ffi:

r'

V. THE AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE PREDICATE AND THE SUBJECT

of English syntax which involves difficulties for Romanians the and other forelgners is agreement or concord between the predicate and
1.0.

chapter

of form or subject. The difficulties do not arise so much out of some complications when fall, nouns English which into of the variefy of categories

1.2. Subjects denoting different persons and coordinated by the conjunction andtake a plural verb but it is suggested to apply a rule of precedence of the first person over the second and ofthe latter over the third. Helen and I (:we) have known each other for years (considered as first person plural). Helen and you (: you two) are very rnuch alike (considered to be in the second person plural).

iogir, u, out
participles

Helen and Mary (:they) have grown up together (naturally third

person plural).

classified in accordance with the idea of number' In many languages (e.g. Romanian, Frehch) certain predicates (i'e' the past

putsiu. pt.di"ut"t or the predicative adjectives of nominal to suit the subject in gender or case or both' have predicates) ,InEnglishtheproblemofconcordanceislimitedonlytotheagreementin
person and, especiallY, in number.

"of

2.0. Agreement in number

This is what makes up the bulk, the essence and the difficulty of the agreemetrt/concord of subject and predicate in English, As one usually realizes, the problem of agreement/concord in number between subject and predicate is far more complicated in English than in Romanian; there are many rules and some exceptions, there are several types of agreement in number between the predicate and the subject - either for whole categories of subjects or for isolated cases.
The main differences between English and Romanian in this respect
are

1.1. Agreement in Person

Naturally enough, the person of the finite verb corresponds to that indicated by the subject. There are a few cases, however' which may give rise to some persons doubt: one-of the difficulties is related to the subjects denoting different qlso, well as, no as and coordinatedby either... or, neither ... nor, not only ... but
less than, like, without: I, as well as he, '.' am (?) / is (?) / are (?) He, no less than we '.. is (?) / are (?)

i;
i,

here'1.1.1. The rule of proximity (= acordul prin atraclie) may be applied to it: is closest that subject the with agree to made being the predicate Either You or I was to go there' Neither You nor I am to blame clumsy 1.1.2. On the other hand, most grammars hold such constructions to be
and advise us either (a) to rePeat the verb: Either You were to go there or I was' Neither I am to blame nor You are' The constructions thus become explicit'

closely bound up with the great differences between the two languages in point of classification of nouns in terms of the idea of number. It is common knowledge that the various categories established in this way involve certain peculiarities as to their determinatives and agreement. Other sources of differences are provided by the use of pronouns (especially indefinite) and by the various categories of subjects (simple, compund, co-ordinated and complex). There is therefore a great diversity of cases, more or less limited in applicability, which make classification and systematization rather difficult. , Moreover, in some of these cases, usage is not perfectly crystallized, it differs from one speaker to another, from one writer to another, and indications given by
grammarians vary accord ingly.
language the

Though some of the difficulties are to be found in Romanian too, in the latter problem is far less complicated.
an

2.1. Given these inconsistencies, the conclusion is forced upon us that

or (b) to use a verbal form without person distinctions: Either You or I had to go there' Neither I nor you ought to be blamed/sft ould be blamed' It is to be noted that in the ubou" "ut"t the predicate remains in the singular on the (because of the conjunctions or prepositions coordinating the subjects).

evolution is under way in the situation of number and agreement. ' The evolution is more clearly perceptible in connection with collective nouns, which are used more and more often with a plural verb, but it is also to be noticed in connection with other categories ofsubjects.

This section therefore analyses the cases of agreement in contemporary

English and offers certain indications as to the tendencies manifest nowadays.

other hand, "Neither you nor

oQcurrence.

I are lo

blame"

is an

increasingly frequent

theoretical justification

The systematization attempted here is a somehow practical one, while the is to be found in professor Levilchi's classification of

109

nouns, according to the idea of numberr and in various papers by A. Bantag2. A different arrangement (according to the types of subject) is proposed by A. Bantag in Grantalica Lintbii Engleze (compiled by the English Departrnent of Bucharest University), Editura Didacticd gi Pedagogica, 1962, volume ll, tlre chapter on
agreement.

Both arrangements proceed from an analysis and interpretation ofall cases of agreement mentioned by books of traditional grammar available to date (Jespersen,

3.1.5.2. The category also includes the nouns advice, inforntation and neu,s which take a singular verb even when they imply a plurality of eletnents. And now, Laerles, what's the news with you? (Shakespeare) His advice was extremely valuable. Such nouns nray become countable by rneans of the numeratives: rr piece of, Mq etc. pieces o/(advice, etc.).

Zandvoort, Nesfield, Kruisinga, Ilysh, Israilevich, Vinokurova,

Bddescu, etc.).

Ganshina,

It is worth recalling tlrat the plural noun odvices has the meaning of instrucliuni,

2.2.8y investigating the various

cases offered by English texts and listed by

ii; conttuticdri.

English grammars, we may establish the following situations:

I) the subject takes a singular verb;

II)
subject;

a singular or a plural verb is employed, in keeping with the meaning of the

III) a

singular

or a plural verb is

employed,

in

keeping

with

the

3.1.6. The nounsfurnilure and luggage have an identical regimen. The furniture ls of no particular style. (Cf. Two or three pieces of furniture are however likely good price. (Galsworthy)

to fetch

speaker's/writer's desire (optional agreement)', IV) the subject takes only a plural verb; V) the verb agrees with one of the several subjects in the sentence.

3.1.7. Singular nouns coordinated by and not, but, like, no less than. E,mily Bront, no less than Charlotte, was a great writer. Arrne Bronte,

like her sisters, Charlotte and E,mily, ls known to have used

3.1.0.

Situationl-

A predicate in lhe

singularfollows:

pseudonym. There is a peculiarity in the usage ofnouns connected by and: The mayor and his "ring" was to be ousted at all costs. (Dreiser) Where was she and her child to sleep that night? (Beecher-Storve)

3.1.1. An individual noun in the singular: The boy was playing in the garden. 3.1.2. A proper noun / name in the singular: Ben Nevis is Britain's highest mountain. 3.1.3. A proper-noun equivalent in the singular: The moon Ls the natural satellite of the earth. 3.1.4. A noun of material singular in form:

Examples

of this kind are explained by the fact that the two nouns linked

together are viewed as a single unit.

