Introduction to Steam Distribution

An efficient steam distribution system is essential if steam of the right quality and pressure is to be supplied, in the right quantity, to the steam using equipment. This tutorial looks at a typical circuit. The steam distribution system is the essential link between the steam generator and the steam user. This Tutorial will look at methods of carrying steam from a central source to the point of use. The central source might be a boiler house or the discharge from a co-generation plant. The boilers may burn primary fuel, or be waste heat boilers using exhaust gases from high temperature processes, engines or even incinerators. Whatever the source, an efficient steam distribution system is essential if steam of the right quality and pressure is to be supplied, in the right quantity, to the steam using equipment. Installation and maintenance of the steam system are important issues, and must be considered at the design stage.

Steam system basics

From the outset, an understanding of the basic steam circuit, or 'steam and condensate loop' is required - see Figure 10.1.1. As steam condenses in a process, flow is induced in the supply pipe. Condensate has a very small volume compared to the steam, and this causes a pressure drop, which causes the steam to flow through the pipes.

Fig. 10.1.1 A typical basic steam circuit The steam generated in the boiler must be conveyed through pipework to the point where its heat energy is required. Initially there will be one or more main pipes, or 'steam mains', which carry steam from the boiler in the general direction of the steam using plant. Smaller branch pipes can then carry the steam to the individual pieces of equipment. When the boiler main isolating valve (commonly called the 'crown' valve) is opened, steam immediately passes from the boiler into and along the steam mains to the points at lower pressure. The pipework is initially cooler than the steam, so heat is transferred from the steam to the pipe. The air surrounding the pipes is also cooler than the steam, so the pipework will begin to transfer heat to the air. Steam on contact with the cooler pipes will begin to condense immediately. On start-up of the system, the condensing rate will be at its maximum, as this is the time where there is maximum temperature difference between the steam and the pipework. This condensing rate is commonly called the 'starting load'. Once the pipework has warmed up, the temperature difference between the steam and pipework is minimal, but some condensation will occur as the pipework still continues to transfer heat to the surrounding air. This condensing rate is commonly called

the

'running

load'.

The resulting condensation (condensate) falls to the bottom of the pipe and is carried along by the steam flow and assisted by gravity, due to the gradient in the steam main that should be arranged to fall in the direction of steam flow. The condensate will then have to be drained from various strategic points in the steam main. When the valve on the steam pipe serving an item of steam using plant is opened, steam flowing from the distribution system enters the plant and again comes into contact with cooler surfaces. The steam then transfers its energy in warming up the equipment and product (starting load), and, when up to temperature, continues to transfer heat to the process (running load). There is now a continuous supply of steam from the boiler to satisfy the connected load and to maintain this supply more steam must be generated. In order to do this, more water (and fuel to heat this water) is supplied to the boiler to make up for that water which has previously been evaporated into steam. The condensate formed in both the steam distribution pipework and in the process equipment is a convenient supply of useable hot boiler feedwater. Although it is important to remove this condensate from the steam space, it is a valuable commodity and should not be allowed to run to waste. Returning all condensate to the boiler feedtank closes the basic steam loop, and should be practised wherever practical. The return of condensate to the boiler is discussed further in Block 13, 'Condensate Removal', and Block 14,'Condensate Management'.

The working pressure

The distribution pressure of steam is influenced by a number of factors, but is limited by:

The maximum safe working pressure of the boiler. The minimum pressure required at the plant.

As steam passes through the distribution pipework, it will inevitably lose pressure due to:

Frictional resistance within the pipework (detailed in Tutorial 10.2. Condensation within the pipework as heat is transferred to the environment.

Therefore allowance should be made for this pressure loss when deciding upon the initial distribution pressure. A kilogram of steam at a higher pressure occupies less volume than at a lower pressure. It follows that, if steam is generated in the boiler at a high pressure and also distributed at a high pressure, the size of the distribution mains will be smaller than that for a low-pressure system for the same heat load. Figure 10.1.2 illustrates this point.

