Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

Topic 1: Organization and Management of Laboratories

Introduction Science laboratory has long been considered as fundamental facility where student are encouraged to actively involve in teaching and learning process such as experimenting, demonstrating, carrying out science project, studying phenomena and closely interact with physical materials. Therefore, science classroom/laboratory has to be managed properly so that their purpose could be achieved. In this case, you will learn about the safety in the science laboratory and how to manage and organize the science laboratory in a proper way. Rules and Safety in the Laboratory Some science activities might be dangerous if there is no safety precaution measure taken. But this should not discourage anyone from doing science practical work. For this purpose, you serve as the role model for the behaviour in the laboratory that you expect from your students. Review the following general laboratory safety guideline for teachers. General Laboratory Rules: You have to follow to some general safety rules stated below before you could tell your students to do so. For Teacher: Never leave students unattended in the science room/laboratory. Be aware of students with allergies or other medical conditions. Instruct students about the hazards involved with the handling of laboratory equipment or materials used. All accidents should be reported to the senior science teacher and headmaster and be recorded in a log book. General cleanliness of the laboratory and preparation room should be adhered to at all time. Preparation room should not be used for recreation. Always wash your hands with antibacterial soap and warm water upon entering the laboratory, after live cultures have been handled, after cleanup, and before removing safety goggles.

Then, on the first day of class, introduce or review the safety guidelines that are the students responsibility. Here are the general safety guidelines for students.

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For Student: These rules should be displayed in the science classroom/laboratory: Food and drink should not be brought in or kept in the science room/laboratory. Students are not allowed to enter the science/laboratory without teachers permission. After usage of all science apparatus and materials, it should be returned to its original place. Safety procedures such as use of lab coat, wearing shoes and eye goggles should be strictly followed. All science apparatus and materials should not be taken out of the laboratory except with the permission from person in-charge. Keep your hands away from your face while working in the science room/laboratory. Tie back long hair and loose clothing to keep them away from flames and equipment. Do not inhale vapours or taste, touch or smell any chemicals or substances directly unless instructed by your teacher.. Spills of chemicals on floor should absorbed with sand and later allowed to evaporate in the open. Keep work and lab areas clean, limiting the amount of easily ignitable materials Turn off all burners and other equipment before leaving the lab Carefully dispose of waste materials as instructed by your teacher Wash you hands thoroughly with soap and warm water after each activity.

What is your action in order to ensure the students safety What is your action in order to ensure the students safety in your school science laboratory? in your school science laboratory?

Safe Handling of Scientific Materials and Apparatus Careful in handling of scientific materials and apparatus during science lesson in the labs would reduce the potential of any unintended risks. You notice that there are many scientific materials and apparatus in the labs that need careful attention in handling it. This includes various forms of chemical, sensitive electrical appliances, radioactive materials and biological materials. Do you follow any procedure or rule in handling these kinds of material? If you are not sure, here are some guidelines and rule to be followed when you are dealing with these materials.

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Handling of Chemicals Some chemical materials are very toxic, dangerous and highly sensitive to heat. So, do not take a risk when you deal with it. Keep these rules in mind: Never heat with open flame. Use steam bath or hot water bath. Handle flammable solvents in exhaust hoods or a well-ventilated area. Unwanted solvents must be returned to solvent store or properly disposed-of without delay. Flasks containing flammable liquids should not be filled with more than onehalf capacity. When making solvent extractions and shaking volatile liquids release the pressure frequently. Flammable liquids must not be poured down the sink. Avoid spillages and wash hands immediately with soap and water if contact occurs. Always pour acid into water. Never use the same spatula to remove chemicals from two different containers. Always be aware when working with any chemical materials. Below are the hazard symbols (Figure 1) that can be found on the container of chemical materials:

danger Risk of

General Risk of fire explosion

Toxic hazard

Corrosive substance Figure 1

Risk of ionizing radiation

Identify other prohibition signs or hazard signs in your science Identify other prohibition signs or hazard signs in your science labs or classroom and give an explanation to it. labs or classroom and give an explanation to it.

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Technique of Pouring Chemical Solutions In the labs, most chemical solution or you call bench solution is stored in brown reagent bottle or the transparent one. To avoid any unintended risk when pouring this solution into other container you have to follow the right techniques. The pictures below (Figure 2) show you several techniques when working with chemical solution. You may practice it yourself. 1. Pouring chemical solution from reagent bottle

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Figure 2 Can you leave the stopper of the reagent bottle on the Can you leave the stopper of the reagent bottle on the bench while pouring solution from it? Why? bench while pouring solution from it? Why?

2.

Transferring chemical solution using a dropper You can transfer chemical solution from one container to another container using a dropper. Lets study the technique shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3

Why is step 5 in Figure 5 wrong? Why is step 5 in Figure 5 wrong?

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3.

Pouring chemical solution using glass rod Figure 4 shows the steps when pouring any solution from one beaker to other beaker using glass rod.

Figure 4 While transferring chemical solution how can While transferring chemical solution how can you avoid spillage? you avoid spillage?

Handling of Radioactive Materials Is there any radioactive material in secondary science classroom? If by accident you come across any kind of radioactive material, what should you do? Usually all regulations regarding the handling of radioactive materials have to be followed. All sources should be shielded, handled, and transported in a manner to prevent anyone from being exposed to unnecessary radiation. To avoid any risk you should be aware to the following precaution:

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Radioactive materials should not be allowed to touch the skin; Glassware for use with radioactive sources should be kept solely for such use and stored separately; After work with radioactive materials the hands and any other parts of the body which has been contaminated must be thoroughly washed with soap and water; All radioactive materials must be disposed of at the end of the practical classes.

Handling of Biological Materials Biological materials include all kinds of microorganisms (such as bacteria, fungus and virus), insects (such as mosquitoes, cockroaches), small animals (pet animals e.g. cat, guinea pig, mice, frog, birds etc), and plants. Handling biological materials need careful attention because some of them may carry contamination sources ( e.g. biological specimens and bandages, towels, and gloves used in cleaning up blood and other bodily fluids). To minimize the possibility of any kind of risks you have to follow all standard procedures in handling biological materials from the beginning stage. All hand to mouth operations should be avoided when handling biological materials; Bacteriological and fungal cultures should be soaked in disinfectant before disposal; Insects and small animals should be placed in a safe cage or aquarium; Any injury like bites and scratches by studied animals should be treated with antiseptic and further treatment should be taken; All animal disposals should be disposed of properly such as burned or buried; Closely monitor the use of syringes with needles by students; When using syringe to inject methanol, a safety visor should be worn in case the needle blows off; Wounds must be completely covered before work with animals is undertaken; Wild animals must be introduced into the school with discretion as they may carry parasite and be a risk to infection; Preserved animal skin should not be handled unnecessarily as they may have been preserved with arsenical compounds and mercuric chloride; Carefully remove specimens from preservative solutions wearing gloves and using tongs or forceps (Warning: Formalin solutions are carcinogenic. Any specimen
held in a formalin solution should be soaked in a water bath in a fume hood and then thoroughly rinsed in running water for several minutes);

Consider using films, video, and computer simulations in place of dissection activities. Glassware and microscope slides can be sterilized and reused; Any spillage or accidents must be recorded although there is no injury.

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Handling of Electrical Apparatus/Equipments Usually pupils in school are very curious, active and helpful. They want to do everything as instructed or not instructed by teacher. But when dealing with any electrical equipments/appliances or apparatus in the labs do not allow your pupils to handle them without your attention/instruction. Failing to follow the rules in handling electrical equipment/apparatus or the electrical appliances which are not properly maintained will cause serious accident. You have to review all the electrical equipments/apparatus/appliances and demonstrate to students the techniques for using these equipments and materials properly. Among the rules are: Make sure that all electrical cords are in good condition, not frayed; Make sure the circuits are not overloaded; Connections should be made correctly when carrying out experiments; All electrical appliances must be switched off before it is moved or adjusted; When assembling circuits, connect the live portion last. When disassembling, disconnect the live portion first; No water points or rubber connections carrying water are allowed to come into contact with electrical apparatus; Electrical apparatus connected to the mains should not be touched by wet hands; Do NOT use metal articles such as rulers or metal pencils or writing pens, or wear metal jewelry when working with electrical equipment; Be cautious when handling electrical equipment that has been in use. The equipment may be warm or hot from being used; A D.C apparatus must be used in a D.C circuit; Take precautions to prevent spills on electrical equipment or electrical outlets. Besides handling scientific materials and apparatus correctly, carefully and safely, you are also required to inculcate in your students the culture of maintenance and cleanliness in the laboratory. You may use the following laboratory cleanup checklist in reminding your student after a lab activity:
Promptly clean up your work area while still wearing your protective equipment. Turn off all hot plates or burners. Unplug electrical devises. Place all waste items in the proper disposal containers. NEVER wash anything down the

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories sink drain unless instructed to do so by your teacher. Wash glassware with warm water and detergent. Then rinse the glassware several times with water, with a final rinse of distilled water. Wash the surface of your worktable. Return laboratory devises to their storage area as directed by your teacher, carrying them properly. Wash your gloved hands with warm water and soap, being careful not to get water on the inside of your gloves. Remove the gloves by peeling them off your hands start at the wrist and keep working toward the fingers. Do NOT let the outside surface of the glove get in contact with the skin. Dispose the gloves as directed by your teacher. After your have removed your gloves, wash your hands in warm soapy water. Do NOT touch doorknobs, telephone, textbooks, your goggles, or other items until after you have removed your gloves and washed your hands. Remove your safety goggles after you have washed your hands. Wash and sterilize your goggles according to your teachers instruction.
Adapted from: Glencoe Science, (2002), Laboratory Management and Safety in the Science Classroom, Glencoe McGraw-Hill: USA

Storage of Science Equipment Proper storage of equipments or materials will prolong their lifespan and may avoid any unintended risks. Here are some general storage patterns and procedures practiced in the laboratory that you may consider. Larger equipment and larger chemical containers should be stored on lower shelves only; Substances should be stored at the correct temperature; All storage shelves and cabinets should be securely attached to the walls. (Do NOT place hazardous materials in unstable containers or in an apparatus that is not properly secured); Poisons should be kept locked in cabinet, All containers of biological specimens, syringes and scalpel blades should be kept in locked storage; Store all active chemicals (with a layer of kerosene over them to prevent contact with the air) in dark container; Acids and corrosives should be stored in a nonmetal or coated metal, vented cabinet; Store flammable reagent in the smallest quantities possible; Think of the most suitable storage method for the Think of the most suitable storage method for the scientific equipment in your school science scientific equipment in your school science laboratory. laboratory. 5-9

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First Aid for Various Injuries and Accidents Many of the tools and chemicals in the science laboratory can cause injury or allergic reaction if used without proper attention and care. Allergic reactions can be in the form of swelling or hives, muscle cramps, disorientation, unconsciousness, and death from shock or suffocation. Even with best efforts at prevention, emergencies still occur. Therefore, along with practicing effective safety measures, you also must be prepared to act according to the given situation. In cases of emergency, seemingly different responses need to take place simultaneously call an ambulance, getting the school nurse, using safety equipment, administering first aid, and so forth. At very first step, as to response to different kinds of emergencies, you should: 1. 2. Keep calm in all cases and call for medical assistance; In case of injury, send a student to get the school nurse, if available or principal/head teacher. If the victim is not breathing, restore breathing if you have the training to do so. Stop any bleeding by applying a light pressure, wearing protective gloves. Prevent shock. A clean fire blanket is useful for keeping an accident victim warm to help prevent shock. In case of fire, begin evacuation and sound the alarm immediately. In case of chemical spill, place affected student in the safety shower or use eyewash station if the spill affects the eyes.