Moreover, when the predicative verb precedes the subjects, only one of the
latter is then present in the speaker's mind.

Timber &as various uses.

3.1.5. Abstractions (and other abstract nouns regarded as unique): Waiting was tiresome. The old yields to the new.

3.1.8. A singular verb also follows the nouns gallows and ntoney. The gallows is an ominous presence in English picaresque literature. Money ls frequently alluded to in their conversation.

3.1.5.1. To the same category belong also names of sciences, with a plural form: Genetics li a branch of biology. Economics ls studied in the third vear.

3.f.9. Passing on to the other parts of speech, we find that substantivized adectives (and participles) denoting abstractions take a singular predicate. The evil that men do lives after them, The good is often interred with their bones. (Shakespeare) Likely lies in the mire, while unlikely passes over. (English proverb)
3.1.10. The verb that follows the pronoun l/ is always singular. It ls we who called on him.
a

'

L. Levilchi, Limba englezd contemporand - Morfologia, Ed. Didactici, 1970; and

Gramatica Limbii engleze, Ed. Didacticd, l97l . 2 A. Bantag, Relalions between Semantics

and Granrmar in the Sphere of Nouns, Analele Universitalii Bucuregti, l97l: The Crammatical Regimen of the Contemporary English rVoun, dissertation, 1975; Criteria for the Contastive Analysis of English Nouns' Studies in English and Romanian Semantics and Grammar, 1975, etc.

3.1.11. The interrogative pronoun u,hat (used as a subject) is only followed by singular verb. What's going on here? (cf. What are tltese? in which sentence wy',d/ stands for the predicative).

il0

lll

P'
3.1.12. A singular verb follows most indefinite pronouns, namely: another, each, less, little, a little, much, one, as well as the pronominal compounds of some, any, no and every. The word none is an exception. Little is necessary in this case. This screwdriver is no good. Another ls needed' Somebody rs to tell him the trutlr. 3.1.13. Analysing the types of subiects we see that a singular predicate agrees

r
t

3.2.0. Situation II - Less contorted, though not very simple, is the second situation: that of subjects whose meaning entails the use of a singular or plural
predicate.
Part of them are provided by various nouns implying the singular or the plural.

3.2.1. In contemporary English, collective nouns such as people

(: popor),

with compound subjects.

Anger and wrath mY bosom rends. Where the blue skies and glowing clime extends. (Byron) The nouns of which they are made up are closely linked together and conceived as a single notion or idea, for instance in the following sentences: My friend and adviser holds a different opinion. Here comes my lord and master. (Maugham)

are

first of

3.1.14. A singular predicate also follows certain types of coordinated subjects af l - coordinate infinitives:

nation, the working class, the proletariat, the peasantry, parliament, government, mankind, crew, team, family, group take only a singular verb when they are used in an abstract meaning, (especially for generalization), preferably a singular verb when their abstract (or concrete) features are described or defined, and favour a plural verb when they refer to a number of human (or other) beings whose actions, thoughts, gestures, position or localization are indicated. The English Parliament was founded in 1216. but The (English) Parliament have decided to adjourn the debates. In spite of certain variations and inconsistencies in usage also to be noted in rnany other cases of agreement, we may infer the following conclusions from the present-day texts and speech:

To promise and (to) give nothing rs to comfort a fool'

proverb)
ls rather a defamation than a glory. (English proverb)

(English

To be of noble parentage and not to be endowed with otheF qualities

3.1.15. Singular subjects co-ordinated by either". or, neither... nor. Either the mother or the father is to be informed' Neither advice nor experience ls enough.

3.2.1.1. Collective nouns are considered singular and consequently replaced and followed by a verb in the singular only when they are taken in their abstract meaning or seen as a unit (for purposes of definition or description) by

it

3.2.1.2. They ar considered plural and consequently require plural

agreements and substitutes when the notion of collectivity, of number (usually people) is implied (to point to agents, doers of some kind of action concerted or
not,

Note: As to their agreement in person, cf. I .1. - I '2. 3.1.f6. Co-ordinated subjects introduced by there an here follow the same
rule

' To put it

physical, mental or emotional, to indicate positional relations).

differently, the plural

is

used when the group concept takes

precedence over the individual, abstract meaning.

(if the first is in the singular).

There rs a bottle and a glass on the sideboard' Here comes my friend arrd his twins.

3.2.1.3. There is a steady increase in the instances of agreement in the plural

when the subject is a collective noun.

3.2.1.4. On the one hand nowadays there are many more nouns which English
people include in this category.

Roughly speaking, the rule is applied especially when the verb precedes the subjects, the first of which is in the singular (cf. 3'l '7'). It holds good in the rather rare cases of ellipsis of there (for instance in stage directions).
In the room ls a table and a few chairs. The idea is that only the first subject is present in the speaker's mind when he utters or writes the predicate. 3.1.17. Co-ordinated nouns accompanied by each and every are also followed by a singular verb. Every field and meadow ls welcoming spring.

universitare), (teaching) staff, government, party, union, federation, leadership, ptofessoriate, studenthood, majority, minority, citizenship, infantry, cavalry, army, peasantfy, working class, proletariat, navy force, and, of course, the compounds including the words peop te and folk.

3.2.1.5. Moreover there is a gradual extension of the cases when a plural construction is put on such nouns, some examples becoming actually striking. France (= the French team) have scored heavily against Wales. In fact the tendency has spread substantially in the last 50 years and the category of collective nouns now involves practically all those which denote classes, groups and collectivities of people: team, crew, faculty, (: cadre

112

r 13

F
3.2.2. Individual nouns of multitude (which have the same form in the singular and plural) take a singular or plttral predicate, function of the singular or plural
meaning ofthe noun they denote. The sheep are / is grazing (according to whether we refer to one sheep or to several).