Fig. 10.1.2 Dry saturated steam pressure/specific volume relationship Generating and distributing steam at higher pressure offers three important advantages:

The thermal storage capacity of the boiler is increased, helping it to cope more efficiently with fluctuating loads, minimising the risk of producing wet and dirty steam. Smaller bore steam mains are required, resulting in lower capital cost, for materials such as pipes, flanges, supports, insulation and labour. Smaller bore steam mains cost less to insulate.

Having distributed at a high pressure, it will be necessary to reduce the steam pressure to each zone or point of use in the system in order to correspond with the maximum pressure required by the application. Local pressure reduction to suit individual plant will also result in drier steam at the point of use. (Tutorial 2.3 provides an explanation of this). Note: It is sometimes thought that running a steam boiler at a lower pressure than its rated pressure will save fuel. This logic is based on more fuel being needed to raise steam to a higher pressure. Whilst there is an element of truth in this logic, it should be remembered that it is the connected load, and not the boiler output, which determines the rate at which energy is used. The same amount of energy is used by the load whether the boiler raises steam at 4 bar g, 10 bar g or 100 bar g. Standing losses, flue losses, and running losses are increased by operating at higher pressures, but these losses are reduced by insulation and proper condensate return systems. These losses are marginal when compared to the benefits of distributing steam at high pressure.

Pressure reduction
The common method for reducing pressure at the point where steam is to be used is to use a pressure reducing valve, similar to the one shown in the pressure reducing station Figure 10.1.3.

Fig. 10.1.3 Typical pressure reducing valve station A separator is installed upstream of the reducing valve to remove entrained water from incoming wet steam, thereby ensuring high quality steam to pass through the reducing valve. This is discussed in more detail in Tutorial 9.3 and Tutorial 12.5. Plant downstream of the pressure reducing valve is protected by a safety valve. If the pressure reducing valve fails, the downstream pressure may rise above the maximum allowable working pressure of the steam using equipment. This, in turn, may permanently damage the equipment, and, more importantly, constitute a danger to personnel. With a safety valve fitted, any excess pressure is vented through the valve, and will prevent this from happening (safety valves are discussed in Block 9). Other components included in the pressure reducing valve station are:

The primary isolating valve - To shut the system down for maintenance. The primary pressure gauge - To monitor the integrity of supply. The strainer - To keep the system clean. The secondary pressure gauge - To set and monitor the downstream pressure. The secondary isolating valve - To assist in setting the downstream pressure on no-load conditions.

Steam Mains and Drainage

Issues surrounding the structure, layout and operation of a steam distribution system, including condensate drain points and branch lines, the avoidance of waterhammer and the use of separators and strainers for steam conditioning. Throughout the length of a hot steam main, an amount of heat will be transferred to the environment, and this will depend on the parameters identified in Block 2 - 'Steam Engineering and Heat Transfer', and brought together in Equation 2.5.1.

Equation 2.5.1 Where: = Heat transferred per unit time (W) k = Thermal conductivity of the material (W/m K or W/m C) A = Heat transfer area (m) T = Temperature difference across the material (K or C) = Material thickness (m) With steam systems, this loss of energy represents inefficiency, and thus pipes are insulated to limit these losses. Whatever the quality or thickness of insulation, there will always be a level of heat loss, and this will cause steam to condense along the length of the main. The effect of insulation is discussed in Tutorial 10.5. This Tutorial will concentrate on disposal of the inevitable condensate, which, unless removed, will accumulate and lead to problems such as corrosion, erosion, and waterhammer. In addition, the steam will become wet as it picks up water droplets, which reduces its heat transfer potential. If water is allowed to accumulate, the overall effective cross sectional area of the pipe is reduced, and steam velocity can increase above the recommended limits. Top

Piping layout
It is good engineering practice that, whenever possible, the main should be installed with a fall of not less than 1:100 (1 m fall for every 100 m run), in the direction of the steam flow.This slope will ensure that gravity, as well as the flow of steam, will assist in moving the condensate towards drain points where the condensate may be safely and effectively removed (See Figure 10.3.1).

Fig. 10.3.1 Typical steam main installation

Drain points
The drain point must ensure that the condensate can reach the steam trap. Careful consideration must therefore be given to the design and location of drain points.

