he was seeking, Bohr introduced the hypothesis that the angular
momentum is quantized.
L = n~ (9.10.17)
Equating this with eq. (9.10.12) and substitution into eq. (9.10.13) gives discrete values
for the orbital radius.
4π0 n2 ~2
rn = (9.10.18)
Ze2 µ
We can rewrite the above equation

n2 me
rn = a0 (9.10.19)
µZ

David S. Latchman ©2009

Nuclear Sizes 73
where
4π0 ~2
a0 = (9.10.20)
e2 me
is the Bohr Radius.
As the orbital radii is discrete we expect the various orbital energies to also be discrete.
Substitution of eq. (9.10.18) into eq. (9.10.16) gives

1 Ze2
En = −
2 4π0 rn
!2
Z2 e2 µ
=− 2 (9.10.21)
n 4π0 2~2
or
Z2 µ

FT
En = − E0 (9.10.22)
n2 me
where !2
e2 me
E0 = = 13.6 eV (9.10.23)
4π0 2~2
We see that this analysis eliminates all but one answer.
Answer: (A)
RA
9.11 Nuclear Sizes
We know from electron scattering experiments, the nucleus is roughly spherical and
uniform density4 . The Fermi model gives us an expression

1
r = r0 A 3 (9.11.1)

where r0 = 1.2 × 10−15 m and A is the mass number. In the case of hydrogen, we recall
D

the Bohr radius to be a0 = 0.0592 nm.

So in the case of hydrogen, A = 1,

r = r0 = 1.2 × 10−15 m (9.11.2)

Thus
r0 1.2 × 10−15
=
a0 0.0592 × 10−9
= 2.02 × 10−5 (9.11.3)

Answer: (B)
4
Add diagram of nuclear and atomic sizes here

©2009 David S. Latchman

74 Sample Test
9.12 Ionization of Lithium

The ionization energy of an electron is the energy to kick it off from its present state to
infinity. It can be expressed as

Eionization = E∞ − En
Z2 µ
= 2 E0 (9.12.1)
n me

where E0 = 13.6 eV and µ is the reduced mass where

µ M
= (9.12.2)
me M + me

FT
In the case of atoms, the above ratio is close to one and hence we can ignore it for this
case.
Lithium has an atomic number, Z = 3 so its electron structure is5

1s2 , 2s1 (9.12.3)

So the total ionization energy will be the total energy needed to completly remove each
electron. This turns out to be
RA
" 2 #
3 32 32
E = 2 + 2 + 2 13.6 eV
1 1 2
≈ 20 × 13.6 eV
= 272.0 eV (9.12.4)

Answer: (C)
D

9.13 Electron Diffraction

We recall that in optics, one of the criteria for diffraction is a monochromatic wave. We
expect the electron beam to also have wavelike effects. The de Broglie relations show
that the wavelength is inversely proportional to the momentum of a particle and that
the frequency is directly proportional to the particle’s kinetic energy.

h
λ= and E = h f
p

Thus, for electron we expect the beam to be monoenergetic.

Answer: (B)
5
Draw Lithium atom and its electrons

David S. Latchman ©2009

Effects of Temperature on Speed of Sound 75
9.14 Effects of Temperature on Speed of Sound

The speed of sound is determined by its Bulk Modulus and its density
s
B
v= (9.14.1)
ρ

in the case of gases, the Bulk Modulus can be expressed

B = γP (9.14.2)

where γ is the adiabatic ratio and P is the pressure of the gas.

FT
For an ideal gas
PV = nRT (9.14.3)
Substituting eqs. (9.14.2) and (9.14.3) into eq. (9.14.1) gives us
r
nγRT
v= (9.14.4)
M
RA
So we see that
1
v ∝ T2 (9.14.5)
Answer: (B)

9.15 Polarized Waves

Given the equations

D

y = y0 sin (ωt − kx)

 
z = z0 sin ωt − kx − φ
(9.15.1)

For our wave to be plane-polarized, the two waves, y and z must be in phase i.e. when
y is a maximum so too is z. So
 
sin (ωt − kx) = sin ωt − kx − φ
∴φ=0 (9.15.2)

A plane polarized wave will occur when φ = 0. We can also look at the waves below
and see that they are not in phase, except for Choice (E).