Note: 3.2.2.l. Most nouns in this category belong to the field of zoology: deer, sheep, bison. grouse, nnose, fish, carp, Irout, cod, salmon etc. (Some never take
an -s plural in the language of hunters, anglers, fishers).

They naturally preserve the same regimen when they do use an especially in order to denote different species. A dead fish n,as washed ashore. Fish are said to be dumb.
but

-r

plural,

(a) A variety ofsolutions are applicable. (b) The variety of possibilities l?rts none too great. The idea is that in the former sentence variery,was the attribute of the plural subjecl solutionr, while in the latter sentence the plural noun possibllllies is the attribute of the singular noun variety. It is worth noticing that in examples of the first type, the nouns variety, number, majority, etc. are preceded by the indefinite article, wlrile the definite article is used in the second - the anticipatory and respectively the anaphorical function of the articles being involved. 3.2.5. Going on to other parts of speech we see that certain pronouns arc followed by a singular or plural verb, as function of their singular or plural
implications. 3.2,5.1. Such is the case of the relative pronoun that.

Sturgeon (s), sander and a few other fishes of the Romanian waters are unknown in Britain, while the opposite is true of salmon and cod.
3.2.2.2. The same rule applies to the nounJruil.

It is followed by the singular

It
but is the boy that sings.

when the noun

it

replaces

is singular

and

vice-versa.

3.2.2.3. On the other hand,y'sh andfruit take only a singular verb when they have the meaning of food (being somewhat equivalent to nouns of material). \Fish u'as the second course. Fruit was not served at all' 3.2.2.4. Other individual nouns of multitude belong to the sphere of measures
and numbers.

It is the parents that share the guilt.

3.2.5.2 Such is also the case of the interrogative and relative pronouns which
andwho.

Which is I are mine? Who ls I (rarely) are infayour? 3.2.6. Some of the indefinite pronouns also
neither. some.

One

or two

brace (of partridges), one, two

or

three gross

(oJ

fall into this category: all,

Plural
toli, loate
(referring to things or
persons)

any,

stockings, etc.) couple, dozen, score, head, ton, stone' 3.2.3. There are some nouns whose agreement with a singular or a plural verb
makes a difference in their meaning.

all

English word

Meanins in Romanian Singular creier. organ analontic

Plural minte doi, perechi
m ij I oac e,

Singular totul, toald (referring to things)

COUPLE.

BRAINS PAIR MEANS STATISTICS

soli
instrument

any

pos ib il

itdli
de

oricare, vreunul, vreuna, oricare, oricine, vreunii, nici unul, nici una vreunele. niciunele
(depending on the type of sentence)

stiinla statisticii

operalia in sine, documente

statisticd

The couple ri quite young. but

eiiher
some

A couple of children were walking hand in hand' The brains don't lie in the beard. (English proverb) 3.2.4. Agreement of the predicate is in the singular or the plural when the nouns bulk, majority, number, 1tart, plenty, proportions, range, series, srtc'cession, variety are followed by a plural noun accompanied by the preposition o/.

more

vreunul parte, ceva, pulind mai mult. mai multd

Some (of it) ls good and some is spoilt.

amindoi ciliva, citeva. unii, unele mai mul1i, mai multe

3.3.0. Situation

III:

predicqte in occordance with the speaker's or writer's wish. In such instances, there are no restrictions, and usage has not yet imposed or established either of the two numbers.

few subjects may

be

followed by a singular or

plural

lt4

ll5

3.3.1. The first case is that of plural titles of books newspapers and magazines.

forrns more adequate

organ,

South Sea Tales waslwere one

of

Jack London's most successful

to meaning, i. e. brain in the singular for the anatomical o: holiday or vacation for a spell of rest, collective nouns with the plural

books. Sketches by Boz arelis known to be Dickens's [dikinziz] first book' The daily Times hasl(rarely) have a poor circulation. At the basis of the variation lies the fact that the title may be taken either as n plural (according to its formal aspect) or as a singular (according to its meaning = a book, a volume. a newsPaPer).

when relerrtng to a group etc.

3.3.6. This is also illustrated bythe present situation of the noun contents. It is very often used with a singular verb and even with its own singular form, but occasionally employed with a plural verb, especially when it has the meaning

oftable ofcontents

Infact

the singular is Prefened. The same applies even to the case

of the reduction of a longer title, more

0r

The content (s) ofthe book rs not very interesting. The contents (: tabla de materii) are usually placed at the beginning of an English book.

less to the essential noun which is plural in form:

Plutarch's Lives was/v,ere Shakespeare's source of inspiration for some of his plays (full title The Parallel Lives of lllwtrious People). 3.3.2. Plural names of dlseases and games are usually followed by a singular

verb

3.3.7.The phrase more than... preceding nouns may accept a singular or plural (like measures).
More than half the students was/were present. More than two thirds are/is necessary.

verb, but some speakers prefer the plural'

draughts, marbles, ninepins, skittles, consequences, forfeits, musical chairs, etc. Again the singular is predominant in texts. Billiards is/are less in favour nowadays. 3.3.3. A similar situation is that of the plural names of n" buildings, establishments, ffices, etc. works, headquarters. The UNO headquarters is/are in New York' The Inns of Court houses/housellis/are one of the London law schools
and bar associations.

Examples are: measles, mumps, rickets, hysterics, as

well as

billiards,

3.3.8. Among indefinite pronouns, which are (for the most part) used with a singular verb, the word none shows fluctuating usage. , Formerly it was employed mostly with a singular verb, now it is used more dommonly with the plural. r .' In fact, the present-day tendency is still contradictory either replaci ng it by no one (which is normally accompanied by a singular verb) or extending it to none of them (which is considered plural). None is/are agreeable to the proposal. I

3.3.4. Plural nouns preceded by plural measures, weights, numeratives ol quantifiers may nevertheless be followed by a singular verb if they are taken to be
units: Two thirds of this is/are private investment. Six and a half hours are/is quite a long journey. Three pounds are/is likely to be enough.

r ., .. 't

but more usually: No one rs in favour. or None of them are in favour. 3.3.9. And, last but not least, in English, arithmetic operations are expressed with the singular or with the plural, in indicating the result (very much as in Three and six is/are nine.