3. 4.

Giving First Aid First aid is the first assistance provided to a person suffering an accident or a sudden illness. Persons giving first aid should seek NOT to treat the victim but to protect him or her until professional medical assistance arrives. Every teacher bears the responsibility for knowing how to help a student in the case of an accident or illness. In the science labs, student should be aware of the location of the first aid kit, but a teacher should be the one administering first aid. First aid kits should be kept in an accessible place in the classroom or labs. The location should be marked clearly. The table below provides general procedures for injuries most commonly related to school laboratory work. Most injuries are minor cuts and burns to the hand. Many injuries occur when students are cleaning glassware. In addition to the possibility of injury from broken glass, there is the threat of injury from the cleaning solution or chemical substance used with the glassware. Warning: Gloves should be worn by anyone administering first aid.

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Refer to Surat Pekeliling KP(BS) 8600/7/A/(81) Tindakan Refer to Surat Pekeliling KP(BS) 8600/7/A/(81) Tindakan serta merta Keselamatan Di dalam Makmal Sains dated 21 serta merta Keselamatan Di dalam Makmal Sains dated 21 February 1980. February 1980.
Type of injuries or accidents Burn First aid procedures Heat burns Quickly immerse burn area in very cold water Never prick blisters Cover area with sterile gauze to prevent infection Sent to hospital Chemical burns Contaminated articles and clothing and the source of contamination should be removed Flush the contaminated area with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes Cover burns with a sterile dressing (NOT fluff cotton) Seek medical attention Eye injuries Electrical shock Fainting, shock and concussions Insect bite and stings Remove dirt or glass and wash under running water, wash the injured area thoroughly; Apply a clean, dry sterile gauze Go to hospital for stitches or anti-tetanus injection if necessary If bleeding is copious, it must be stopped before aid can be given Wash the eye with plenty of continuous stream of water Remember to guide the student as he or she will have difficulty seeing Send the student to hospital Switch off the current supply To push victim from current source, the teacher should stand on insulated material The victim should be down with head lower then the body, kept warm and still Keep the victims airway open. If he vomits, turn his head on one side so that the neck is arched Start artificial respiration immediately Lie victim down in the open, keep crowds away Loosen all clothing and place his head between his knees until it flushes red Smelling salts should be used When he becomes conscious, he may be given some cold water Call for emergency medical aid immediately Identify the source of bite or sting

Cuts, wounds and fractures

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories Poisoning If venomous, seek medical help immediately Keep victims calm and quiet. Keep injury area lower than the heart If in mouth, spit it out immediately and wash with plenty of water and then seek medical help. If swallowed, give 2-4 glasses of water or milk immediately and induced vomiting. Call doctor immediately. Do not induce vomiting if poisoning is due to strong acids or alkali or hydrocarbon or when victim is having convulsions. Call doctor immediately. If inhaled, remove the patient to fresh air immediately. Give oxygen if available using a respirator. Treat the victim for shock until medical assistance arrives

Prevention of Injuries and Accidents Injuries and accidents to your students can be avoided if you are aware to all the safety precaution measures suggested in handling or carrying out science activities in the laboratory. Besides that other physical facilities in the labs should be made available or in good condition. As science teacher you have to be aware of such facilities. Use proper protective equipment. Floor must not be slippery. No protruding fittings from wall into the walking space. Proper place for storage of pupils belongings. Windows can be easily accessible. All mains for gas, water and electricity controls are easily accessible to teachers. Clearly labeled waste container should be available for broken glass, biological materials and chemicals.

Get more information from the library regarding the location and Get more information from the library regarding the location and purpose of using goggles and having an eyewash station in the purpose of using goggles and having an eyewash station in the school science laboratory. school science laboratory. Refer to Surat Pekeliling KP(BS) 8600/12/A(7) Keselamatan Refer to Surat Pekeliling KP(BS) 8600/12/A(7) Keselamatan Dalam Makmal Sekolah dated 8 June 1973 and Surat Pekeliling Dalam Makmal Sekolah dated 8 June 1973 and Surat Pekeliling KP (BS) 8600/7/A/(81) Tindakan serta merta keselamatan di KP (BS) 8600/7/A/(81) Tindakan serta merta keselamatan di dalam makmal sains dated 21 February 1980 dalam makmal sains dated 21 February 1980 Content of First Aid Box The most basic equipment that should be in the science classroom or laboratory is a first aid kit. First aid supplies should be kept readily at hand. Immediate aid then can be

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given while waiting for the school nurse or medical assistance. What are the contents of the first aid kit? At a minimum, supplies should include the following: Assorted size bandages Disposable gloves (latex or plastic) Sterile gauze for covering large wounds Disposable towels Adhesive bandages for covering small wounds An eye wash bottle An antiseptic (iodine solution is not recommended, it can cause tissue damage) disinfectant One pair of blunt ended scissors Medical tape Small forceps Bleach (at time needed, prepare a solution of 1 part bleach to 10 parts water) Plastic bags for holding contaminated waste

Refer to the Red Crescent Society on how to give first aid Refer to the Red Crescent Society on how to give first aid to a student who fainted in the school science laboratory. to a student who fainted in the school science laboratory.

Types of Fire and Uses of Suitable Fire Extinguishers What will you do if the fire happened in the classroom What will you do if the fire happened in the classroom during your science teaching and learning? during your science teaching and learning?

Fires can be very dangerous and you should always be certain that you will not endanger yourself or others when attempting to put off a fire. For this reason, when a fire is discovered:

Assist any person in immediate danger to safety, if it can be accomplished without risk to yourself. Activate the building fire alarm system or notify the fire department by dialing 994 (or designating someone else to notify them for you). When you activate the building fire alarm system, it will automatically notify the fire department and get help on the way. It

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will also sound the building alarms to notify other occupants, and it will shut down the air handling units to prevent the spread of smoke throughout the building. Only after having done these two things, if the fire is small, you may attempt to use an extinguisher to put it off.

However, before deciding to fight the fire, keep these rules in mind: Know what is burning. If you don't know what is burning, you don't know what type of extinguisher to use. Even if you have an ABC extinguisher, there may be something in the fire that is going to explode or produce highly toxic smoke. Chances are, you will know what's burning, or at least have a pretty good idea, but if you don't, let the fire department handle it. The fire is spreading rapidly beyond the spot where it started. The time to use an extinguisher is in the incipient, or beginning, stages of a fire. If the fire is already spreading quickly, it is best to simply evacuate the building, closing doors and windows behind you as you leave. The Fire Triangle In order to understand how fire extinguishers work, you first need to know a little bit about fire. Four things must be present at the same time in order to produce fire:

Enough oxygen to sustain combustion, Enough heat to raise the material to its ignition temperature, Some sort of fuel or combustible material, and The chemical, exothermic reaction that is fire.

Figure 5

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Oxygen, heat, and fuel are frequently referred to as the "fire triangle."(Figure 5).Add in the fourth element, the chemical reaction, and you actually have a fire "tetrahedron." The important thing to remember is: take any of these four things away, and you will not have a fire or the fire will be extinguished. Essentially, fire extinguishers put out fire by taking away one or more elements of the fire triangle/tetrahedron. Fire safety, at its most basic, is based upon the principle of keeping fuel sources and ignition sources separate. Besides all the precaution and preventive measures to avoid any fire incident, you should also have the knowledge and the skills of using proper type of fire extinguishers and other anti-fire equipments. Using proper equipment is extremely important in fighting fires. . Types of Extinguishers Different types of fire extinguishers are designed to fight different classes of fire. The three most common types of fire extinguishers are: 1. Air-pressurized water extinguisher

Air-pressurized water extinguisher is also known as an APW. APWs are large, silver extinguishers that are filled about two-thirds of the way with ordinary tap water, then pressurized with normal air. In essence, an APW is just a giant squirt gun. APWs stand about 2 feet tall and weigh approximately 25 pounds when full (Figure 6). APWs are designed for Class A (wood, paper, cloth) fires only.

Figure 6

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Never use water to extinguish flammable liquid fires. Water is extremely ineffective at extinguishing this type of fire, and you may, in fact, spread the fire if you try to use water on it. Never use water to extinguish an electrical fire. Water is a good conductor, and there is some concern for electrocution if you were to use water to extinguish an electrical fire. Electrical equipment must be unplugged and/or de-energized before using a water extinguisher on it. APWs extinguish fire by taking away the "heat" element of the fire triangle. APWs will be found in older buildings, particularly in public hallways, as well as in Residence Halls. They will also be found in computer laboratories. It is important to remember, however, that computer equipment must be disconnected from its electrical source before using a water extinguisher on it. 2. Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers

Carbon Dioxide extinguishers are filled with non-flammable carbon dioxide gas under extreme pressure. You can recognize a CO2 extinguisher by its hard horn and lack of pressure gauge. The pressure in the cylinder is so great that when you use one of these extinguishers, bits of dry ice may shoot out the horn. CO2 cylinders are red and range in size from 5 lbs to 100 lbs or larger. In the larger sizes, the hard horn will be located on the end of a long, flexible hose (Figure 7).

Figure 7 CO2s are designed for Class B and C (flammable liquid and electrical) fires only. Carbon dioxide is a non-flammable gas that extinguishes fire by displacing oxygen, or taking away the oxygen element of the fire triangle. The carbon dioxide is also very cold as it comes out of the extinguisher, so it cools the fuel as well. CO2s may be ineffective at extinguishing Class A fires because they may not be able to displace enough oxygen to successfully put the fire off. Class A materials may also smolder and re-ignite.

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CO2s will frequently be found in laboratories, mechanical rooms, kitchens, and flammable liquid storage areas. All CO2 extinguishers should undergo hydrostatic testing and recharge every five years. 3. Dry Chemical Extinguishers

Dry Chemical Extinguishers come in a variety of types. You may see them labeled:

"DC" short for "dry chem" "ABC" indicating that they are designed to extinguish class A,B,and C fires, or "BC" indicating that they are designed to extinguish class B and C fires.

Commercially, ABC fire extinguishers are filled with a fine yellow powder. The greatest portion of this powder is composed of monoammonium phosphate. Nitrogen is used to pressurize the extinguishers. ABC extinguishers are red and range in size from 5 lbs to 20 lbs on campus (Figure 8).