©2009 David S. Latchman

76 Sample Test
z y(x) z y(x)
z(x) z(x)

y y

x x

√
(a) φ = 2 (b) φ = 3π/2

z y(x) z y(x)
z(x) z(x)

y y

(c) φ = π/2
x

FT (d) φ = π/4

Figure 9.15.1: Waves that are not plane-polarized

x
RA
z y(x)
z(x)

x
D

Figure 9.15.2: φ = 0

Answer: (E)

9.16 Electron in symmetric Potential Wells I

As our potential is symmetric about the V-axis, then we will expect our wave function
to also be symmetric about the V-axis.
Answer: (E)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Electron in symmetric Potential Wells II 77
9.17 Electron in symmetric Potential Wells II

If the electrons do not interact, we can ignore Pauli’s Exclusion Principle. As a result
they will not have spatially antisymmetric states but will have the same spatial wave
functions.
Answer: (B)

9.18 Relativistic Collisions I

The Relativistic Momentum equation is

FT
mv
p= r  2 (9.18.1)
v
1−
c

given that p = mc/2,

mc mv
= r
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2  2
v
1−
c
c v
⇒ = r
2  2
v
1−
c
c
∴v= √ (9.18.2)
5

Answer: (D)
D

9.19 Relativistic Collisions II

Momentum is conserved. So in the horizontal direction,

p = 2p f cos 30 (9.19.1)

Solving this shows

mc
pf = √ (9.19.2)
2 3
Answer: (B)

©2009 David S. Latchman

78 Sample Test
9.20 Thermodynamic Cycles I

We have a three stage cyclic process where

A(P1 , V1 , T1 ) , B(P2 , V2 , T2 ) , C(P3 , V3 , T3 ) (9.20.1)

Adiabatic Expansion, A −→ B
γ γ
P1 V1 = P2 V2 (9.20.2)
Given that V2 = 2V1 , we have
P2 = 2−γ P1 (9.20.3)
and
T2 = 21−γ T1

FT
(9.20.4)

Isochoric Expansion, B −→ C We have

P2 P3
= (9.20.5)
T2 T3

where T3 = T1 , we have
RA
P3 = 2γ−1 P2 (9.20.6)
1
= P1 (9.20.7)
2

This becomes
P1
A(P1 , V1 , T1 ) , B(2−γ P1 , 2V1 , 21−γ T1 ) , C( , 2V1 , T1 ) (9.20.8)
2
On a PV-graph, we see that this makes a clockwise cycle, indicating that positive work
D

is done by the gas on the environment.

Answer: (A)

9.21 Thermodynamic Cycles II

We recall Calusius’s Therorem

I
dQ
=0 (9.21.1)
T

for a reversible cycle, the change in entropy is zero.

Answer: (C)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Distribution of Molecular Speeds 79
9.22 Distribution of Molecular Speeds
The distribution of speeds of molecules follows the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution,
which has the form
3 " #
M 2 2 Mv2

f (v) = 4π v exp − (9.22.1)
2πRT 2RT
where R is the gas constant and M is the molar mass of the gas. The speed distribution
for noble gases at T = 298.15 K looks like

0.0045
Helium
0.004 Neon
Maxwell Speed Distribution, f(v)

Argon
Xenon
0.0035

FT
0.003
0.0025
0.002
0.0015
0.001
RA
0.0005
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Molecular Speed, m/s

Figure 9.22.1: Maxwell-Boltzmann Speed Distribution of Nobel Gases

Answer: (D)
D

9.23 Temperature Measurements

All the thermometers won’t be able to survive that high a temperature except for the
optical pyrometer. Of course, a little knowledge always helps.