.,:

either

Romanian).
,

3.3.5. Another difficult case is provived by the noun wages" It is used in the plural with the plural meaning of "salnrii", but in connection with the singular meaning of "salariu" there is some fluctuation in usage'

,-

3.4.0. Situstion

IV: Certain

subjects admit only a plural predicate.

Modern writers show

a preference for a

ptural verb.

singular predicate,

moreovel

': -

3.4.1. Defective individual nouns (also called pluralia tantum) always take a

The examples are: a) articles of dress

employing the form wage, especially in set-phrases and traditional combinations. And what are its wages? but A fitter's wage (s) r's higher. on the other hand, we find the collocations minimum wage, average wage, livingwage, starvclnonwage, quite naturally accompanied bya singular verb.

lra,users (e.9., slacks,

plus-fours, shorts, bell-bottoms, bermudas, hticker bockers,) pr. underwecrr (panties, slips, drcrwers, ktrickers, etc.); b) two-arm/two-part itiitruments (e.g., pincers, tongs, pliers, tweezers); c) parts of the body (e.g., tshiskers, side-burns, bowels) d) miscellaneous nouns'. (e.g., thanks, auspices, doings, earnings, annals, alms, etc.)
Thanks are neyer superfluous. Clothes do not make the man. (English proverb) The goings on are not to my liking.

especially the various kinds of

Note: In this connection we might advance the remark that this seems to fit the tendency in contemporary English towards the utilization of singular or plural
116

n7

Among such nouns, those which have a double nature, that ig implying the notion of something twofold, may be used as countables with the help of a pair oJ tv'o pairs o/(trousers etc.)
3.4.2. Nouns of multitude always take a plural predicate. For the most
pan

they denote groups ofpersons: people (the plural of man and woman), fotk, mititia, police, clergy, gentry, the military, foot (: infanterie), horse (- cavalerie). Three of these nouns denote a multitude of other living beings poultry. vermin. cattle. The gentry were displeased with the King. The police were coming to the spot. The cattle were being foddered.

of speech used as subjects we recall that well partic'iples with o collective nteaning (referring ctdjectives as as substantivized verb. require a Plural to peoPle) The dead are not to be spoken ill of. The wounded u'ere taken to hospital.
3.4.8. Concerning other parts
3.4.9. As to pronouns, a small nurnber of indefinite ones require this type of
agreemerlt, narnely both and none of thenr. There are two solutions but both are unacceptable. None of thern have followed John's bad example.

3.4.10. The phrase one or two also takes a plural predicate. Out of the guests, only one or Iwo are doing justice to the dinner. 3.4.11. Co-ordinated gerunds take a plural verb. Ploughing and sowing cereals are almost finished.

3.4.3. Plural names of sciences are used with a plural verb when they
determined:

are

Their plronetics (: pronunlia) are not quite up to the ma,rk. The acoustics (: audipia, condiyiile acusrice) of the multi-purpose hall are very good indeed. In fact we may say that in these cases the nouns are no longer used as abstract names of sciences, but refer to features specific to some other noun.

3.4.L2. In fact the rule is that co-ordinated subjects are followed by a plural verb, but we must by all means make sure that they do not enter any of the exceptions mentioned above or below. A fool and his money are soon parted. (English proverb) 3.5.0. Situation V: Now we come to the last type of concord in nurnber namely when the predicate agrees with one of the several subjects Present in the
sentence.

3.4.4. The nouns athletrcs and gymnastics (which are not \considered individually as subject-matters but as a complexity of disciplines and events)
require plural predicates.

You can hardly argue that gymnastics are unimportant for

health. 3.4.5. Plural nouns of material also take a plural predicate. They are not many: victuals, spirits, dregs, lees, sweepings. The victuals were far from sufficient.

one's

3.5.1. Generally speaking, agreement is with the first subject. Yet, in case the two subjects differ in person, we may also find examples of agreement between the .predicate and the subject which is closest to it, owing to the rule of proximity (=acordul pr i n at rac I ie). We discussed such examples in connection with the problem of agreement in person and it is advisable to avoid making such sentences as: Not only I, but also he, sings awfully, but rather to rephrase the sentence like this: I sing awfully and so does he. You were wrong and so was l. That is we are advised to attach a separate predicate to each subject.
agrees

3.4.6. A plural verb follows a singular noun if the latter is accompanied two or several adjectives which differentiate it. Lyrical and epical poetry were both flourishing at the time.

by

3.4.7.Even abstractions or nouns of material in the singular may take a plural predicate if they are modified by two coordinated attributes. Sweet and sour milk are not to be mixed. Hot and cold water run at the tap. On the other hand there is a certain variation of solutions on this point. Sometimes we say: The nineteenth and the twentieth century are remarkable for the progress ofscience. but we can also say: The nineteenth and twentieth century are highly illustrative in
respect.
this

3.5.2. Nouns connected by with or together with are followed by a verb which with the first of them (so if the latter is in the singular, the verb is also singular and vice-versa). The teacher, together with the pupils, rs expected today. The pupils, together with their teacher, are already there.

3.5.3. Subjects connected by the conjunction as well as require a predicate in

agreement with the first of them.

The ship as well as the passengers was lost. The passengers as well as the ship were lost. Neverthless, to avoid anything jarring on our ears, some grammarians again advise us to rephrase the sentence by the use of and or the repetition ofthe verb'
119

l8

Both ship and passengers / The ship and the passengerswere lost, or
The ship u,as lost and so were the passengers'

4.0.

lt

is rather hard to sum up the agglomeration of different and diverging

VI. THE PREDICATE

'

cases and opinions.