Figure 8

It is extremely important to identify which types of dry chemical extinguishers are located in your area. Read the labels and know their locations! You don't want to mistakenly use a "BC" extinguisher on a Class A fire, thinking that it was an "ABC" extinguisher. Can you identify and locate an ABC extinguisher in your school? An "ABC" extinguisher will have a label like this, indicating that it may be used on class A, B and C fires. Dry chemical extinguishers put out fire by coating the fuel with a thin layer of dust, separating the fuel from the oxygen in the air. The powder also works to interrupt the

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chemical reaction of fire, so these extinguishers are extremely effective at putting out fire. These extinguishers will be found in a variety of locations. New buildings will have them located in public hallways. They may also be found in laboratories, mechanical rooms, break rooms, chemical storage areas, and offices, etc. Dry chemical extinguishers with powder designed for Class B and C fires may be located in places such as commercial kitchens or areas with flammable liquids. Not all fires are the same, and they are classified according to the type of fuel that is burning. If you use the wrong type of fire extinguisher on the wrong class of fire, you can, in fact, make matters worse. It is therefore very important to understand the four different fire classifications. Fire extinguishers are labeled for the class of fire they are to be used on. The table below summarizes the fire classes and their respective type of extinguishers.
Class Of Fire A Types of Fire Ordinary combustible materials ( e.g. paper, wood, cloth ) Suitable Extinguishers Water or sand. (Soda acid or carbon dioxide may be used if water is not available). Dry chemical class ABC fire extinguisher Carbon dioxide, foam, powder extinguisher or fire blanket. Class B or dry chemical, Class ABC fire extinguisher Carbon dioxide or dry powder. Class C or dry chemical, Class ABC fire extinguisher Special purpose dry powder and sand. Class D fire extinguisher Notes Never use water in the presence of electrical points or equipments. Soda acid causes corrosion. Never use water.

Flammable solvent, oil, liquid. ( acetone, alcohol, ethers, grease)

Electrical equipment or static charges

Switch off power before tackling fire.

Metal fire ( e.g. sodium, potassium, magnesium, metal hydrides )

Never use water or carbon dioxide.

For details explanation, please refer to this website:

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How to use a fire extinguisher? It's easy to remember how to use a fire extinguisher if you can remember the acronym PASS which stands for Pull, Aim, Squeeze, and Sweep as illustrated in Figure 9. Pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher that keeps the handle from being accidentally pressed. Aim the nozzle toward the base of the fire. Stand approximately 8 feet away from the fire and squeeze the handle to discharge the extinguisher. If you release the handle, the discharge will stop. Sweep the nozzle back and forth at the base of the fire. After the fire appears to be out, watch it carefully since it may re-ignite!

P.A.S.S. P ULL A IM S QUEEZE S WEEP

Figure 9

Study the various types of fire extinguishers in your science laboratory. Study the various types of fire extinguishers in your science laboratory. Find out their location and discuss how they can be used correctly and Find out their location and discuss how they can be used correctly and be maintained at full charge. be maintained at full charge.

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Tutorial 2 In every science laboratory there should be a log book to record all activities or science practical held. The aim of using a log book is to record any activity regarding to the labs or science room. For safety concern, you have to record all injuries and accidents that happen during science laboratory work sessions. Injury or accident can happen without prior notice. Most accidents and injuries occur due to human ignorance and carelessness while carrying out science activities. Your task: 1. List down all cases of injury and accident that have happened in your school labs since the last 3 year. Then, determine, what are the most frequent injuries or accidents that had happened and suggest the steps that can be taken in order to overcome this injury or accident. List down all the first aid items available in your school science laboratory. Using appropriate graphic organizer, with specific example, discuss the important of maintenance of these items.

2.

Discuss your answer with your peer in the tutorial session.

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Management of Science Laboratory Basic knowledge and an adequate understanding of management of science laboratory will provide you with a great experience in preparing effective learning of basic science process scientifically. Good management of a science laboratory will help you to ensure that the laboratory achieves its intended purposes to enhance and consolidate the theoretical science teaching in classrooms. On the other hand, if a science laboratory is poorly managed, it not only will fail to achieve its intended purposes but will probably affect the students interest and enthusiasm in learning science. Systematic science laboratory management includes the following aspects: a. b. c. d. e. Organization of science committee Budgeting Ordering and purchasing Stock keeping general maintenance Specific maintenance write off and disposal

Organization of Science Committee for Science Teachers In your school, who are actually are responsible to the management of science laboratory/room? The flowchart below shows a common organization of science committee in school. HEADMASTER

SENIOR SCIENCE TEACHER

SENIOR SUBJECT TEACHERS

SCIENCE TEACHERS

LAB ASSISTANTS & ATTENDANTS

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Science committee for science teachers is responsible in managing of teaching and learning in science room/lab and to all science co-curriculum activities. Management of expenses and budgeting is usually handled by the headmaster and assisted by their senior science teacher based on the planning and requirement of the school. Senior science teacher or head of science panitia will handle and prepare all science equipments and materials according to the procedures and requirements. As a science teacher, you have to familiarize yourself with the activity to be performed so that you know how the lab needs to be set up and what materials to have on hand. Youll also need to be prepared to enforce all safety rules and allow sufficient cleanup time.

Responsibilities and Duties of the science staff Cooperation and accountability of the committee members will help science teaching and learning to occur smoothly and effectively for student benefits. The table below shows you the responsibilities of each member of the science committee in school.
Committee member Headmaster/principal Senior Science Teacher Responsibility overall supervision of laboratory management to see that the laboratory is properly managed to make decisions on all matters concerned with the laboratories including budgeting and expenses frequent consultation with the senior science teacher People who work in the science laboratories Give advise to the headmaster about any decision made Must be expert on all matters related to the science laboratory See that all instructions and rules are strictly adhered to by all staff of the laboratories Appointed to see to each category of laboratory (not applicable in primary school) To help the senior science teacher To look after the administration of his science laboratory

Senior subject teacher

Science Teachers

To supply information to the senior science teachers on any

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories need in the laboratories Immediately responsible to the senior science teacher

Laboratory assistants and attendants

In charge of general cleanliness of the laboratory Supplying and setting up apparatus for any practical lesson Responsible to the senior subject teachers

For more details on the science committee member responsibility For more details on the science committee member responsibility you are suggested to make a reference to PPK (1999), you are suggested to make a reference to PPK (1999), Pengurusan Dan Keselamatan Makmal Sains Skolah, PPK: KL Pengurusan Dan Keselamatan Makmal Sains Skolah, PPK: KL

Budgeting Planning of annual budget is important in order to ensure all science equipments and materials needed are available for a proper science teaching and learning. Budgeting for the year is usually done in the year before. In preparing the annual budget, you have to consider the following points: Check all stock of science equipment and materials Equipment / non consumable materials costs. Running costs to maintain levels of stocks and other expandable materials. List of equipments and materials need to purchase based on their priority Information about number of student enrolment for expected of allocation to be given Prepare price quotation for all equipments and materials to be purchased

Plan and estimate the expenses for your school science Plan and estimate the expenses for your school science laboratory. Try to work out how the allocation of funds for laboratory. Try to work out how the allocation of funds for science laboratory are distributed to school. science laboratory are distributed to school.

In school, all science equipments and materials are acquired through i. Central supply which is handled by Bahagian Pembangunan dan Bekalan, Kementerian Pendidikan. Please refer to Surat Pekeliling Bahagian Pembangunan dan Bekalan, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, Bil 1/Tahun 1980, dated 27 October 1980, for further detail.

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ii. Direct purchase Please refer to Pekeliling Kewangan 3/95 KP 1573/17/Jld.10/(39 ) and Buku Garis Panduan Perakaunan dan Kewangan Sekolah, Kementerian Pendidikan, 1994 iii. Other resources schools are encouraged to add and supplement the equipments, science materials and teaching and learning resources from other sources such as PTA/PIBG. Ordering and Purchasing Science Equipments and Materials When the item you want to purchase is identified, you have to follow the standards procedure in acquiring equipment and science materials as required by the Government. The flowchart below shows the procedures to be followed when making ordering and purchasing of science equipment and materials for your school science room.
Estimates of annual allocation and budgeting Direct purcha se Contra Yes ct List Ordering Identify the quantity required Receiving Approval from the headmaster/ principal Prepare a list of material/equipment based on the chosen suppliers No Obtaining quotation

List of material and equipment

Meeting to select the supplier

Recording into the stock book

Prepare a priority list

Check whether equipment is in the Central Contract List

No

Confirmation of invoice for payment

Yes

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

Describe the procedures you follow in acquiring equipment and Describe the procedures you follow in acquiring equipment and science materials for your school science laboratory. science materials for your school science laboratory. Stock Keeping In some schools, there are no proper record for stock keeping of science equipments and materials as required. This situation will invite various problems in verifying the availability of the equipment and materials when needed. Therefore, stock keeping is important in order to check, to identify, to up date and to manage the science laboratory effectively. As science teacher you should know that, all science equipments and materials received or removed have to be recorded as instructed in Pekeliling Perbendaharaan Bil. 2 Tahun 1991- Penggunaan Borang Baru Bagi Pengurusan Harta Modal, Inventori dan Bekalan Pejabat, S(K&B)(2.00)735/3/1-68 Jld.6(SEM)/(3) dated 9 February 1999 by using the respective form indicated in bracket below. Do you know how many stock book should the lab have in your school? Usually there are four Stock Books used for keeping of stock records: Register of property to record all non-perishable items worth RM500.00 and more (KEW 312 and 312A). Can you give few examples of these items found in the lab? Inventory to record all non-perishable items worth less than RM500.00 (KEW 313). . Name several examples of the items which commonly have in the science classroom/laboratory. Register of office supplies to record all perishable items (equipments and chemical materials) which are cheap and not economic to detect their used in detail. (KEW 314). List some examples of the items in your science classroom. Register of mobile properties and inventories to record the movement of all the properties and inventory (KEW 316)

Beside these four stock record books, science labs are also required to have two more books which are useful to help you in updating and checking stock. These books are Book of breakages to record all broken, damaged and lost equipments or apparatus; Disposal Records of Science Equipment to keep track that all the disposal procedures have been followed accordingly. (Please refer to Buku Panduan

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

Penerimaan Peralatan Sains Sekolah Rendah dan Tindakan Kuatkuasaan Bagi Kontrak Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 1994)

(Please refer to appendix for the example of forms used for keeping stocks) To get more detail information on this section and on how to To get more detail information on this section and on how to use all the forms, you can read Chapter 5 of PPK (1999), use all the forms, you can read Chapter 5 of PPK (1999), Pengurusan dan Keselamatan Makmal Sains Sekolah, PPK, Write off and disposal Pengurusan dan Keselamatan Makmal Sains Sekolah, PPK, K.Lumpur. K.Lumpur. Sometimes it does happen that you cannot get or cannot use certain equipment or apparatus in the lab while there is a record of its availability in the stock or they are not in a good condition as expected. These equipments may be lost or removed without trace of damaged, rotten, spoilt, broken and old. What are you going to do in these cases? You may consider to write off or dispose it! Procedure for writing off: You might suggest to write off if the property which is no longer available in stock due to lost because of theft, cheating or carelessness of the staff. The school head needs to follow the write off procedure as listed in the Arahan Perbendaharaan 314 and 315: The procedures are Make a police report immediately and get a copy of the report Prepare a lost report using treasurys form (Form J) and sent this form together with the police report to : Ketua Setiausaha, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (u.p.: Bahagian Kewangan) Ketua Setiausaha, Kementerian Kewangan Malaysia (u.p.: Bahagian Pentadbiran)

Send a copy of the report to : Akauntan Negara Ketua Audit Negara and Wakil Tempatan Ketua Audit Negara Pejabat Audit Sekolah Pegawai Pendidikan Daerah/ Pegawai Pendidikan Bahagian Jabatan Pendidikan Negeri Bahagian Sekolah/ Jabatan Pendidikan Teknikal. Carry out full investigation and prepare a final report using treasurys form (Form Kew). Arahan Perbendaharaan 317. Send the report to all the authority stated above.