Optical Pyrometer Optical pyrometers work by using the human eye to match the
brightness of a hot object to a calibrated lamp filament inside the instrument.
Carbon Resistor These thermometers are typically used for very low temperatures
and not high ones. One of their main advantages is their sensitivity, their resis-
tance increases exponentially to decreasing temperature and are not affected by
magnetic fields.

©2009 David S. Latchman

80 Sample Test
Gas-Bulb Thermometer May also be known as the constant volume gas thermometer.
Doubtful the glass bulb will survive such high temperatures.

Mercury Thermometer The boiling point of mercury is about 360 °C. This thermome-
ter will be vaporized before you even had a chance to think about getting a
temperature reading.

Thermocouple Thermocouples are made by joining two different metals together and
produces a voltage that is related to the temperature difference. They are typically
used in industry to measure high temperatures, usually in the order ∼ 1800 °C.
The metals would most likely start melting above these temperatures.

Even if we knew nothing about any of the above thermometers, we could have still
take a stab at it. We should probably guess that at that high a temperature we won’t

FT
want to make physical contact with what we are measuring. The only one that can do
this is the optical pyrometer.
Answer: (A)

9.24 Counting Statistics

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NOT FINISHED
Answer: (D)

9.25 Thermal & Electrical Conductivity

A metal is a lattice of atoms, each with a shell of electrons. This forms a positive ionic
lattice where the outer electrons are free to dissociate from the parent atoms and move
freely through the lattic as a ‘sea’ of electrons. When a potential difference is applied
D

across the metal, the electrons drift from one end of the conductor to the other under
the influence of the electric field. It is this free moving electron ‘sea’ that makes a metal
an electrical conductor.
These free moving electrons are also efficient at transferring thermal energy for the
same reason. Thermal and electrical conductivity in metals are closely related to each
other as outlined in the Wiedemann-Franz Law.
κ
= LT (9.25.1)
σ
where the Lorenz number, L = 2.44 × 10−8 WΩK−1 and κ and σ are the thermal and
electrical conductivities respectively. This corelation does not apply to non-metals due
to the increased role of phonon carriers.
Answer: (E)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Nonconservation of Parity in Weak Interactions 81
9.26 Nonconservation of Parity in Weak Interactions

Of the four interations, electromagnetism, strong, weak and gravity, parity is conserved
in all except for the weak interaction. To examine violations of these interactions we
must look at the helicity of our particles and see whether they are “left-handed” or
“right-handed”.
A particle is said to be “right-handed” if the direction of its spin is the same as the
direction as its motion. It is “left-handed” if the directions of spin and motion are
opposite to each other. Thus the helicity of a particle is the projection of the spin vector
onto the momentum vector where left is negative and right is positive.6

S·p
h ≡   (9.26.1)
S · p

FT
Particles are not typically characterized as being “left-handed” or “right-handed”. For
example, an electron could have both its spin and momentum pointing in the same
direction to the right and hence be classified as “right-handed”. But from the reference
frame of someone travelling faster than the speed of the electron, would see the electron
travelling to the left and hence conclude the electron is “left-handed”.
Neutrinos, on the other hand, travel very close to the speed of light and it would be very
RA
difficult to accelerate to a point where one would be able to change the “handedness”
of the neutrino. Thus, we say that the neutrino has an intrinsic parity, all of them
being left-handed. Anti-neutrinos on the other hand are all right-handed. This causes
weak interactions, neutrino emitting ones in particular, to violate the conservation of
parity law.7
For the pion decay,
π+ → µ+ + υµ+ (9.26.2)
It is very difficult to detect and measure the helicity of the neutrino directly but we can
measure it indirectly through the above decay and hence demonstrate nonconservation
D

of parity.
If the pion is at rest and has spin-0, the anti-muon and neutrino will come out in opposite
directions.8 In the figure below, the anti-muons are observed with their z-component
of angular momentum given by mµ = − 21 . Angular momentum conversation then
implies mυ = + 12 for the neutrino.
It is very difficult if not impossible to detect neutrinos in a typical laboratory setting
but we can detect muons and measure their helicity.