Practically speaking it is impossible to remember all the recommendations in the present attempt at systematization - which, after all, cannot exhaust all
problems and details. Reference to the corresponding chapter in grammar books is necessary' as are also some personal tables or schemes (including our personal observations too). Given the diversity of these cases and the number of words which do not fall

1.0. In English as well as in other languages, sentences (also called propositions) are interpreted in similar terms iir grammar and in logic. More particularly in the light of modern conceptions in these two fields connected with communication, it has been proved and expounded (ever since the Prague School of Linguistics) that most of the information is transmitted through the predicate
group (the verb plus objects plus adverbial modifiers), while the subject group (the noun or noun equivalents plus attributes) is the element spoken about, described, , analysed, positioned, etc. or merely a referential element, used as support for the ,new quantity of infomation conveyed. In the same terms, the subject group is
:

into a category butform categories of their own' we should start making lists indicating the regimen of various English nouns in point of agreement, as well as
other problems.

tn fact, it all boils down to the necessity for a dictionary pointing to

the

regimen of each meaning.

r,.'trheme"

defined as the "theme"

or "topic", while the predicate group is described as the - that is the element of action, of movernent, the carrier of the essential

information about the theme (in this respect cf. also the prelirninary remarks in the
:ohapter on the subject).

t,,l', This conception is very well supported by phonetic factors, for the analysis of that most of the logical, psychological and t,:,.e otional stress falls on the novel part of the sentence, called by some linguists ,'loucleus" and by others "focus". It is the predicate-part ofthe sentence that attracts :rt ost of the attention and acquires the greatest prominence through phonetic i:faclors too (stress, pitch, change of pitch, rhythm). Thus we realize that although ,iihe subject and the predicate are considered in various languages the main parts of ,.:thesentence, in fact, in English the role of the subject is more reduced than that of
,,,$uprasegmental elements proves

predicate, in spite of its almost obligatory presence (while in many sentences in .;$omanian, etc. it may not appear at all).
,the

.'. 1.1. The definition of the predicate is generally expressed in close relationship ,;.t{ith the subject. Out of the various definitions (sometimes contradictory and :isometimes only partly true we can only proceed from the one given by the
The predicate is that principal part of the sentence which ascribes an action, a state or a quality to the subject.2 Or, to paraphrase the same grammar, the predicate is that principal part of the l.gpntence which shows (a) what the subject does,(b) what the subject rs or (c) what - fre subject is like. r.r. Then the sun wal brighter and the glare came on the water and then, , as it rose clear, the flat sea sent it back at his eyes so that it hurt

.$ademy Grammar of the Romanian Language:

;.,tf

' ' _
,

This chapter relies substantially on Professor Levilchi's support Academia Romind, Gramatica limbii romdne, Bucuregti, Editura Academiei, Ed lt,

vol. II, p. 95.

:i
t,

t21

sharply and he rowed withotrt looking into it. (Hemingway, The Old Man and the Sea) We coulcl have got on without him, he u.sed to say but there's the business. (Conrad, Typhoon)

rl. nominal predicates - subdivided into double nom inal predicates;

(r) norninar predicates proper and (2)

lll.

type to others from the second type).

mired types of predic''le.s (ioining erements from predicates of the first

1.2. The predicate necessarily includes a verb in a personal mood, either expressed or implied. When the verb is expressed, we find that it may belong to any of the types or categories of the verb: A) auxiliary, B) modal or semiauxiliary of modality, C) semi-auxiliary of aspect (cf.2.1 .2.2.(,D) linking verb (cf. 2.2.1.1.).
E) notional verb or F) one in a category difficult to define (e.g., the verb to haye in "to have a walk", "to have breakfast", etc. - that is a soft of intermediate category cf.2.l .l .2.). In the first three cases (A,B,C), the predicate also needs a notional verb in a non-finite / non-personal forrn. Normally, parts of the sentence which do not include a verb in a personal mood, but only a non-finite or non-personal form (infinitive, gerund or participle) are not considered to be a predicate. (But attention must be given to the possibility of such forms to be deprived of their first, personal verbal form through ellipsis for instance in a repetition, in sentences with homogeneous predicates, etc.) Care for a cigarette? (: Would / Do you care for : Would you like ...) He must come (he persists in coming) here every day, conte for breakfast. lunch and dinner, come whether invited or not! \_ You ought to speak to him, tell himhe is wrong, advise him to give up his plan.

2.1. Verbal predicates

Verbal predicates necessarily include at least one personal forrn of a notional or auxiliary verb - generating simple predicates - or a non-personal / non_flnite form of a notional verb preceded by a semi-auxiriary of modality (rnodal verb) or ofaspect - generating cornpound verbal predicates. verbal predicates are therefore divided into two main types l) - simpre predicates (the word "verbal" need not be repeated as nominal predicates are never simple) - which express just one verbal idea, that is they do not convey both the action and the way or manner or aspect of its performance, but .merely state the action; and 2) compound verbal predicates (in sharp contrast with conrpound nominal predicates) - which do not state, show or indicate the action pure and simple, but accornpanied by certain special features, either of moclaliry (that is the way in which it is perceived by the speaker or writer) or of aspec"t (that is the relation in which it stands towards the time factor).

1.3. The problen.r of the predicate in English, which is fairly complex, is closely linked to that of predication (analysed in connection with the verb). One of the difficulties is the presence within the predicate group of various words which rnay r.tot be essential to predication, sometimes being just adjuncts of the predicate or adverbial elements. Another difficulry is raised by impersonal verbs which cannot be conceived without the subject lt. I must surely remember to eat the tuna after it gets light (Hemingway, The Old Man and the Sea) The predicative verb need not be repeated: I have saved you from being beaten once, and will again, and I do now (Dickens, Oliver Twist)
2.0. Unlike the classification of subjects, which is nrade first according to the criterion of content and then according to the criterion of structure / composition, the classification of predicates is usually made fi'orn both these points of view at
the same time. So, we can identify:

2.I.I. SIMPLE PREDICATES

2.1.1.1. The sintple p.redicate proper (or simpre verbal predicate) merery a1 action and possibly the time when it is effected (in certain cases nor definitely, but merely showing whether it is a matter of the pait, present or future).
sjales.