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

Get the approval to write off from Ketua Setiausaha, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia for property less than RM20,000 per unit or a total value of RM200,000. For property exceeding RM20,000 per unit or a total value of RM200,000 approval must come from Ketua Setiausaha Perbendaharaan Malaysia.

If you notice there are a number of apparatus or science materials that are old, condemned, broken or spoilt., what will you do with these items? Of course you have to carry out a disposal procedure to eliminate the record of such materials from the stock. There are two ways to carry out disposal i.e. through Lembaga Pemeriksa or without going through the Lembaga Pemeriksa. Procedure for disposal Disposal of apparatus or materials valued more than RM10,000 per unit must go through Lembaga Pemeriksa which consists of at least two senior officers who are not directly in the science stock management. Disposal of apparatus or materials valued more than RM100 per unit or a total value of RM5000 is done by the senior science teacher filling in the form (kew 300V) and send to Bahagian Kewangan, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia through the state education department. For value less than RM100 per unit or total value of RM5000 the form has to be sent to Pengarah Pendidikan Negeri/ Pengarah Bahagian Sekolah/ Pengarah Pendidikan Teknikal.

To get a more detail information on this section , you can read To get a more detail information on this section , you can read in Chapter 6 of PPK (1999), Pengurusan dan Keselamatan in Chapter 6 of PPK (1999), Pengurusan dan Keselamatan Makmal Sains Sekolah, PPK, K.L. Makmal Sains Sekolah, PPK, K.L.

Build a flow chart to show the write-off process of Build a flow chart to show the write-off process of equipment in the science laboratory. equipment in the science laboratory.

Smart School Science Laboratory Science laboratory is always synonymous to science teaching and learning. Therefore we usually consider science labs as a necessity for science education. To go along with IT fast development nowadays, school science labs should be upgraded as smart science labs which are characterized by their: Accessibility and flexibility in design, facilities and functions

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

Technology-based - Integrating of Information Communication Technology such as using microcomputer-based in which students will be able to visualize various scientific concepts and also promote active learning. User friendly in terms of space, situation, environment, availability of materials, and services. Safety measures highly guarded with standard safety rules in all aspects.

Based on your school science laboratory, list down any Based on your school science laboratory, list down any signs of smart characteristics that can be enhanced as signs of smart characteristics that can be enhanced as smart science laboratory. smart science laboratory.

In other word, a smart classroom is an interactive learning environment where computers and other electronic devices are the primary information delivery systems. Teachers serve as facilitators who personalize and individualize the learning opportunities of students. Electronic portfolios hold student products. Computer-assisted instruction provides immediate assessment and feedback. Students can access a wide range of information sources via internet. Internet access is available in every classroom in the school. Technology is thoroughly integrated with the core curriculum and state frameworks. Students are exposed to a variety of technology applications including multi-media productions, use of data bases, video production, satellite television, instructional software, distance learning, and teacher-authored software. Smart Science Classroom Designs Smart Science Classroom designs incorporate computer activity and multi-media instructional techniques in all aspects of their operation. The science classrooms are all unique in design, but they function on a multi-media platform that includes: computer networks, VCRs, laser disk players and CD-ROMs. Technology plays a vital role in the science curriculum. The teacher assumes the role of a facilitator and technology is the tool that delivers the curriculum. The science department embraces scientific literacy, the ability to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills, to use scientific methods and to make aesthetic judgments. The Smart Science Classrooms are alive with the sounds of students using word processors to record their observations and to write their laboratory reports. Printers are busy with science newsletters, banners, and signs. Students study the metric system, read and draw graphs and charts, and measure and calibrate distance both on and off their computer systems

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

Adapt ed from: http://blackstock.huensd.k12.ca.us/html/rm_sci.htm

Figure 10 The following illustrations show examples of how students can access and carry out investigation in a virtual chemistry laboratory.

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The diagram below shows the arrangement of students in the The diagram below shows the arrangement of students in the science labs. From your perspective, which arrangement is science labs. From your perspective, which arrangement is closely fulfilled smart science labs designs. closely fulfilled smart science labs designs.

Can you suggest the advantages and disadvantages of carrying Can you suggest the advantages and disadvantages of carrying out experiment or science investigation in virtual laboratory? out experiment or science investigation in virtual laboratory?

Basic Laboratory Techniques

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

Laboratory is an ideal place where you may acquire knowledge and skills on scientific processes besides acquiring manipulative skills. Manipulative skills in the laboratory start with knowledge in handling apparatus and science materials during science practical work. As a science teacher in primary school, definitely you are expected to have the skills and competent with some basic techniques in handling laboratory materials. Without competency in these basic laboratory techniques skills, you will invite unexpected results or put your student in danger. Some of the basic laboratory techniques are the basic measuring skills, techniques in handling chemical and biological materials and specimen, and some basic technical skills in electrical and glass work. For this purpose, in this section you will learn some basic laboratory techniques such as techniques of using and maintaining science apparatus, glass work, preparing of chemical solution, and preservation of biological specimen which are commonly practiced in science classroom or laboratory. Techniques of using and maintaining science apparatus Some of scientific apparatus or equipments found in school science laboratory are very advance, fragile, breakable, highly sensitive or contain evaporable material or poisonous. Therefore, handling with care and right techniques in using it will help the equipments lasting, functioning, safe and beneficial to you. Science teacher is not only required to have appropriate knowledge about various science equipments in school labs, but they are expected can help their students in identifying and using these equipments safely with right techniques. Beside that, to keep these science equipments always in good condition, you and labs assistants are responsible in following the appropriate maintenance procedures and steps of those equipments. In this section, you will be introduced with several science equipment which are frequently used in science labs. We try to understand some aspects of good ways in handling and to follow an appropriate maintenance procedures to keep these equipments long lasting, functioning and safe.

Microscope

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

A microscope is an instrument for viewing objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. The most common type of microscope, and the first to be invented, is the optical microscope. This is an optical instrument containing one or more lenses that produce an enlarged image of the object, and works by refraction (the bending of light). The science of investigating small objects using this instrument is called microscopy.

Figure 11 School Light Microscope

The table below shows the parts of a standard school light microscope, with an explanation of its parts and how to use them. Part Function Eyepiece The eyepiece can be adjusted to focus the image properly in your eye. Sometimes there are two. Lenses The lenses can be rotated to low power (x40), medium (x100), or high power (x400). Always start with the low power lens (the short one); move it as close to the slide as possible (as you watch from the side), using the coarse focusing knob. Stage The stage holds the glass slide containing the object to be viewed. Aperture The aperture, or iris diaphragm, allows you to control the amount of light entering the lense. Light source The light source may be a bulb, or a mirror. A mirror will have

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

Coarse focus adjustment knob Fine focus adjustment knob Handle/Limb

to be pointed at an external light source; never point it directly at the sun. The coarse focus adjustment knob lets you quickly focus on the object to be viewed. Use this one first, and turn it so the lense moves upward. The fine focus adjustment knob lets you adjust the focus so the image is sharply defined. The handle. Use one hand here, and the other under the base, when you are carrying the microscope

Using a Microscope You have to familiarize with all the parts of a microscope used in your science labs as described in the table above. Make sure that you have taken all safety precautions when using and handling a microscope. The following procedures are a guideline for you in handling a microscope. a. Always carry the microscope with both hands. Hold the arm with one hand. Put your other hand under the base as shown in Figure 12 .

Figure 12 Carrying a microscope properly b. c. d. e. Place the microscope on a table gently, with the arm facing you. Plug in the cord to the microscope Turn on the light if the microscope has one.( If the microscope does not have a light, use a lamp as a light source). NEVER use direct sunlight as a light source. It can damage your eyes. Look through the eyepiece and adjust the mirror so that light from the lamp is reflected up through the opening in the stage.

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

f. g. h. i.

j. k. l. m. n. o.

Place the slide in the stage slips. WARNING: Be careful when using cover slips and microscope slides because they may crack or shatter when dropped. Adjust the diaphragm so that the greatest amount of light comes through the opening. (The circle of light that you see is called the field of view) Turn the nosepiece so that the low power objective lens (10X) clicks into place. Focus the low power objective lens by turning the coarse adjustment knob. WARNING: When using the coarse adjustment to lower the low power objective, always look at the microscope from the side. If you look through the eyepiece, you may accidentally force the objective into coverslip. Turn the nosepiece again until the high power objective lens clicks into place. Focus the high power objective lens by turning the fine adjustment knob. WARNING: NEVER turn the coarse adjustment knob when the high power objective lens is in place. Always click the low power objective lens back into place over the field of view when you are finished using microscope. Turn the coarse adjustment to raise the body tube until the low power objective lens is about two or three centimeters above the stage. Unplug the microscope. WARNING: Do NOT unplug the microscope by pulling on the cord. Carry the microscope properly to its storage place.

Safety precaution: DO NOT touch the lenses. Use only special lens paper to clean the lenses. Moisten the lens paper with a drop of water alcohol if the lens does not wipe clean with dry lens paper.

Vernier caliper

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

The precision of length measurements may be increased by using a device that uses a sliding vernier scale. Two such instruments that are based on a vernier scale which you will use in the laboratory to measure lengths of objects are the vernier callipers and the micrometer screw gauge. These instruments have a main scale (in millimetres) and a sliding or rotating vernier scale. The vernier calipers found in the laboratory incorporates a main scale and a sliding vernier scale which allows readings to the nearest 0.02 mm. This instrument may be used to measure outer dimensions of objects (using the main jaws), inside dimensions (using the smaller jaws at the top), and depths (using the stem) Figure 13. To measure outer dimensions of an object, the object is placed between the jaws, which are then moved together until they secure the object. The screw clamp may then be tightened to ensure that the reading does not change while the scale is being read
Jaws

Main scale

Screw clamp Vernier scale

Jaws

stem

Figure 13 a: A common Vernier caliper

Figure 13 b: Reading the Vernier scale

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

The first significant figures are read immediately to the left of the zero of the vernier scale and the remaining digits are taken as the vernier scale division that lines up with any main scale division. The main scale of the caliper is marked off in millimeters, and it is read against an index mark that slides with one of the caliper jaws. The main scale and the sliding index are shown expanded in Figure 13b; it is reading something between 2.35 and 2.40 cm. The vernier scale is a second scale marked on the slider, beginning at the index mark. Its smallest division is exactly 9/10 of the smallest division on the main scale. This causes the alignment of marks between the main and the vernier scales to be staggered, with 10 vernier-scale divisions just equaling 9 main-scale divisions. Now look along the vernier scale until you find the mark that just lines up with one of the main-scale marks. In Fig. 13b, it looks like it's the seventh of the ten sliding-scale marks; it follows that the index mark is just 0.7 of the way along the main-scale division it's in, so the scale is read as 2.37 cm. In general, if there are N divisions on the vernier and the nth mark lines up with a main-scale mark, the index position is n/N of a division past its mark on the main scale.

Main scale

Vernier

scale

Figure 14

The reading here is 3.7 mm.