Choice (A) The Q-value is the kinetic Energy released in the decay of the particle at
rest. Parity deals with mirror symmetry violations and not energy.
6
Draw Helicity Diagrams
7
Add section explaining parity
8
Draw Diagram Here

©2009 David S. Latchman

82 Sample Test
Choice (B) We measure for violations of parity conservation by measuring the longi-
tudinal polarization of the anti-muon. We choose this answer.

Choice (C) The pion has spin-0 and is stationary. So it won’t be polarized. Measuring
this gives us no information on our decay products.

Choice (D) The angular correlation would be difficult as neutrinos are difficult to
detect.

Choice (E) Parity deals with spatial assymetry and has nothing to do with time. We
can eliminate this choice.

Answer: (B)

FT
9.27 Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia is Z
I= r2 dm (9.27.1)

In the case of a hoop about its center axis,

RA
I = MR2 (9.27.2)

From eq. (9.27.1), we see that the moment of inertia deals with how the mass is
distributed along its axis.9 We see that

A
A is equivalent to
D

Figure 9.27.1: Hoop and S-shaped wire

Thus, see fig. 9.27.1, the moment of inertia of our S-shaped wire can be found from a
hoop with its axis or rotation at its radius. This can be calculated by using the Parallel
Axis Theorem
I = ICM + Md2 (9.27.3)
where d2 is the distance from the center of mass. This becomes

I = MR2 + MR2 = 2MR2 (9.27.4)

Answer: (E)
9
The moment of inertia of a 1 kg mass at a distance 1 m from the axis of rotation is the same as a hoop
with the same mass rotating about its central axis.

David S. Latchman ©2009

Lorentz Force Law I 83
9.28 Lorentz Force Law I

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
FE

u B

FB

FT
Figure 9.28.1: Charged particle moving parallel to a positively charged current carrying
wire

The force on the charged particle is determined by the Lorentz Force Equation

F = e [E + u × B] (9.28.1)

where FE = eE and FB = e(u × B). For our charged particle to travel parallel to our wire,
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FE = FB .10
λ`
E= (9.28.2)
2π0 r
and the magnetic field can be determined from Ampère’s Law
I
B · ds = µ0 Ienclosed (9.28.3)

In the case of our wire

µ0 I
D

B= (9.28.4)
2πr
Plugging eqs. (9.28.2) and (9.28.4) into eq. (9.28.1) gives

λ` µ0 I
" #
F=e +u =0 (9.28.5)
2π0 r 2πr
For the particle to be undeflected, FE + FB = 0

FE + FB = 0
λ` µ0 I
−u =0 (9.28.6)
2π0 r 2πr
Now we can go about eliminating choices.
10
Add derivation in a section

©2009 David S. Latchman

84 Sample Test
Doubling charge per unit length We see from eq. (9.28.6), halving the current, I, and
doubling the linear charge density, λ, will not allow the particle to continue
undeflected.
2λ` µ0 I/2 FB
−u = 2FE − ,0 (9.28.7)
2π0 r 2πr 2

Doubling the charge on the particle We see from, eq. (9.28.6) that the charge on the
particle, e, has no effect on the particle’s trajectory. We would be left with

λ` µ0 I/2 FB
−u = FE − ,0 (9.28.8)
2π0 r 2πr 2

Doubling both the charge per unit length on the wire and the charge on the particle

FT
As shown above, the particle’s charge has no effect on the trajectory. This leaves
us with the charge per unit length, λ and as we have seen before, this will change
the particle’s trajectory, see eq. (9.28.7).

Doubling the speed of the particle If we double the particle’s speed we will get

λ` µ0 I/2 λ` µ0 I
− (2u) = −u
2π0 r 2πr 2π0 r 2πr
RA
∴ FE = FB

This is our answer

Introducing an additional magnetic field parallel to the wire Recalling eq. (9.28.1), the
force due to the magnetic field is a cross product between the velocity and the
field. A charged particle moving in the same direction as the field will experience
no magnetic force.