Consideration must also be given to condensate remaining in a steam main at shutdown, when steam flow ceases. Gravity will ensure that the water (condensate) will run along sloping pipework and collect at low points in the system. Steam traps should therefore be fitted to these low points. The amount of condensate formed in a large steam main under start-up conditions is sufficient to require the provision of drain points at intervals of 30 m to 50 m, as well as natural low points such as at the bottom of rising pipework. In normal operation, steam may flow along the main at speeds of up to 145 km/h, dragging condensate along with it. Figure 10.3.2 shows a 15 mm drain pipe connected directly to the bottom of a main.

Fig. 10.3.2 Trap pocket too small Although the 15 mm pipe has sufficient capacity, it is unlikely to capture much of the condensate moving along the main at high speed. This arrangement will be ineffective. A more reliable solution for the removal of condensate is shown in Figure 10.3.3. The trap line should be at least 25 to 30 mm from the bottom of the pocket for steam mains up to 100 mm, and at least 50 mm for larger mains. This allows a space below for any dirt and scale to settle.

Fig. 10.3.3 Trap pocket properly sized The bottom of the pocket may be fitted with a removable flange or blowdown valve for cleaning purposes. Recommended drain pocket dimensions are shown in Table 10.3.1 and in Figure 10.3.4.

Table 10.3.1 Recomended drain pocket dimensions Top

Waterhammer and its effects

Waterhammer is the noise caused by slugs of condensate colliding at high velocity into pipework fittings, plant, and equipment. This has a number of implications:

Because the condensate velocity is higher than normal, the dissipation of kinetic energy is higher than would normally be expected. Water is dense and incompressible, so the 'cushioning' effect experienced when gases encounter obstructions is absent. The energy in the water is dissipated against the obstructions in the piping system such as valves and fittings.

Fig. 10.3.5 Formation of a solid slug of water Indications of waterhammer include a banging noise, and perhaps movement of the pipe.

In severe cases, waterhammer may fracture pipeline equipment with almost explosive effect, with consequent loss of live steam at the fracture, leading to an extremely hazardous situation.

Good engineering design, installation and maintenance will avoid waterhammer; this is far better practice than attempting to contain it by choice of materials and pressure ratings of equipment. Commonly, sources of waterhammer occur at the low points in the pipework (See Figure 10.3.6). Such areas are due to:

Sagging in the line, perhaps due to failure of supports. Incorrect use of concentric reducers (see Figure 10.3.7) - Always use eccentric reducers with the flat at the bottom. Incorrect strainer installation - They should be fitted with the basket on the side. Inadequate drainage of steam lines. Incorrect operation - Opening valves too quickly at start-up when pipes are cold.

Fig. 10.3.6 Potential sources of waterhammer

Fig. 10.3.7 Eccentric and concentric pipe reducers To summarise, the possibility of waterhammer is minimised by:

Installing steam lines with a gradual fall in the direction of flow, and with drain points installed at regular intervals and at low points. Installing check valves after all steam traps which would otherwise allow condensate to run back into the steam line or plant during shutdown.


Top

Opening isolation valves slowly to allow any condensate which may be lying in the system to flow gently through the drain traps, before it is picked up by high velocity steam. This is especially important at start-up.

Branch lines

Fig. 10.3.8 Branch line Branch lines are normally much shorter than steam mains. As a general rule, therefore, provided the branch line is not more than 10 metres in length, and the pressure in the main is adequate, it is possible to size the pipe on a velocity of 25 to 40 m/s, and not to worry about the pressure drop. Table 10.2.4 'Saturated steam pipeline capacities for different velocities' in Tutorial 10.2 will prove useful in this exercise.

Branch line connections

Branch line connections taken from the top of the main carry the driest steam (Figure 10.3.8). If connections are taken from the side, or even worse from the bottom (as in Figure 10.3.9 (a)), they can accept the condensate and debris from the steam main. The result is very wet and dirty steam reaching the equipment, which will affect performance in both the short and long term. The valve in Figure 10.3.9 (b) should be positioned as near to the off-take as possible to minimise condensate lying in the branch line, if the plant is likely to be shutdown for any extended periods.