simple ones, subclivided into (a) simple predicates proper and (b) phraseological predicatcs and (2) the compound verbal predicates - subdivided into (a) compound modal vcrbal prcdicates and (b)
compound aspect verbal predicates;

l. verbal pronouns - including (l)

is expressed by a verb in a personar mood, in a certain tense. either simpre r -lt synthetic - (such as the present or past indicative or the Imperative Mood) or c.ompound I analyic - (for instance the continuous and perfect t.nr"r, the futJres, the conditional mood, all tenses of verbs in the passive voice, etc.) I said that by that time I should have been waiting foi an hour already. I had been shown the to the post office and let I ctidn,t find it. ]v_ay Have you hurt yourself . we therefore range within simple predicates even analytic fornrs or cornpound tenses - irrespective of the number of auxiliaries they incluie - because on the one hand even these tenses are conceived as morphological units (being expressed synthetically in many languages) and on the other harr-d the auxiliaries fontributing forrnation are apt to be considered mere grammatical instruments, devoid lltheir straightforward statements, free from any modal or othei imprications. If we follow this line of counting thl sernantically imporlant elements, we can category of predicies utso tne predicaies of rhe there rs lvpe [:ii::^ :l ln': uccause thelr llrst element loses its function and meaning of an adverb, becoming

or semantrc lorce; therefore only one idea is expressed by them. as

in

an introductory subject used only together with cerl-ain verbs

122

in a

deflnite lzt

itll itlsl a lcl llossilllc 1t:tttslatttltls( as r'rc sarr itt the cltapte l ort S,b.iccts). Apult lnrrn shou irrg cristcncc. thcsc ltlcclictltes l11a\' bc trsccl lirr' c..claprati,,n. o1'tlte trlte lltt,r't' t'ont(.s lltt' ltttitt. lrctt' lrc i.r attcl so tttt. nlticll c:ttt thcir inclrrsitrrr riitlrin lhis c:rtcgrrr-r. lrcc;tttsc tltc sctttatltic ralttc ol'thc .justif'r 'i,rt,rrilrrctorr elculcnl\ /rc|r, lrrtl l/rr,r'c lllts llectt tort l() a \cl\ lllcat c\tellt. { lllcr a|c trcalccl i11 tIe cIaptcl on tlte Sub.jcct. rrnclcr'1.-1..1.. as "lllttirdttctot-r sttlr.iects ot'
c()nstr'r.lcti()tt \\
ha
l
1

) of' thc principaliPr.cclicativc rcr.b. 'l ircrcfirr.c. trnlikc tlrc lirr.rrrs gralllll)atical aspcct (c()nrntort r'rl colrlitru()usi llt'r)11 cssil,e )apci gir irrg risc dcrttllillg to sitnplc vcrbal plcdicalcs (l)ecausc thcle is lrut orrc idca expr-csscd1. thc r,clbs r.rc havc t() do silh itt thc easc of'contptrrrncl lrspcct vct trirl l)r'cdicatcs. lclcl t6 tlre rtrail velb rrllicll thcr ptcccdc the trthct - lcrical - asl)ccls. cltarrsirrg its rcrrrantrc
ternrir)()lr)s\
C()ntcllt/\ il Itlc:
.itu11

-s tr b.i

ects" ).

I) tlre ilglr,.r.titt' or irrtltrttrti,t'ittt.t,1slit.t' rrsltt,L! (suclt rcrlts

as to ht,!in.

It is alnrosl erclrrsirell irr tlresc sittraliotts thirt thc rctll

cnrltlorcd as a rrotional
2.1 Vcr-tt

/r.,
).

/tc is ttouadars

(pt-csc|r,irrg its

ltlll

scrrrlrrltrc lilrce

- irtclicutirrg. thc bcginning ol irrccl-rtiort rrl'an uction): ]) tltc clll'c.s.sit't'ot rt't'ntinttrit'L Lt\l)L'(r Irtrch lclbs a\ lo.\r()/). firri.slr. to girc rrlt - irrtlicatilLl lltc ccssittion ol'an aclirtn):

l,

lo tau:t,, lo

pllrascs (- l()ctlllulli: ltt ctlittrtt. ll cottsists ol' cxltr.csii) rrlriclr lirlrn a ulrolc. irrclir rsiblc tlortt tlte sctltatttic lloittt ol- r icl.

j)thc

c'(.)/?/i/rltttliya

0t'tlttrtttittt

tt.s:1tatl

(c.!.. !u tt,,,,1,r,,r'.
):

tt)

.1.2. ['ht, lthrtt.saologitul

- indicating the conlinuation or' 1tr-rllog:rlir'lr trl tlte aclion

,!t) ()n. l0 kcalt (0tt1

s()ptcliptcs tcncling 1o l-rc lcpllcctl lrr l srnglc rcttl. atttl t() ll grcal crtcrll tlcPcrldirtg tltt tltltct-*otds itt lltc lllilirsc lll:ttt tlte ie ttl' lirl thcil nrcanitts .l lrc rlarr S(/l'(, u r iolcnl .\ttl't. ( -' l'ltc Ittart stattcd \ iolcnlll ) 1'' ()trttrl 'l Ira.t[tri .ftttrt'lt' ltrt't' ltrrtarttit ) (.lo:cph ( trtlt atl. .t ltltrxttr\ 'l lrcy Lrsrrally takc a rialk bclirrc tllcr harc blcnkllst' I lar c a gooci clr. arttl slccp it or ct . ( \4ltrulrarn )

J)

inclicalirrs. tlrc lcpctiliorr

tl-tc lratlttattrtrtivt'. irt'r'trritt'ot'r't'1tt'tiritt'a,r7;ct'l.r'(e.g.. ol itclatiorr or'1r'cqrrcrrcr ol'arr action).

I

vorrltl. rr:atl rp

(irrchoatirc -

At this sllc qol u1l ancl he!utt t0 l)(tL(

A.1

lar e ,r.orr .\turta(l vrtrkittg,r ct'.) (inclroativc)

.('ronirr" Ilttut,r'.t ( u.silr,l

Up arrcl

clo\n tlrc

|oacl.