In figure 14 above, the vernier scale (below) is divided into 10 equal divisions and thus the least count of the instrument is 0.1 mm. Both the main scale and the vernier scale readings are taken into account while making a measurement. The main scale reading is the first reading on the main scale immediately to the left of the zero of the vernier scale (3 mm), while the vernier scale reading is the mark on the vernier scale which exactly coincides with a mark on the main scale (0.7 mm). The reading is therefore 3.7 mm. Micrometer screw gauge This instrument, invented by William Gascoigne in the 17th century, is often used to measure diameters of wires and spheres. The main features are illustrated below (Figure 15 and Figure 16). The micrometer screw gauge is used to measure even smaller dimensions than the vernier callipers. The micrometer screw gauge also uses an auxiliary scale (measuring

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hundredths of a millimetre) which is marked on a rotary thimble. Basically it is a screw with an accurately constant pitch (the amount by which the thimble moves forward or backward for one complete revolution). The micrometers in our laboratory have a pitch of 0.50 mm (two full turns are required to close the jaws by 1.00 mm). The rotating thimble is subdivided into 50 equal divisions. The thimble passes through a frame that carries a millimetre scale graduated to 0.5 mm. The jaws can be adjusted by rotating the thimble using the small ratchet knob. This includes a friction clutch which prevents too much tension being applied. The thimble must be rotated through two revolutions to open the jaws by 1 mm. The micrometer is a precision instrument and should be treated with care, it should NEVER be forced.

Figure 15: The micrometer screw gauge

Figure 16 Before using the micrometer it is important to ensure that the faces of the anvil and spindle are clean and to check that the instrument reads zero when they are closed. In order to measure an object, the object is placed between the jaws and the thimble is rotated using the ratchet until the object is secured. Note that the ratchet knob must be used to secure the object firmly between the jaws, otherwise the instrument could be

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damaged or give an inconsistent reading. The manufacturer recommends 3 clicks of the ratchet before taking the reading. DO NOT OVERTIGHTEN. The lock may be used to ensure that the thimble does not rotate while you take the reading. To improve accuracy (as with all measurements) we would take several readings and find their average. Thus we could not only ensure accuracy but, by taking readings at different positions along the length, we could test for a consistent diameter along a piece of wire. How do you get the reading? The thimble is on a screw thread of pitch 0.5mm, so that the gap between anvil and spindle will change by 0.5mm when the thimble is moved through one revolution. The graduations on the sleeve are each of 0.5mm to reflect this. The thimble has a scale of 50 equal divisions, each division is 0.01mm (each individual thimble mark is therefore 1/50th of 0.5mm = 0.01mm). The first part of the measurement is taken from the sleeve. Each division is 0.5mm (note that the millimeters and half millimeters are on opposite sides of the line). Care is needed as the thimble may partially obscure this reading, particularly when the thimble reading is close to zero. In the diagram the reading on the sleeve is 6.5mm. Note that the 0.5 mark is just showing. The thimble reading must now be added to this. In the diagram the line on the sleeve is in line with the seventh division on the thimble, indicating 0.07mm. The total reading is therefore 6.5 + 0.07 6.57 mm Care must be taken (as in this case) when the thimble reads less than 10, for example a thimble reading of 8 indicates 0.08mm and NOT 0.8mm. Please do visit the following website to get further information on micrometer gauge: http://www.colchsfc.ac.uk/physics/APhysics2000/Module1/Materials/micrometer.htm Portable Bunsen burner with cartridge Bunsen burner, gas burner, commonly used in scientific laboratories, consisting essentially of a hollow tube which is fitted vertically around the flame and which has an opening at the base to admit air. A smokeless, nonluminous flame of high temperature is produced. The underlying principle of the Bunsen burner is basic to common gas stoves and lamps.

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In science laboratory, cartridge Bunsen burner is commonly used as an alternative, because some school laboratories are not equipped with direct gas supply. This portable Bunsen burner is movable and the empty cartridge can easily be replaced and disposable (Figure 17)

cartridge

Figure 17

Cartridge Bunsen Burner

Air control valve

Control valve

Gas cartridge

Figure 18 Parts and function a. b. The cartridge contains liquid butane for gas supply The burner consists of - control gas valve - wind battle - cartridge holder

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

Lighting gas burner 1. Partly open the valve on the gas supply, and hold a striker or lighter to edge of the top of the burner 2. Change the size of the flame by opening and closing the gas control valve on the bottom of the burner 3. If the flame is yellow, turn the air control valve on the burner tube to increase the amount of air . Notes: The cartridge can only be disposed when empty. Always use a striker or matches to light the burner.

Glass Work Basic skills related to glass materials are making a cut and heating the glass or melting it. In the laboratory, we usually cut a glass for the purpose of producing a glass rod or heating glass tubing to make a dropper or to bend a glass tube into required shape. What instrument do you need when you want to do some glass work? Usually, we need a glass cutter, a file, meter ruler, sand paper, and Bunsen Burner. File and sand paper to be used to polish the surface or glass edge that has been cut. Bunsen burner is for heating and melting the glass. Can you name the types of glass that are commonly available in your school laboratory? There are two types of glass commonly available in the laboratory. One is soda lime glass or also known as commercial glass. Soda lime glass is made up of a mixture of sodium carbonate (soda ash), calcium carbonate, 5 - 11%(lime) or calcium oxide, and silicon dioxide (silica, 70-74%) This glass is usually used in producing glass tubing. It is soft and can be shaped when heating at 3000C 4000C with Bunsen burner. Soda lime glass is normally colorless. The other type of glass is borosilicate glass. Borosilicate glass is made mainly of silica (70-80%) and boric oxide ( 7- 13%) with small amounts of alkalis (sodium and potassium oxides) and aluminum oxide. This type of glass is always used to produce heat-resisting ware, better known under the trade name Pyrex. Glass Cutting The technique for cutting glass is very simple. You need minimal practice to develop a feel for scoring and breaking out. However, it will help you to observe certain basic and easily understood requirements. The primary objective in glass cutting should not be merely to sever the sheet but to score and breakout so that the resulting cut edges have good quality surfaces,

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free of nicks and chips. A nicked or chipped edge is a weak edge and can contribute to glass failure. What is the right technique in cutting glass? There are two main steps to be followed. 1. Drawing the score line using an appropriate glass cutter. The procedures are summarized below: The requirements for good scoring are: a. A good cutter. (Fig. 8) b. A firm, flat, clean support for the glass.(Fig. 7) c. Clean glass. d. Cutting oil.(If necessary the lubricate the score line) e. Not tilting the wheel to left or right. (Fig.9) f. Uniform application of force and speed, maximum non-crushing force. g. Always do the hardest cut first (inside curves). h. A score clean of glass chips and barely visible when looking at the surface of the glass.

Figure 7

Figure 8

Figure 9

Figure 10

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Figure 11 2. Breaking out

Figure 12

The quickest and easiest method of breaking out the score is to bend the glass, pushing up from the side of the glass opposite the score line while giving some lateral pull. Position your hands by curling your fingers toward yourself on the bottom side of the glass (the backs of your fingers should be touching) and pointing your thumbs away from yourself on the top surface of the glass. The fleshy part of your thumbs should be touching each other (Fig. 11 and 12). Or you can use other method of breaking out the glass by aligning a straight score on large sheets just inside the table edge, lift and firmly snap the glass down. After separating the glass it's a good idea to wipe off the bottom edge of the glass piece being saved in order to remove the sharp edge generally left on the bottom side of the glass. Polish the glass edge with glass grinder or a file. Cutting glass rod and tubes You may be wanted to cut a glass rod or a glass tubing into required length for labs purposes such as to make a stirrer or a dropper. To make a good cut and to avoid an injury you have to follow the right techniques as follow: a. Make a deep scratch on the glass at the position of the cut using sharp edge of a triangular file or using roller glass cutter. Do this by placing the glass on the table top and pressing the file firmly with your thumb while slightly rotating the file (Fig. 13) b. After the scratch has been made, grasp the tubing with both hands by placing your thumbs on the side of the tubing opposite the scratch (Fig. 14)

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

Figure 13

Figure 14

Figure 15 Bending glass tubes and making of T-joints The skill in bending glass tubing and making it into other shape is useful to you as an effort to improvise some apparatus in the labs. The most basic bend is the right angle bend. The key to making a good bend is to heat sufficient glass to make the bend, and also to prevent kinking of the glass. For a right-angle bend, mark the glass tube so that the portion of the surface placed into fire equals two full diameters of the tube. For examples if 10mm tubing is to be bent, small marks should be made on the 10mm in either direction from the center of the bend, creating a heating zone of 20 mm. To make a bend of glass tubing, Figure 15 shows the steps to be followed. a. b. c. Place a flame spreader (wing top) on the burner. Rotate the piece of glass in the hot part of the flame (top of the inner cone) so that the flame spreads out along the glass, until the glass becomes yellow and soft. Remove the glass from the flame and immediately bend into the desired angle as shown. Do not attempt to rebend it as it cools. If it becomes hard it will shatter. Place the bend on a ceramic plate or wire gauze to cool.

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

Figure 15

Figure 16

Figure 16 shows the steps in making T-joint tubing. In making T-joints, the two glass tubes should whenever possible be no longer than 15 cm to facilitate manipulation. The steps are described below a. Cork one end of the glass tube and heat the center in the flame. Replace the flame to a very fine point and direct it onto the place at which the joint is to be made. Blow with the help of a rubber tubing a small bubble about the size of the tube to be joint. Heat the center of the bubble in the tip of the flame and blow out. Using a file carefully scrape away broken pieces of glass leaving a hole where the joint is to be made. Cork both ends of the glass tube and hold it in the left hand so that the edge of the flame plays on the edges of the hole. Heat the other tube simultaneously in the other edge of the flame. When the glass is hot enough press the two together, so that the side tube makes contact all round its circumference and is squarely placed. Reduce the flame to a fire point. Heat one side of the joint until the glass is molten over about one-quarter of the way round the joint. Blow until the glass is completely united. Proceed all round the joint. Heat the whole joint, straighten and square up the tubes. Anneal the joint.

b. c. d.

e.

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Fire Polishing glass tubing/rods After making a cut, usually you will get the edge of the glass tubing or rod is not smooth and dangerous to hold. To make it smooth and round, you can do fire polishing as the steps follow. (Figure 17) a. Hold the end of the tube to be fire polished in the hot part of a Bunsen burner flame (tip of the inner cone). Rotate the glass until it becomes yellow, begins to melt, and is rounded. You have to be careful, because excessive heating will cause the tube to become closed. Remove from the flame and cool on a ceramic plate or wire gauze.

b.

Figure 17 Making of droppers Dropper is a simple apparatus that is commonly used in science classroom for transferring reagent from the bottle to other container or dropping of solution. This apparatus can be made by science teacher easily in the laboratory. Figure 18 shows you the techniques in making of a dropper. a. b. Hold both ends of the glass tubing. Heat the center of the glass while rotating it. Keep rotating it until the glass becomes yellow and soft. Pull both ends of the glass while heating it until it forms a capillary tube. Then pull the capillary tube to form two split tubes, where both are with a capillary ends as shown below.

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Organization and Management of Science Laboratories

c.

Cut the capillary ends to allow the capillary tube formed. Fire polish the other end of the glass tube to be fitted with rubber teat.

Figure 18

All the basic techniques described are the beginnings of glass-working. They are not easy to do and require much practice but glass working can be a very worthwhile skill for science teacher and laboratory assistants to develop.

1. Using the materials available in your school laboratory and 1. Using the materials available in your school laboratory and based on the glass work techniques learned, design and based on the glass work techniques learned, design and make a U-tube and S-tube. make a U-tube and S-tube. 2. Using glass cutting techniques, design a beaker or mug from 2. Using glass cutting techniques, design a beaker or mug from an unused glass bottle found around your school. an unused glass bottle found around your school.