Fig. 10.3.9 Steam off-take

Drop leg
Low points will also occur in branch lines. The most common is a drop leg close to an isolating valve or a control valve (Figure 10.3.10). Condensate can accumulate on the upstream side of the closed valve, and then be propelled forward with the steam when the valve opens again - consequently a drain point with a steam trap set is good practice just prior to the strainer and control valve.

Fig. 10.3.10 Diagram of a drop leg supplying a unit heater Top

Rising ground and drainage

There are many occasions when a steam main must run across rising ground, or applications where the contours of the site make it impractical to lay the pipe with the 1:100 fall proposed earlier. In these situations, the condensate must be encouraged to run downhill and against the steam flow. Good practice is to size the pipe on a low steam velocity of not more than 15 m/s, to run the line at a slope of no less than 1:40, and install the drain points at not more than 15 metre intervals (see Figure 10.3.11). The objective is to prevent the condensate film on the bottom of the pipe increasing in thickness to the point where droplets can be picked up by the steam flow.

Fig. 10.3.11 Reverse gradient on steam main Top

Steam separators
Modern packaged steam boilers have a large evaporating capacity for their size and have limited capacity to cope with rapidly changing loads. In addition, as discussed in Block 3 'The Boiler House', other circumstances, such as . . .

. . .

Incorrect chemical feedwater treatment and/or TDS control. Transient peak loads in other parts of the plant. can cause priming and carryover of boiler water into the steam mains.

Separators, as shown by the cut section in Figure 10.3.12, may be installed to remove this water.

Fig. 10.3.12 Cut section through a separator As a general rule, providing the velocities in the pipework are within reasonable limits, separators will be line sized. (Separators are discussed in detail in Tutorial 12.5) A separator will remove both droplets of water from pipe walls and suspended mist entrained in the steam itself. The presence and effect of waterhammer can be eradicated by fitting a separator in a steam main, and can often be less expensive than increasing the pipe size and fabricating drain pockets. A separator is recommended before control valves and flowmeters. It is also wise to fit a separator where a steam main enters a building from outside. This will ensure that any condensate produced in the external distribution system is removed and the building always receives dry steam. This is equally important where steam usage in the building is monitored and charged for. Top

Strainers
When new pipework is installed, it is not uncommon for fragments of casting sand, packing, jointing, swarf, welding rods and even nuts and bolts to be accidentally deposited inside the pipe. In the case of older pipework, there will be rust, and in hard water districts, a carbonate deposit. Occasionally, pieces will break loose and pass along the pipework with the steam to rest inside a piece of steam using equipment. This may, for example, prevent a valve from opening/closing correctly. Steam using equipment may also suffer permanent damage through wiredrawing - the cutting action of high velocity steam and water passing through a partly open valve. Once wiredrawing has occurred, the valve will never give a tight shut-off, even if the dirt is removed. It is therefore wise to fit a line-size strainer in front of every steam trap, flowmeter, reducing valve and regulating valve. The illustration shown in Figure 10.3.13 shows a cut section through a typical strainer.

Fig. 10.3.13 Cut section through a Y-type strainer. Steam flows from the inlet 'A' through the perforated screen 'B' to the outlet 'C'. While steam and water will pass readily through the screen, dirt cannot. The cap 'D', can be removed, allowing the screen to be withdrawn and cleaned at regular intervals. A blowdown valve can also be fitted to cap 'D' to facilitate regular cleaning. Strainers can however, be a source of wet steam as previously mentioned. To avoid this situation, strainers should always be installed in steam lines with their baskets to the side. Strainers and screen details are discussed in Tutorial 12.4. Top

How to drain steam mains

Steam traps are the most effective and efficient method of draining condensate from a steam distribution system. The steam traps selected must suit the system in terms of:

Pressure rating Capacity Suitability

Pressure rating
Pressure rating is easily dealt with; the maximum possible working pressure at the steam trap will either be known or should be established.

Capacity
Capacity, that is, the quantity of condensate to be discharged, which needs to be divided into two categories; warmup load and running load. Warm-up load - In the first instance, the pipework needs to be brought up to operating temperature. This can be

determined by calculation, knowing the mass and specific heat of the pipework and fittings. Alternatively, Table 10.3.2 may be used.