FB = e [u × B]
D

= uB sin 0
=0 (9.28.9)

Answer: (D)

9.29 Lorentz Force Law II

As we can see from eq. (9.28.5), the forces due to the electric and magnetic fields are
equal.
λ` µ0 I
" #
F=e +u =0 (9.29.1)
2π0 r 2πr

David S. Latchman ©2009

Nuclear Angular Moment 85
If we move our charged particle a distance 2r from the wire with a speed nu, eq. (9.28.5)
becomes
λ` µ0 I λ` µ0 I
" #  " #
1
e +u =e + nu
2π0 (2r) 2π(2r)r 2 2π0 r 2πr
1
 
=e [FE − nFB ]
2
=0 (9.29.2)
Thus
[FE − nFB ] = FE − FB = 0
⇒n=1 (9.29.3)
The speed of the particle is u.

FT
Answer: (C)

9.30 Nuclear Angular Moment

NOT FINISHED
Answer: (B)
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9.31 Potential Step Barrier

Region I Ψ(x) Region II

V
E
D

x
O

Figure 9.31.1: Wavefunction of particle through a potential step barrier

The point, x = 0, divides the region into two regions, Region I, where classical motion
is allowed and, Region II, where classical motion is forbidden. The barrier potential is

0 for x < 0

V(x) = 

(9.31.1)
V for x > 0


©2009 David S. Latchman

86 Sample Test
For, x < 0, the eigenfunction satisfies

d2 ψ
= −k12 ψ (9.31.2)
dx2
where
2m
k12 = E (9.31.3)
~2
The general form of the eigenfunction is

ψI = Aeik1 x + Be−ik1 x (9.31.4)

For, x > 0, the eigenfunction satisfies

d2 ψ
= k22 ψ

FT
(9.31.5)
dx2
where
2m
k22 = (V − E) (9.31.6)
~2
The general form of the eigenfunction becomes

ψII = Ce−k2 x + Dek2 x (9.31.7)

RA
As x → ∞, the ek2 x term blows up. So to allow eq. (9.31.7) to make any physical sense
we set D = 0, thus
ψII = Ce−k2 x = Ce−αx (9.31.8)
We can continue solving for A, B and C but for the purposes of the question we see
from eq. (9.31.8) that α is both real and positive.
Answer: (C)
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Appendix A
Constants & Important Equations

A.1 Constants

Constant
Speed of light in a vacuum
Gravitational Constant
FT
Symbol

G
c
Value
2.99 × 108 m/s
6.67 × 10−11 m3 /kg.s2
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Rest Mass of the electron me 9.11 × 10−31 kg
Avogadro’s Number NA 6.02 × 1023 mol-1
Universal Gas Constant R 8.31 J/mol.K
Boltzmann’s Constant k 1.38 × 10−23 J/K
Electron charge e 1.60 × 10−9 C
Permitivitty of Free Space 0 8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N.m2
Permeability of Free Space µ0 4π × 10−7 T.m/A
Athmospheric Pressure 1 atm 1.0 × 105 M/m2
Bohr Radius a0 0.529 × 10−10 m
D

Table A.1.1: Something

A.2 Vector Identities

A.2.1 Triple Products

A · (B × C) = B · (C × A) = C · (A × B) (A.2.1)
A × (B × C) = B (A · C) − C (A · B) (A.2.2)
88 Constants & Important Equations
A.2.2 Product Rules

∇ f g = f ∇g + g ∇ f




(A.2.3)
∇ (A · B) = A × (∇ × B) + B × (∇ × A) + (A · ∇) B + (B · ∇) A (A.2.4)
∇ · f A = f (∇ · A) + A · ∇ f



(A.2.5)
∇ · (A × B) = B · (∇ × A) − A · (∇ × B) (A.2.6)
∇ × f A = f (∇ × A) − A × ∇ f



(A.2.7)
∇ × (A × B) = (B · ∇) A − (A · ∇) B + A (∇ · B) − B (∇ · A) (A.2.8)