Preparation of Chemical Solutions When a substance, called a solute, is dissolved in another substance, called the solvent, a solution is formed. A solution is a uniform distribution of solute in solvent. For example, vinegar is a solution of acetic acid, the solute, in water, the solvent. The amount of solute in a solvent is important and can be expressed in several different ways. Some common units of concentration will be discussed. The purpose of this exercise is mostly for practical experience in solution preparation in the laboratory, it is probably one of the most fundamental tasks in many laboratory experiments. To have someone else prepare your solutions for you is a luxury (as you will soon find out), don't take it for granted.

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In preparing chemical solutions you will be dealt two tasks. The first task requires you to prepare a stock solution (or standard solution) of a specific volume and molarity by dissolving an appropriate amount of the specified solute. The volume of solution will be measured by using a volumetric(vol) flask. A vol. flask is made to contain a specific volume of liquid when the flask has been filled to the meniscus mark. This mark is a line indicating when the flask contains the volume specified on the flask. To prepare a solution using a vol. flask, you first place your solute sample into a clean flask of the desired volume. Enough solvent is then added to reach half way up the main (round) body of the flask. The flask is then capped and gently shaken to dissolve the solute. Be sure that the top is on tight before and during shaking. Then add additional solvent to just below the meniscus mark. The flask is again carefully shaken. Dislodge any air bubbles attached to the walls of the flask by tapping the side of the flask. Using a dropper or a pipet, the liquid level is then filled up to the line such that the bottom of the meniscus is at the line. The flask is again shaken. The volume of solution should be the same as the size marked on the side of the flask. The second task requires that you use the stock solution prepared in task 1 to prepare a second solution that is more dilute than the solution in task 1. To make a dilution, the desired volume of concentrated solution is transferred using a pipette to a second vol. flask. This technique can be demonstrated in class. After the concentrated solution has been transferred to a second vol. flask, the procedure for filling to the line is the same as in task 1. The accuracy of your technique can be tested by conductivity measurements since the solutions you will prepare are electrolytes. The instructor will demonstrate the use of the volumetric flasks, pipet and pipet bulb. The rest of the technique is up to you to define in the pre-lab questions. Solutions with specified concentrations Another way of expressing concentration, the way that we will use most in this course, is called molarity.. Now we will see how solutions of a specific molarity can be made. Molar solutions Molarity is a useful way of describing the concentrations of solutes in solution, as well as a source of useful conversion factors for converting between volume (an easily measurable property of solutions) and moles of solute. Molarity is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of solution. The units, therefore are moles per liter, specifically it's moles of solute per liter of solution.

The abbreviation for molarity is ``M'' so that a 0.1 molar solution is represented as 0.1 M solution.

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A 0.1 M solution of HCl has 0.1 mol of HCl dissolved per liter of solution. So when you see M or M it stands for molarity, and it means moles per liter (not just moles). You must be very careful to distinguish between moles and molarity. "Moles" measures the amount or quantity of material you have; "molarity" measures the concentration of that material. So when you're given a problem or some information that says the concentration of the solution is 0.1 M that means that it has 0.1 mole for every liter of solution; it does not mean that it is 0.1 moles. Please be sure to make that distinction. To prepare a 1 M solution, slowly add 1 g formula weight (FW) or relative molecular mass (RMM )of compound to 500-mL distilled or deionized water in a 1000-mL volumetric flask half filled with distilled or deionized water. Allow the compound to dissolve completely, swirling the flask gently if necessary. Once the solute is completely dissolved and the solution is at room temperature, dilute to the mark with water. Invert the flask several times to mix. Exercise 1: If you are given 40g sodium hydroxide (FW = 40), describe the steps taken to prepare a 1 M solution of sodium hydroxide. In order to make a calculation for preparation of solution required, you will find the following equations very useful:

M=
C1V1 = C 2 V2 where

n solute msolute = Vsoln ( M ) ( Vsoln )

M = molarity concentration of solute

M = molar mass of solute

V1 = volume of stock C1 = concentration of stock V2 = volume of dilute C2 = concentration of dilute

n solute = moles of solute msolute = mass of solute in grams Vsoln

Exercise 2: = volume of solution in liters

Determine how many grams of reagent used to make 0.15 M solution. Given Chemical FW = 194.3 g/mole. (ans. 29.145g)

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Exercise 3: A chemical has a FW of 180 g/mole and you need 25 ml (0.025 L) of 0.15M (M = moles/L) solution. How many grams of the chemical must be dissolved in 25 ml water to make this solution? (ans. 0.675g).

Percentage Solutions Many reagents are mixed as percent concentrations i.e part per hundred. When working with a dry chemical it is mixed as dry mass (g) per volume where number of g/100 ml = percent concentration. A 10% solution is equal to 10 g dissolved in 100 ml of solvent. Therefore, mass percent means the number of grams of solute per 100 g of solution. For example, 10 g sodium chloride in 90 g water is a 10% by mass solution. mass percent = mass of solute/mass of solution = 10 g / (10 g + 90 g) x 100% = 10% This would be labeled as a weight/ volume [w/v] percentage solution. Example 1: If you want to make 3 % NaCl you would dissolve 3.0 g NaCl in 100 ml water (or the equivalent for whatever volume you needed). When using liquid reagents the percent concentration is based upon volume per volume, i.e., number of ml/100 ml. Therefore, volume percent means the number of milliliters of solute per 100 mL of solution. The volume percent of a solution cannot be calculated directly from the volumes of its components because the final volume may not equal the sum of the components volumes. To prepare volume percent solutions, first determine the final volume and concentration of the desired solution and then determine the amount of solute. Dilute the solute in sufficient solvent to produce the final volume of desired solution. For example, to prepare 100 mL of a 10% by volume solution of acetic acid, dilute 10 mL acetic acid with distilled or deionized water to make 100 mL of solution. Example 2: If you want to make 70% ethanol you would mix 70 ml of 100% ethanol with 30 ml water (or the equivalent for whatever volume you needed). By understanding how to prepare molar and percent solutions you will also be able to convert from molar solution to percent solution or vice versa.

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To convert from % solution to molarity, multiply the percent solution value by 10 to get grams/L, then divide by the formula weight. Molarity = (% solution) * 10 xxxxxxxxxx FW Example 3: Convert a 6.5 % solution of a chemical with FW = 325.6 to molarity, [(6.5 g/100 ml) * 10] / 325.6 g/L = 0.1996 M

To convert from molarity to percent solution, multiply the molarity by the FW and divide by 10: % solution = molarity * FW xxxxxxxxx x10 Example 4: Convert a 0.0045 M solution of a chemical having FW 178.7 to percent solution: [0.0045 moles/L * 178.7 g/mole] / 10 = 0.08 % solution

To get more details you can visit this website: To get more details you can visit this website: http://dl.clackamas.cc.or.us/ch105-05/volume.htm http://dl.clackamas.cc.or.us/ch105-05/volume.htm http://www.lsmsa.edu/MKhandoker/Chemistry/laboratories/Preparation%20of%20Molar%20Sol http://www.lsmsa.edu/MKhandoker/Chemistry/laboratories/Preparation%20of%20Molar%20Solu

Could you understand them? Probably its a good idea if you could find a laboratory assistant or a senior science teacher to demonstrate the steps. The following simplified steps could also help to prepare the solution. Complete the following information, showing ALL pertinent calculations: Preparation of the Stock solution: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) Name of solute to be dissolved Formula of solute. Molar mass of solute. Desired molarity of stock solution Desired volume of stock solution Grams of solid desired Grams of solid actually measured

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h) i)

Calculated actual stock concentration Briefly describe the preparation procedure

Do these exercises to help you better Do these exercises to help you better understand this section! understand this section!

1.

A solution is prepared by placing 10.0 grams of aluminum nitrate into a volumetric flask. The aluminum nitrate is then dissolved in water such that the final volume is 200.00 mL. What is the concentration of aluminum nitrate expressed as a molarity? Describe the step-by-step procedure used to actually prepare the solution in pre-lab question 1. From the solution prepared in pre-lab question 1, what volume (in mL) of the solution from question #1 would need to be diluted to form a 100.00 mL solution having a concentration of 0.064 M aluminum nitrate? Given that you have been assigned to prepare a 0.100 M magnesium chloride solution with a volume of 500 mL (known volume of 500.0 mL). What glassware would you use and what mass of magnesium chloride would be necessary? A calcium acetate solution was prepared and determined to have a concentration of 0.250 M calcium acetate. The solution was made using 59.3 grams of calcium acetate, what volume (in mL) of solution must have been made?

2. 3.

4.

5.

You could follow the following steps to prepare any reagent or bench solutions. Do you still remember how to determine the formula mass of substances? If you have forgotten how, maybe its a good idea you go and get any SPM Chemistry book and revise first! Common reagent solutions in school science laboratory are prepared by dissolving solute in distilled water or prepare it from stock solution. The following steps describe the procedure for making a solution of a specific molarity from a pure, solid substance. First, weigh out the correct mass of solute in grams use a measuring cylinder if liquid. Dissolve the solute in distilled water (or deionized water) in a beaker, heating and stirring as necessary. Keeping the volume less than the desired total volume of solution Dilute the solution and make up to the desired total volume of solution. Shake thoroughly to ensure that the concentration is the same through out the solution.

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Some examples of reagents used in school: Reagents Acetic Acid, 1 N Benedicts Solution How to prepare Dilute 57.5 mL of glacial acetic acid with water to 1 L. Dissolve 173 g of sodium citrate dihydrate and 100 g of anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, in 800 mL of water. Heat to aid dissolution, filter if necessary, and dilute with water to 850 mL. Dissolve 17.3 g of copper sulfate pentahydrate, CuSO4 . 5H2O, in 100 mL of water. Add this solution, with constant stirring, to the alkaline citrate solution, and dilute with water to 1L. Dilute 470 mL of hydrochloric acid with water to 1 L Dilute 235 mL of hydrochloric acid with water to 1 L Dilute hydrochloric acid (1 + 1) with water. Dissolve 10 g of potassium chromate, K2CrO4, in water and dilute with water to 100 mL. Dissolve 17 g of silver nitrate, AgNO3, in 1 L of water. Store in an amber bottle. Mix 1 g of soluble starch with 10 mg of red mercuric iodide and enough cold water to make a thin paste, add 200 mL of boiling water, and boil for 1 min while stirring. Cool before use

Hydrochloric Acid, 20% HCl Hydrochloric Acid, 10% HCl Hydrochloric Acid, 7 M Potassium Chromate. Silver Nitrate. Starch Indicator

The discussion above suggests that there are two general ways to make solutions of a given molarity: The solutions can be made starting with pure solute and water The solutions can be made from more concentrated solutions

Standard Solution The most accurate and convenient way of preparing a standard solution is to weigh the reagent, dissolve it, and dilute the solution to a definite volume in a volumetric flask. This method can only be used if the reagent is a primary standard.

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In order for a reagent to be a primary standard, it must be obtainable in pure form (generally at least 99.98% pure), stable both in pure form and in solution, easy to dry and keep dry, and soluble in a suitable solvent. Many useful reagents do not meet those requirements, so the reagent is dissolved and diluted approximately to the concentration desired. The solution is then standardized by titrating it against a primary solution. This standardized solution is called a secondary standard.