The table shows the amount of condensate generated when bringing 50 m of steam main up to working temperature; 50 m being the maximum recommended distance between trapping points. The values shown are in kilograms. To determine the average condensing rate, the time taken for the process must be considered. For example, if the warm-up process required 50 kg of steam, and was to take 20 minutes, then the average condensing rate would be:

When using these capacities to size a steam trap, it is worth remembering that the initial pressure in the main will be little more than atmospheric when the warm-up process begins. However, the condensate loads will still generally be well within the capacity of a DN15 'low capacity' steam trap. Only in rare applications at very high pressures (above 70 bar g), combined with large pipe sizes, will greater trap capacity be needed.

Running load - Once the steam main is up to operating temperature, the rate of condensation is mainly a function of the pipe size and the quality and thickness of the insulation. Alternatively, for quick approximations of running load, Table 10.3.3 can be used which shows typical amounts of steam condensed each hour per 50 m of insulated steam main at various pressures. For accurate means of calculating running losses from steam mains, refer to Tutorial 2.12 'Steam consumption of pipes and air heaters'.

Table 10.3.2 Amount of steam condensed to warm-up 50 m of schedule 40 pipe (kg) Note: Figures are based on an ambient temperature of 20C, and an insulation efficiency of 80%

Table 10.3.3 Condensing rate of steam in 50 m of schedule 40 pipe - at working temperature (kg/h) Note: Figures are based on an ambient temperature of 20C, and an insulation efficiency of 80%

Suitability
A mains drain trap should consider the following constraints:

Discharge temperature - The steam trap should discharge at, or very close to saturation temperature, unless cooling legs are used between the drain point and the trap. This means that the choice is a mechanical type trap (such as a float, inverted bucket type, or thermodynamic traps). Frost damage - Where the steam main is located outside a building and there is a possibility of sub-zero ambient temperature, the thermodynamic steam trap is ideal, as it is not damaged by frost. Even if the installation causes water to be left in the trap at shutdown and freezing occurs, the thermodynamic trap may be thawed out without suffering damage when brought back into use. Waterhammer - In the past, on poorly laid out installations where waterhammer was a common occurrence, float traps were not always ideal due to their susceptibility to float damage. Contemporary design and manufacturing techniques now produce extremely robust units for mains drainage purposes. Float traps are certainly the first choice for proprietary separators as high capacities are readily achieved, and they are able to respond quickly to rapid load increases.

Steam traps used to drain condensate from steam mains, are shown in Figure 10.3.14. The thermostatic trap is included because it is ideal where there is no choice but to discharge condensate into a flooded return pipe. The subject of steam trapping is dealt with in detail in the Block 11, 'Steam Trapping'.

Fig. 10.3.14 Steam traps suitable for steam mains drainage Top

Steam leaks
Steam leaking from pipework is often ignored. Leaks can be costly in both the economic and environmental sense and therefore need prompt attention to ensure the steam system is working at its optimum efficiency with a minimum impact on the environment. Figure 10.3.15 illustrates the steam loss for various sizes of hole at various pressures. This loss can be readily translated into a fuel saving based on the annual hours of operation.

Fig. 10.3.15 Steam leakage rate through holes Top

Summary
Proper pipe alignment and drainage means observing a few simple rules:

Steam lines should be arranged to fall in the direction of flow, at not less than 100 mm per 10 metres of pipe (1:100). Steam lines rising in the direction of flow should slope at not less than 250 mm per 10 metres of pipe (1:40). Steam lines should be drained at regular intervals of 30-50 m and at any low points in the system. lWhere drainage has to be provided in straight lengths of pipe, then a large bore pocket should be used to collect condensate. If strainers are to be fitted, then they should be fitted on their sides. Branch connections should always be taken from the top of the main from where the driest steam is taken.

Separators should be considered before any piece of steam using equipment ensuring that dry steam is used. Traps selected should be robust enough to avoid waterhammer damage and frost damage.