A.2.3 Second Derivatives

A.3 Commutators
∇ · (∇ × A) = 0
∇ × ∇f = 0

FT
∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇ (∇ · A) − ∇2 A
(A.2.9)
(A.2.10)
(A.2.11)
RA
A.3.1 Lie-algebra Relations

[A, A] = 0 (A.3.1)
[A, B] = −[B, A] (A.3.2)
[A, [B, C]] + [B, [C, A]] + [C, [A, B]] = 0 (A.3.3)
D

A.3.2 Canonical Commutator

[x, p] = i~ (A.3.4)

A.3.3 Kronecker Delta Function

(
0 if m , n;
δmn =
1 if m = n;
For a wave function Z
ψm (x)∗ ψn (x)dx = δmn (A.3.5)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Linear Algebra 89
A.4 Linear Algebra

A.4.1 Vectors

Vector Addition

The sum of two vectors is another vector

|αi + |βi = |γi (A.4.1)

Commutative
|αi + |βi = |βi + |αi (A.4.2)
Associative

FT
|αi + |βi + |γi = |αi + |βi + |γi



(A.4.3)
Zero Vector
|αi + |0i = |αi (A.4.4)
Inverse Vector
|αi + | − αi = |0i (A.4.5)
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D

©2009 David S. Latchman

90 Constants & Important Equations

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D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Bibliography

[1] Stephen Gasiorowicz Paul M. Fishbane and Stephen T. Thornton. Physics for Scien-

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tists and Engineers with Modern Physics, chapter 24.2, page 687. Prentice Hall, third
edition, 2005.

[2] Wikipedia. Maxwell’s equations — wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2009. [Online;
accessed 21-April-2009].

[3] David J. Griffiths. Introduction to Electrodyanmics, chapter 5.3.4, page 232. Prentice
Hall, third edition, 1999.
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D
Index

RLC Circuits Franck-Hertz Experiment, 49

Sample Test Q09, 68
RL Circuits Gravitation, see Celestial Mechanics
Sample Test Q08, 66

FT
Kepler’s Laws, see Celestial Mechanics
Angular Momentum, see Rotational Mo- Kronecker Delta Function, 88
tion Linear Algebra, 89
Vectors, 89
Bohr Model
Hydrogen Model, 43 Maxwell’s Equations
Sample Test Q07, 66
Celestial Mechanics, 10
Moment of Inertia, see Rotational Motion
Circular Orbits, 11
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Escape Speed, 10 Newton’s Law of Gravitation, see Celestial
Kepler’s Laws, 11 Mechanics
Newton’s Law of Gravitation, 10
Orbits, 11 Oscillations
Potential Energy, 10 Underdamped
Central Forces Sample Test Q09, 68
Sample Test Q03, 63 Oscillatory Motion, 4
Sample Test Q04, 64 Coupled Harmonic Oscillators, 6
Circular Orbits, see Celestial Mechanics Damped Motion, 5
Commutators, 88 Kinetic Energy, 4
D

Canonical Commutators, 88 Potential Energy, 5

Kronecker Delta Function, 88 Simple Harmonic Motion Equation, 4
Lie-algebra Relations, 88 Small Oscillations, 5
Compton Effect, 46 Total Energy, 4
Counting Statistics, 59
Parallel Axis Theorem, see Rotational Mo-
Doppler Effect, 8 tion
Pendulum
Electric Potential Simple
Sample Test Q05, 65 Sample Test Q01, 61
Work
Sample Test Q06, 66 Rolling Kinetic Energy, see Rotational Mo-
tion
Faraday’s Law Rotational Kinetic Energy, see Rotational
Sample Test Q07, 66 Motion
Index 93
Rotational Motion, 8
Angular Momentum, 9
Moment of Inertia, 8
Parallel Axis Theorem, 9
Rolling Kinetic Energy, 9
Rotational Kinetic Energy, 8
Torque, 9

Springs
Work
Sample Test Q02, 62
Subject, 30
System of Particles, 10

Torque, see Rotational Motion

Vector Identities, 87
Product Rules, 88
Second Derivatives, 88
Triple Products, 87

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D

©2009 David S. Latchman