Diluting concentrated solution Understanding how to make dilutions is a an essential skill for a science teacher. This skill is used, for example, in making solutions, diluting bacteria, diluting antibodies etc. Laboratory solutions are often made in high concentrations in order to store smaller volumes. Quite often, however, solutions are prepared by diluting a more concentrated solution. For example, if you needed a one molar solution you could start with a six molar solution and dilute it. Consequently, you also need to be familiar with the calculations that are associated with dilutions. It is important to understand:

how to do the calculations to set up the dilution how to do the dilution optimally how to calculate the final dilution.

When preparing a dilution, decide the volume and molar concentration of the resulting solution that you require. Use the following equation to determine how much of the concentrated reagent is needed to prepare the diluted solution, M reagent x V reagent = M dilution x V dilution where M is molarity and V is volume. Slowly add the calculated volume of concentrated reagent to a proper-sized volumetric flask half filled with distilled or deionized water and swirl the flask to mix. Once the solution is at room temperature, dilute to the mark with water and invert the flask several times to mix. Example 1: What volume of 10 M acetic acid is required to prepare 1.0 L of 0.50 M acetic acid? 10 M x V reagent = 0.50 M x 1.0 L V reagent = 0.050 L = 50 mL A volume of 50 mL of 10 M acetic acid is required to prepare 1.0 L of 0.50 M acetic acid.

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Preparation of the Dilute solution: By completing the following information, will help you to prepare a dilute solution. a) b) c) d) e) f) Desired molarity of dilute solution Desired volume of dilute solution Volume of stock solution required Calculated actual concentration of dilute solution Concentration of solute as determined by conductivity probe. If the concentration determined using the conductivity probe is different than your calculated actual concentration, then determine the percent error of your value. Briefly describe the preparation procedure:

g)

Do these exercises to help you better Do these exercises to help you better understand this section! understand this section!

1. 2. 3. 4.

How much 2.0 M NaCl solution would you need to make 250 mL of 0.15 M NaCl solutions? (ans. 18.9mL) What would be the concentration of a solution made by diluting 45.0 mL of 4.2 M KOH to 250 mL? (ans. 0.76M) What would be the concentration of a solution made by adding 250 mL of water to 45.0 mL of 4.2 M KOH? (ans. 0.64M) How much 0.20 M glucose solution can be made from 50 mL of 0.50 M glucose solution? (125mL)

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Dilute and concentrated solutions from standard solution Proceed as describe above for standard solutions. Standardize by titration (if the substance is a liquid, use a burette to deliver the required volume.

Diluting Concentrated Acids You notice that there are a number of concentrated acids used in science labs. For example, the hydrochloric acid solutions a science teacher is likely to use in reactions have concentrations of 1 M HCl or 6 M HCl, but solutions of this concentration would take up an inconvenient amount of storage space in a science labs stockroom. Therefore, a concentrated hydrochloric acid solution, usually about 12 M HCl, is purchased and stored, and diluted with water whenever a more dilute solution is needed. The concentrations of typical concentrated acid solutions and for the base ammonia are listed in the table below. Typical Concentrations of Concentrated Acids and Ammonia Substance Hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq) Sulfuric Acid, H2SO4 Nitric Acid, HNO3 Acetic acid, HC2H3O2 Ammonia, NH3(aq) Molarity 12.1 M 17.8 M to 18.4 M 15.8 M 17.4 M 14.8 M Mass perccentage 38.7% 95%-98% 69.71% 99.7% 28%

The following is the general procedure for diluting a relatively concentrated solution to form one that is more dilute. (There is a slightly different procedure for diluting acids that are almost pure, like concentrated sulfuric acid, which is 95-98% H2SO4. We will restrict our examples to the dilution of solutions that already contain a significant amount of water.) Add the correct volume of the more concentrated solution to a volume-measuring instrument, like a volumetric flask. Add water until the volume reaches the desired total.

Dilution of concentrated acid should always be done in a fume cupboard. It is important only to pour acid into water, not the other way around, especially with concentrated acids. Acids may quickly absorb water, creating a lot of heat in the process. When acid is poured into water, the heat can quickly become evenly distributed

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in the water. If water is poured into acid, the water may quickly boil, spraying acid everywhere

Volume to Volume Dilutions This type of dilution describes the ratio of the solute to the final volume of the dilute solution. For example, to make a 1:10 dilution of a 1M NaCl solution, you would mix one "part" of the 1M solution with 9 "parts" of solvent (probably water), for a total of ten "parts." 1:10 dilution means 1 part + 9 parts of water (or other diluent).

For example: if you needed 10 ml of the 1:10 dilution, then you would mix 1 ml of the 1M NaCl with 9 ml of water or: if you needed 100 ml of the 1:10 dilution then you would mix 10 ml of the 1M NaCl with 90 ml of water. The final concentration of NaCl in both cases is 0.1M.

To get more details you can visit this website: To get more details you can visit this website: http://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/dilutions.html http://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/dilutions.html http://www.carolina.com/chemistry/resources/solution_preparation.asp http://www.carolina.com/chemistry/resources/solution_preparation.asp

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Preservation of Biological Specimens Learning and teaching of Biology is complete only when the student is able to see active living and preserved variety of organisms. Learning Biology also becomes easier by observing living organisms closely rather than merely reading about them. Living animals are kept in animal house, frogs in a specially constructed froggery, and fish in aquarium. Plants are grown in the botanical garden or specially maintained in a green house. If you cannot get hold of a living organism then the next step is to use a preserved organism. Preserved animals and plants, duly classified are kept in museums. If a preserved organism is not available then use charts and models. Usually they are also displayed there. There are two way to preserve an animal or a plant (1) wet preservation and (2) dry preservation. Preservation of Plant Specimen a) Dry preservation or Herbarium What do you understand from the word herbarium? You are right if you say it has something to do with plants. A herbarium is defined as a collection of plants that have been dried, pressed and preserved on sheets. The dried plants are classified and arranged for future reference especially taxonomic studies. A herbarium (herbaria, plural) is a repository, a facility designed to ensure long-term preservation of scientific plant samples, generally referred to as specimens. The most meaningful analogy is to a library; herbaria are plant libraries, with the specimens corresponding to the pages in books. Most herbaria are under the aegis of an academic institution, museum or botanical garden. Most herbaria are housed in a room full of specially designed steel cases (herbarium cabinets). Typically, the interior of the cabinets is divided into two vertical sections and each section is subdivided into 13 compartments. Herbarium cabinets are lined up sideby-side in rows, and they take up considerable space because there must be sufficient room for the doors to open between rows. In recent years, some herbaria, particularly larger ones, have installed mobile shelving (compactors), placing rows of cabinets or compartmentalized shelving on tracks. The rows are moved via manual or electrical systems, opening a single aisle (between rows) at a time. By utilizing almost all of the

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aisle space (that has to be left between rows of immobile cabinets), compactors significantly increase the number of cabinets/shelving that can be accommodated within a finite space. What are specimens? What are the processes involved in preparing a herbarium What are the processes involved in preparing a herbarium specimen? specimen? Herbarium specimens are plants that have been collected and preserved for scientific analyses Specimens include: Pressed and Dried Plants Dried Plants Plants Preserved in Alcohol-Glycerine or Formalin Solution Plants Preserved in Rocks

You could learn more about the types of specimens from the web-sites: You could learn more about the types of specimens from the web-sites: http://www.cgrer.uiowa.edu/herbarium/HerbariaAndSpecimens.htm http://www.cgrer.uiowa.edu/herbarium/HerbariaAndSpecimens.htm

How to prepare a herbarium specimen? What do use this tool for? This is called a gardeners knife. If you want to collect plant specimen you will need this. Apart from this knife you will also need ; a plant press or vasculum, blotting papers to dry plants, trowel to dig and uproot the plant, collecting and mounting sheets, gum tape, labels, waterproof ink and pen.

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Collecting botanical specimens Fleshy plants lose their diagnostic features when dried so they are preserved in 4% formalin in glass containers. Gymnosperm cones and dry fruits are collected and preserved as such. Plants should be collected from various localities for the preparation of herbarium. The herbarium should also have representative specimens from various groups of plants. A complete specimen when collected should have all the parts including the root system. It is better to collect a plant at its flowering stage. A tag should give the location from where collected. About five or six specimens of each kind of plant should be collected. The collected plant should either be pressed then and there or collected in a vasculum and pressed later. Vasculum is a metal cylinder with a sliding door in which plants are collected. Pressing, Drying and Preserving The collected plant should be pressed between sheets of blotting paper. One plant is arranged on one sheet so that its parts do not overlap. Specimens longer than the sheets can be folded in the form of 'V or N'. The plant between the sheets is then put in a press for 24 to 48 hours. The press is then opened, blotting sheets changed and plants rearranged again and put back in the press for another 2 or 3 days. The pressed specimen is then dried in sunlight or heat from some other source. To prevent the abscission layer formation and decay, plants are killed with formalin or (Mercuric choloride) HgCl or (Carbon tetra chloride) CCl (poisoning). Also dipping in (Mercuric chloride) HgCl (poisoning) saves them from attack by museum pests such as beetles.

Mounting and Labeling

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After drying, specimens are mounted on mounting papers or herbarium sheets which are usually of a standard size of 11.5" X 16.5" and sturdy enough to support the dried plants. Glue or adhesive tape or adhesive paste is used to stick the specimens onto the sheets. Each sheet should carry a label pasted on the lower right hand corner giving the (i) the site of collection, locality and altitude (ii) name of plant (iii) Family (iv) habit (v) date of collection (vi) ecological notes and (vii) name of collector. Herbarium sheets should be stored in herbarium cases or steel almirahs. They should be arranged according to the system of classification. Moth balls, naphthalene flakes of 2% of Mercuric chloride should be sprayed to keep away mould, fungi and insects. Specimen Label Information When you have finally finished preparing a herbarium specimen you got to label it. Each specimen may include information on 1) location, 2) habitat, 3) collector and date of collection, and 4) identification. The first of these, location, is essential. Without locality data, a specimen is worthless! Location Collectors must provide adequate, accurate information on locality if specimens are to have lasting value. The following should be included: country state/province county specific information on how the locality can be reached (distance to nearest town, river crossing, highway intersection or other landmark, and number of the road/highway along which a locality is situated) township, range, section, quarter-section latitude and longitude elevation The above can be extracted from state/provincial road maps, county road maps, odometer readings and topographic maps (the latter are available from Geological Survey offices and in the libraries of most major universities, and also commercially on CD-ROM). Habitat Information on habitat is useful. This can include a general description of the type of habitat (e.g., forest, rock outcrop, prairie, wetland, etc.); substrate type (e.g., calcareous, siliceous rock), if pertinent; names of associated species; and specific notes on the microhabitat in which the plant was collected (e.g., on exposed soil, on trunk of Quercus macrocarpa 1.5 m from ground, etc.).