Pipe Expansion and Support

Any steam system must be fully supported, able to expand during operation and sufficiently flexible to allow movement as a result. This tutorial includes advice on different methods and full calculations. Use the quick links below to take you to the main sections of this tutorial:

The printable version of this page has now been replaced by The Steam and Condensate Loop Book View the complete collection of Steam Engineering Tutorials
Contact Us Top

Allowance for expansion

All pipes will be installed at ambient temperature. Pipes carrying hot fluids such as water or steam operate at higher temperatures. It follows that they expand, especially in length, with an increase from ambient to working temperatures. This will create stress upon certain areas within the distribution system, such as pipe joints, which, in the extreme, could fracture. The amount of the expansion is readily calculated using Equation 10.4.1, or read from an appropriate chart such as Figure 10.4.1. Equation 10.4.1 Where: L = Length of pipe between anchors (m) T = Temperature difference between ambient temperature and operating temperatures (C) = Expansion coefficient (mm/m C) x 10-3

Table 10.4.1 Expansion coefficients (a) (mm/m C x 10-3)

Example 10.4.1
A 30 m length of carbon steel pipe is to be used to transport steam at 4 bar g (152C). If the pipe is installed at 10C, determine the expansion using Equation 10.4.1.

Alternatively, the chart in Figure 10.4.1 can be used for finding the approximate expansion of a variety of steel pipe lengths - see Example 10.4.2 for explanation of use.

Example 10.4.2
Using Figure 10.4.1. Find the approximate expansion from 15C, of 100 metres of carbon steel pipework used to distribute steam at 265C. Temperature difference is 265 15C = 250C.

Where the diagonal temperature difference line of 250C cuts the horizontal pipe length line at 100 m, drop a vertical line down. For this example an approximate expansion of 330 mm is indicated.

Fig. 10.4.1 A chart showing the expansion in various steel pipe lengths at various temperature differences

Table 10.4.2 Temperature of saturated steam Top

Pipework flexibility
The pipework system must be sufficiently flexible to accommodate the movements of the components as they expand. In many cases the flexibility of the pipework system, due to the length of the pipe and number of bends and supports, means that no undue stresses are imposed. In other installations, however, it will be necessary to incorporate some means of achieving this required flexibility.

An example on a typical steam system is the discharge of condensate from a steam mains drain trap into the condensate return line that runs along the steam line (Figure 10.4.2). Here, the difference between the expansions of the two pipework systems must be taken into account. The steam main will be operating at a higher temperature than that of the condensate main, and the two connection points will move relative to each other during system warm-up.

Fig. 10.4.2 Flexibility in connection to condensate return line The amount of movement to be taken up by the piping and any device incorporated in it can be reduced by 'cold draw'. The total amount of expansion is first calculated for each section between fixed anchor points. The pipes are left short by half of this amount, and stretched cold by pulling up bolts at a flanged joint, so that at ambient temperature, the system is stressed in one direction. When warmed through half of the total temperature rise, the piping is unstressed. At working temperature and having fully expanded, the piping is stressed in the opposite direction. The effect is that instead of being stressed from 0 F to +1 F units of force, the piping is stressed from - F to + F units of force. In practical terms, the pipework is assembled cold with a spacer piece, of length equal to half the expansion, between two flanges. When the pipework is fully installed and anchored at both ends, the spacer is removed and the joint pulled up tight (see Figure 10.4.3).

Fig. 10.4.3 Use of spacer for expansion when pipework is installed The remaining part of the expansion, if not accepted by the natural flexibility of the pipework will call for the use of an expansion fitting. In practice, pipework expansion and support can be classified into three areas as shown in Figure 10.4.4.

Fig. 10.4.4 Diagram of pipeline with fixed point, variable anchor point and expansion fitting The fixed or 'anchor' points 'A' provide a datum position from which expansion takes place.

The sliding support points 'B' allow free movement for expansion of the pipework, while keeping the pipeline in alignment. The expansion device at point 'C' is to accommodate the expansion and contraction of the pipe.