2.1.2.'l'llt,
r\s sltori.n

ot.aspcct besitlcs tlrc ntttiorlrl rclb. irrtlicitlc bttth thc actiotl attcl lltc rrar irl rr'hich it is ltfl.lorrncd rtI ils |.e'latiorr t0 tlrc tirlrc-laclor'" arc ttsttallt called contpotrncl velhal '['lrcy a|e subclir iclcd inlo rtttxlttl ()r (/.\/)('('/ vcIbal p|edicatcspr.cdicates. cttprpt'rullci Ilt()(ial r,'er-bal plctlicalc irtclttdes a tttodal rcl'b (0t ttlotlal pSr.ascs rritlr a vclb) irr u prcdicatirc rnoorl + a rctlral (rton-lrrtitc firl'rtt) of-lltc rc|lt tt., [.,c col.f rrgatccl. l'he urrttlals urar bc cithcl dclcctirc (rtttt.t/. ttrtr. .slrtttrltl- ctc.) oI ltrrr-tle lcctire (11 ltut'e t(), to l(1t1. t() int(til1, to wi.slt. c1c.). lhc tttotlltl lrllt'ascs ttlar Irarc'uar.igrrs strlctlrcs - | lttrtl l'rl rtrthcr. y,trr ltrrtl )rttt'rl hcltt't'. I ltuLl'l'tl l trttrrltl .\()()tt(t'. I ctttr'l hL'11t... ing" ctc. we ttl'c lo t,t((l x[ sc\cll. \dic clcciclecl tltal ue trorrlrl nttl rlrril tirt tltcltt altr lotrgcr' (l'pron. \()1 lrrll (Aur.l:.lirr'"At'c rott goittg to talk"). ol do \\e
ltrrvL, trt
c /rrb it out ol vott'.) (A.Mnltz.

('().\lt'o( \'1) I'l:.lllJ ll. rRl.l)l("1'll. in l.l.. plcclicales rrlrich. br tlte trsc trl'scttti-attrilialics

\-

ol'rrlorlitlitr

,,, . ,l ., l
,,,

(;o on tt..t.itt,:. Kt,a1t .sntilittt (continualir e ) tlc trtttrlt/ olien /rc,qlr to tcll a stor-r and lhcn lbr.gcl it. ( lrio asllecls

\\''hr

cloe srr'1

ltc .s/r4r hatrtitt!, his ri i1c'.) (tcr.rrrirratir,c)

nt

tltc sarnc 1'rlcclicutc - lir.st li.cqtrcntati\c. tlrcn inciroalire ) Illal tlailt tr.sctl to i/r1r ltclc. (llc(lucntati\e. trLrt also titlt pcr'l-ectirc irlplicitlions: no continrratiorr irr tltc ltr.escrrt).

,,'
..

2.2. Nominal predicates

2.1.2.1.'l-he ('

.l'lre

rt

tt

st t tr

ul'\

h ttl u I l'c r h tr I l' rt' d i ttrlc

(C'M V I))

l-hc ( onrn()ulrl.

\ontinll

.q()////(/

'l

ltt \lt't't'r-(irt-liltrurl)

Alt trpilirtp r.athe 1 tr ic'lcsllreacl arnoug rtlantrtritt iatts holds strch lltetlicate s to lle ttl fitct sirlplc pfeclicates + dilcct olr.icct ([l intcr'plelint tlte tutl ret-bs atltl tltctt' llltlttlitl |cllttiortsltip irt a liglrt rrltich rre le'el lrtttlrltl lo lcliltc ()ll \(llrittllir'
anilnatical as u'cll as trrhotlctic gtotrrttls) 2.1.2.2.'l'hc (' ottt ltt ttt t tt l . l.s rc t l l: e r ht l l' rt: tl i t'zrtc ( C.\ V [)) 'l'lrc cellporlrtl aspect vcrbal ltrcdicatc is tttaclc ttp o1-a petsorlal liltttt ol lr rcttt clc-rr.1li1s a icxical iispect arrcl u n()n-l)crs()nlrl lirlttr (a "vcrtral" irt :trtolltet'
1 r

-'clisclrargc- a gt attrtttittical lirnclitln. citlrcr' hlving a littlc nrcarrirr-rl of'thcrr.r)\\lr or. .r\^'ithout cotrtributitts csscrttiullr to llrc rncaningtil't1,. plcclicatc)l]r'c all intr.arisitire . vet'bs. l hc) tak.: trpon thcnrsclres tlrc tusk trl' irrclicatirrg thc nror.phtiltigical

lrc Ntrrtrirral I)r'cclicate I)rol.rcr is nradc rip..,1'a linli(ing) r'elb (: r,arh toltttl[r I ':t'opuIutit') arrcl a pleclicatirc (,, tttrtttc 1trt,tIitrrIir.l. .lukcs tlrr.t t't'trtl\'ltt talk: i't r.ras orrl,r.' tirne ll'rttt .tt,antt'tl /o ht, 11 71111111g (( onracl.'[ t 1tltrttttt\ r,, .'l-hc lirlk(ittg) l'cr.tr trt copttlits (sotttctinrcs callcd serni-atrxiliarics bccause ure1.

sttb.iccl ()t tlte er 'f

olulit'tt ol'llurl rlltte ,tr tlturlrlr.

l)t.crlicatc [)r.oPer. shorrs thc statc or. tltralitv ol'lhc

categorics rrt tlte vct'b. thclclbrc tlrc lirrnral clcrrrents ot'tirc pledicritc (asl)ccr. \ttlce. ntood. [cnsc. l)L.t-s()n trrrd rrtrnrbcr.) shcr.eas tlrc rnearrirrg ol-tlre ltr.cdicitlc (thal rs ils scnlattlic tirrcc) is qcrtclallt n()t c\l)rcsse(i br tlrern.'i'lre p,.ctiicate depcncls lot tls lttcttrtirtg ()t) llle Ir'etlie;rtrr e
be

i:ttsed as linkilinl,ing velbs:

,,;
',11,,,,.

.11; 2.2,1'l. l-llclc alc scrcr.al catcsorics ol'(senri-uLrxiliar',"-) r'cr'[rs uhich carr

, .

A) Vcrbs ol'/rallg ol'.\/.//r - li)t

rrrstarrcc

lrt he, to.tlutnl. to.fi,al.

|]-1

,,.i;, '. ::.,:r'

]15

Little Dorrit was a very tinid git'l. (Dickens, Little Dorrit)

Of course, it's very sad to have him away. (Conrad, Typhoon) The meeting stands adjourned (ridicdm Sedinya)
The ground wos wel with dew. B) Verbs of remaining or continuing, like /o continue, to keep, to remain, to

hold, to stay. The rule still holds good.