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Collector and Date of Collection The name of the collector and collection number, if any, and the date of collection (do not abbreviate; write out name of month and include the century) should be clearly indicated. The names of persons who accompanied the collector may be included in parentheses, but these should be put on a separate line below the collector's name. Identification If the specimen has been identified, the name of the species and the person who identified it (if other than the collector) should be included. If the collection is a voucher for a research report or publication, this should be noted (eg., Voucher for Survey of Iowa Fen Bryoflora). Label Format The above information, in hand printed (legible!) or typed form, should be given to the herbarium where the specimen(s) will be deposited. These days, it is relatively easy to use a word processing program to set up a simple template that can be used to generate six, standard size (ca. 4" x 3") labels on an 8 " x 11" sheet of paper (two columns of three). If a number of labels from a single locality are needed, mail merge programs can be used, and commercial programs also are readily available. Label files can be provided on disk, so that the repository can run the labels on acid-free, pH-neutral paper, using a printer of their choice. The University of Iowa Herbarium uses a Lexmark Z52 inkjet printer because waterproof ink, which may be more permanent than some laser jet inks, is available for that printer. If printed labels are provided to a repository, materials that conform to their standards should be used if at all possible. University of Iowa Herbarium labels are formatted as per the following example:

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Why Preserve Plant Specimens? Herbarium specimens are a vital resource because they store a wealth of information. They are utilized by faculty, staff and students in universities, colleges and other research institutions; by personnel from government agencies and conservation organizations; and the general public. Specimens are utilized for: o o o o o o o o (b) Wet Preservation The techniques depend on type of plant: Type of Plant Alga, fungi, soft bodied fruits Method of Preservation Specimen is placed in mixture of 5 cm3 glacial acetic acid, 90 cm3 ethanol (70%), and 7 cm3 formaldehyde (40%). Taxonomic research Current and historical distributional data Rare plant list Identification of unknown plants Generating a search image Locality and ecological information Genetic data DNA Voucher specimens

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Plant (general)

Specimen is placed in copper (II) sulphate solution (5%) for 24 hours and then immersed in sodium sulphite (0.2 M)

Preservation of Animal Specimen (a) Dry Preservation Exoskeletons (Skeletons covering the body) such as shell of mollusces, star fish, sea urchins, corals, cocoons of insects sloughed off (cast off) skin of snakes or insects (exuviae), feathers and nests of birds, honey combs and wasp or termite nests, mammalian skin with furs dried sponges etc. can be displayed in the museum intact for many years provided they are prevented from breaking or from attack by insect parasites on microorganisms. Apart from the above (i) vertebrate skeletons and (ii) pressed insects also form part of dry presentation Skeleton preparation Skeletons may be prepared in the following way. Chloroformed vertebrate is dissected to remove organs and as much muscle as possible. Boil the animal so that muscles become tender and remove them. When only the skeleton remains, dip it in Hydrogen Peroxide for bleaching (optional). Mount on a cardboard or wooden board with the help of adhesive like araldite or fevicol and display. Skull or bones of dead animals collected from the fields may be cleaned with water, disinfected with a disinfectant, dried and displayed in a museum. Stuffed animals are also kept in the museum. Skinning, preserving, stuffing and mounting vertebrates is called TAXIDERMY.

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Stained skeletal preparation How to collect and preserve insects Insects are found everywhere - cockroaches abound near the kitchen drains, butterflies roam among flowers while grasshoppers hop and crickets chirp in the grass. Flies are where sweets are and fruit flies hover around vegetables and fruits. Insects are the most numerous and diversified group of animals. Collection of Insects Insect collection is an activity which combines fun and study. The equipment required is (i) collecting jar, (ii) a net (iii) fine wire sieves (iv) insect trap The collecting jar can be of three types (a) Cyanide bottle: in which sodium cyanide is placed in small lumps in a wide mouthed jar with a well fitting lid. Plaster of pans is made to set on the sodium cyanide. When dry, the bottle is stoppered. Since sodium cyanide is a deadly poison, it has to be handled with care. (b) Carbon tetrachloride bottle is efficient and harmless. A glass tube is inserted in a small hole bored in the cork of a bottle. A cotton wad is fastened to the cork as shown in the figure 42. (c) Chloroform bottle has rubber bands placed at the bottom of a bottle and some chloroform put in it. Rubber has the capacity to absorb chloroform. After sometime unabsorbed chloroform is thrown away and a cardboard placed to cover the rubber bands. Fumes of chloroform absorbed by rubber fill the bottle. A net made of cotton or nylon can be stitched to a handle as shown in the figure. The fine wire sieves are required to strain the mud which comes with the collected insects or to wash them. Flying insects or walking and hopping insects can be collected from their natural surrounding. Insects may be trapped with the use of insect traps. A simple trap has a large funnel / placed on the mouth of a wide mouthed jar ' containingchloroform or alcohol. A Berlese funnel traps small insects. A funnel is soldered at the end of a large can with a hole at its bottom. A false bottom made of wire mesh is placed in the can, filled with leaves and grass and covered with cheese cloth. The stem of the funnel ends in a wide mouthed bottle sealed with cotton plug. This collecting bottle may contain alcohol or chloroform for preserving the insects. (Fig. 42.3)

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Insects are caught by the net or in the trap and placed in the collecting jar. Then they have to be preserved

Where to place the insect pin through the body when mounting insects(Push through area indicated by the black dot)

Insect preservation Material required for the preservation of collected insects are (i) Pins of various sizes (ii) hard paper (iii) insect spreading board (iv) insect collection box (v) insect cabinet Before collected insects dry up, pin has to thrust through the thorax or wings (Fig. ). Very small insects are mounted on a triangular piece of hard paper. Wings of butterflies, dragonflies have to be spread out as shown in (Fig. )

Fig. : How to spread butterflies and moths pinned in the spreading. Spreading of wings is done by first fixing the pin carrying the insect in the groove of the spreading board, wings spread out and strips of paper pinned across wings of either side. Once such mounted insects are dry, they are removed to the insect collection box. The insects are then classified and arranged in an insect cabinet.

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Standard cardboard insect box

Wet Preservation Invertebrates and small and medium sized vertebrates can be preserved intact in glass or transparent plastic jars of appropriate size called specimen jars (Fig. 42.1). The jars have a flat, firm base and a lid. A solution of 10% formalin fills the jar. The specimen is mounted on a glass slab of appropriate size which is then placed inside the jar and covered with the lid. The lid may then be screwed on to the jar or sealed on it. From time to time fresh-formalin has to be added or replaced according to need. The specimen remains intact for years if handled properly. The specimens retain their shape and morphology. Only the natural colour is lost.

Fig. 42.1 Museum jars with preserved specimens Wet preservation can be done for (i) intact specimens; (ii) vertebrate embryos; (iii) organs such as heart and eye; (iv) specimens dissected out to display organ systems e.g. nervous system of an animal; and (v) in situ skeletons of small vertebrates such as fish or frog or lizard In it (retained in actual position in the anunal ) skeleton can be prepared in the following manner and mounted and kept in bottles containing glycerine. Chloroformed animal is kept in 90% alcohol in a covered jar for two days. Alcohol is then removed and animal dipped in 1% aqueous solution of Potassium hydroxide till it becomes transparent. The animal is then placed in Alizorin Red Stain (0.1 gm of Alizarin Red in a litre of 1% aqueo.us solution-of KOH). The bones get stained (Fig. 42.2). The animal is then transferred to a specimen jar containing glycerine. The table below shows how to preserve other animals.
Type of Animal Method of Preservation

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Small mammals Frog Snake Fish Insect larva Crab and prawn Snail Worm Leech Jelly-fish

First kill with chloroform then preserve in formaldehyde (3%) First kill in a plastic beg and then preserve in formaldehyde (3%) Inject every 5cm along the body with formaldehyde (3%) and then preserve in formaldehyde (3%) Preserve in formaldehyde (2%) or ethanol (70%) Preserve in ethanol (75-80%) Preserve in formaldehyde (2%) or ethanol (70%) Kill in water with dilute ethanoic then immersed in formaldehyde for a few second. Preserved in ethanol (70%) Kill in water with a few magnesium sulphate crystal. Immersed in formaldehyde (2%) then preserve in ethanol (70%) Kill in hot formaldehyde (45%) and preserve in ethanol (70%) Kill in magnesium sulphate solution and preserve in formaldehyde (2%) or ethanol (70%)

Tutorial Questions

Question One You are teaching Year 3 science in a primary school. You found that there is a lacking of science resources to be used for teaching and learning in the science room. You are thinking of improvising some science resources to help student understand concepts they are going to learn. 1) What are the characteristics you have to consider in improvising resources for your students teaching and learning? 1) Briefly describe the steps involved in carrying out such improvisation. 2) In what category does the improvised item fall? Bring along the improvised resources and share it with your collogues during your tutorial class. Question Two In every science room or laboratory there should be a log book to record all activities or science practical held. The aim of using a log book is to record any activity regarding to

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the labs or science room. For safety concern, you have to record all injuries and accidents that happen during science practical sessions. Injury or accident can happen without prior notice. Most accidents and injuries occur due to human ignorance and carelessness while carrying out science activities. Your task: 3. List down all cases of injury and accident that have happened in your school labs since the last 3 year. Then, determine, what are the most frequent injuries or accidents that had happened and suggest the steps that can be taken in order to overcome this injury or accident. List down all the first aid items available in your school science laboratory. Using appropriate graphic organizer, with specific example, discuss the important of maintenance of these items.

4.

Discuss your answer with your peer in the tutorial session

Question 3 Prepare a) wet preservation of a frog or a mice b) dry specimen of a wild plant (a part of a plant or a whole plant). c) Describe your procedures in preparing the preserved specimen Present and display your specimens during tutorial. .Discuss problems that you faced when you collect and preserve the specimens

Summary 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 It is the responsibility of the teacher to make sure students safety in the science laboratory. Carelessness and cluttered laboratory are two main sources of accident happening General safety rules in the laboratory must be clear and understood Safety measures must always be considered when preparing, and conducting science activities in or outside the laboratory . All the various science materials like reactive and corrosive materials, radioactive materials, biological materials and waste product must be handle using the right techniques. Science teachers should be knowledgeable about the procedures in handling dangerous chemicals Managing the laboratory include preparing budget, purchasing and ordering stock,

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8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

maintenance of laboratory and equipments, write off and disposal of stock. Each personnel in the organizational chart has their own duties and responsibility in managing the science laboratory New science stock are supplied by the Education Ministry Purchasing of stock can be done through central supply or non-central supply in accordance to the procedures in the relevant circular sent by Education and Finance Ministry Stock keeping should be recorded in the relevant stock book . Write off and disposal of stock procedures should follow the Arahan Perbendaharaan 314 and 315. Smart science laboratory has a few distinctive characteristics so that science teaching and learning could be enhance as accordance to smart learning Basic laboratory techniques need to be acquired are glass works, , preparing standard solution and reagents, and preservation of biological specimens Properly and continuous maintain instruments will increase its long lasting and functioning Systematically and effective maintenance of the instruments will save cost and ensure safety when using them Handling the instruments using the correct techniques will produce good result Skill in using the instruments with the right techniques and following the right procedures will lessen the risk of damaging the sensitive instruments Skills involved in glass works are glass cutting, cutting glass rods and tubes, bending tubes and making T-joints and polishing Skills in preparing solutions are preparing reagents, standard solution, preparing solution with specified concentration, and diluting solutions from standard solution Skills relevant to preservation of biological specimens are preservation of dry and wet preservation for both animals and plants.

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Oops!! Thats the end.

Appendix Register of Property (KEW 312 & KEW 312A)

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Register of Inventory (KEW 313)

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Register of Office Supplies (KEW 314)

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Register of Mobile Properties and Inventories (KEW 315)

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Books of breakages

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