She looked in perfect health. His daughter looked (exactly) like him. e) a cardinal or an ordinal numeral. We are seven. (Wordsworth) f) an infinitive or infinitival phrase: To be or not to be, that is the question. (Shakespeare) g) a gerundial phrase

The weather still continues

Earnest) C) Verbs of becoming or of transition from one state to another (the most numerous category of link(ing) verbs) like: to become, to get, to grow, to turn, to fall, to run, to go, to prove, to turn out, etc. We all get upset at times (Galsworthy, Joyl The Easterly Mountains grew visible. This river runs dry in summer. The leaves were turning gold and red. They were whispering together before they fell asleep. (Charlotte Bronte, Jane Eyre) This thing may turn out rotten (Galsworthy, -/oy) D) Verbs of seenting or appearing, which retain a certain modal force: lo seem, to appear, to look. r Aged and bent he looked, and quite bowed down. And yet he looked a wiser man than in the days he wanted nothing but Facts. (Dickens, Hard Times)
He appeared vexed. 2.2.1.2. A certain variety can also be found amongpredicalives which may be expressed by various parts ofspeech in the sphere ofnomina: a) a noun in the nominative or genitive. She is an actress. The book is Mary's. It is my sister's. b) predicative adjectives. Her face is aglow.

fne. (Wilde,

The Importance oJ Being

"What's his hobby?', "His hobby

which in other languages. The prototype is the now famous sentence "The moon rose red'which shows that in fact,'in a double predicate we have to do with the contraction of the predicates of two sentences or clauses, easily to be reconstituted (The moon was red when it rose or The moon
rose.

, T!" double predicate is a form, rather widespread in the English language, hardly finds proper equivalents
It

bookshops." h) apredicative clause The truth is (that) I don,t like in at all. What you are telling me is exactly what I had expected. 2.2.2. The Double / Complex Predicate

is hunting the second-hand

was red.\

The cords ofhis neck stood out hard and lean (Conrad, Typhoon) In other interpretations, the adjectives following the verb u.e des"ribed either as 'calive ,:"*p|:.rt:,: adjuncls (:

*!!:,r,

(=-,"Elemente
"

Elemente

..suptimeitare

pe tingd

subie,ct')

ive suplimentare"

or

as

nomrnal predrcate .remaining, etc.

2.2.2.1. Somerimes, the general meaning of this rype of predicate is that a ot being, at other times it is one of becoming, of appearing, of
The tents lay silent in the moonlieht. The sun came out hot. The ground rode soft that morning.

";
,2.2.2.2.

Such adjectives/adverbs are called in various ways by grammarians - e.g., statives, ies ofstate. adverbial qdjectives. elc.

It is nice of you to have come. c) personal, possessive, indefinite or interrogative pronouns.

"Who's there?"
question)
Yfhat are the wages of crime? This house is ours. That is indeed something. d) a noun, a gerund or pronoun accompanied by

"lt is I I lt's me" (now the natural answer to the

In. the example the interpretation is rather controversial, some -last tavouring the conception of "predicative adjunct" (: element predicativ 1urlg* suplimentar). In our opinion, the interpretation is either that in this .ur" th. verb to almosr. like a link(ing) verb (very much as in the Moon rose red), 1lt tlun.jioTt ,3d, that ntornin_g. The ground was soft (under the hoofs of my horse) or The Y:, wy groun! soft I I felt the ground soft when I rode that nioriirg or Riding that morning, Ifelt the ground (to be) soft iunder the hoofs ofmy horsei, etc.

2.3. Mixed types of predicates

a

prelut.sili,tn.

fypes of Predicates may combine together, giving rise to mixed forms, . , certain such as phraseological and nominar predic-ates,

or

compound modar and

126

l2l

phraseological predicates, compound modal plus aspect verbal predicates (l1s cannot stop doing ir/, compound verbal and nominal (I can't help feeling proud). or verbal aspect plus compound nominal predicates (I started being angry with him), etc. These are the most difficult to analyse, but on the other hand we are in duty bound to combat the tendency of describing any complicated form - one including several verbs - as a mixed type of predicates. Here are some examples of mixed predicates. Rainy days can be unpleasant (compound modal verbal plus nominal predicate) To be sure I will give you a call as I pass (compound modal verbal + phraseological predicate) I began tofeel hungry (compound aspect verb + nominal predicate)
3.1. The general conclusion about English predicates is that certain difficulties

ll. (Compound) Nominal

Predicates

-\t

Nominal predicates proper

Double/complex nominal predicates

IIL Mixed predicates:

- compound modal verbal+nominal predicates -compound modal verbal+phraseological predicate - compound aspect verbal+nominal predicate - compound aspect verbal+pharaseological predicate - compound verbal + nominal predicate

arise out objects

of the great extension which is given to phraseology in the English language; other difficulties arise out of the frequency of verbs which take two or of verbs which require a completion / adjunct of the factitive
or

resultative nature. And then she lulled me asleep. (Keats, La Belle Dame Sans Merci) Pluck leaves off. 3.2. This will be better discussed in connection with the object, the following examples illustrating peculiarities in the use of the complex direct objects whic[ give rise to confusions about the predicate: There was a German officer at Webb's with whom we used to joke and of whom a story was got to be believed in the army. (Thackeray, Henry Esmond) With these thoughts and tears the lad passed that night away, until he wept himself to sleep. (Thackeray, Henry Esmond) I might get you turned out of house and home and cut off with a shilling any day. (George Eliot, Si/as Marner)
4.0. The above classification of predicates can be summarized in the following

synoptic table:

I.

y'oredicates \phr"."ologicalpredicates Verbal -/ predicates\

\Compoun

Simple verbal.l

Simple predicates proper

Compound modal verbal

Pr edi cates

predicates

erba/

ao.noo*d
predicates

aspect verbal

t28
j:li
I

129