Fig. 10.4.5 Chair and roller

Fig. 10.4.6 Chair roller and saddle Roller supports (Figure 10.4.5 and 10.4.6) are ideal methods for supporting pipes, at the same time allowing them to move in two directions. For steel pipework, the rollers should be manufactured from ferrous material. For copper pipework, they should be manufactured from non-ferrous material. It is good practice for pipework supported on rollers to be fitted with a pipe saddle bolted to a support bracket at not more than distances of 6 metres to keep the pipework in alignment during any expansion and contraction. Where two pipes are to be supported one below the other, it is poor practice to carry the bottom pipe from the top pipe using a pipe clip. This will cause extra stress to be added to the top pipe whose thickness has been sized to take only the stress of its working pressure. All pipe supports should be specifically designed to suit the outside diameter of the pipe concerned. Top

Expansion fittings
The expansion fitting ('C' Figure 10.4.4) is one method of accommodating expansion. These fittings are placed within a line, and are designed to accommodate the expansion, without the total length of the line changing. They are commonly called expansion bellows, due to the bellows construction of the expansion sleeve. Other expansion fittings can be made from the pipework itself. This can be a cheaper way to solve the problem, but more space is needed to accommodate the pipe.

Full loop
This is simply one complete turn of the pipe and, on steam pipework, should preferably be fitted in a horizontal rather than a vertical position to prevent condensate accumulating on the upstream side. The downstream side passes below the upstream side and great care must be taken that it is not fitted the wrong way round, as condensate can accumulate in the bottom. When full loops are to be fitted in a confined space, care must be taken to specify that wrong-handed loops are not supplied. The full loop does not produce a force in opposition to the expanding pipework as in some other types, but with steam pressure inside the loop, there is a slight tendency to unwind, which puts an additional stress on the flanges.

Fig. 10.4.7 Full loop This design is used rarely today due to the space taken up by the pipework, and proprietary expansion bellows are now more readily available. However large steam users such as power stations or establishments with large outside distribution systems still tend to use full loop type expansion devices, as space is usually available and the cost is relatively low.

Horseshoe

or

lyre

loop

When space is available this type is sometimes used. It is best fitted horizontally so that the loop and the main are on the same plane. Pressure does not tend to blow the ends of the loop apart, but there is a very slight straightening out effect. This is due to the design but causes no misalignment of the flanges. If any of these arrangements are fitted with the loop vertically above the pipe then a drain point must be provided on the upstream side as depicted in Figure 10.4.8.

Fig. 10.4.8 Horseshoe or lyre loop

Expansion loops

Fig. 10.4.9 Expansion loop The expansion loop can be fabricated from lengths of straight pipes and elbows welded at the joints (Figure 10.4.9). An indication of the expansion of pipe that can be accommodated by these assemblies is shown in Figure 10.4.10. It can be seen from Figure 10.4.9 that the depth of the loop should be twice the width, and the width is determined from Figure 10.4.10, knowing the total amount of expansion expected from the pipes either side of the loop.

Fig. 10.4.10 Expansion loop capacity for carbon steel pipes

Sliding joint
These are sometimes used because they take up little room, but it is essential that the pipeline is rigidly anchored and guided in strict accordance with the manufacturers' instructions; otherwise steam pressure acting on the cross sectional area of the sleeve part of the joint tends to blow the joint apart in opposition to the forces produced by the expanding pipework (see Figure 10.4.11). Misalignment will cause the sliding sleeve to bend, while regular maintenance of the gland packing may also be needed.

Fig. 10.4.11 Sliding joint

Expansion bellows
An expansion bellows, Figures 10.4.12, has the advantage that it requires no packing (as does the sliding joint type). But it does have the same disadvantages as the sliding joint in that pressure inside tends to extend the fitting, consequently, anchors and guides must be able to withstand this force.

Fig. 10.4.12 Simple expansion bellows Bellows may incorporate limit rods, which limit over-compression and over-extension of the element. These may have little function under normal operating conditions, as most simple bellows assemblies are able to withstand small lateral and angular movement. However, in the event of anchor failure, they behave as tie rods and contain the pressure thrust forces, preventing damage to the unit whilst reducing the possibility of further damage to piping, equipment and personnel (Figure 10.4.13 (b)). Where larger forces are expected, some form of additional mechanical reinforcement should be built into the device, such as hinged stay bars (Figure 10.4.13 (c)). There is invariably more than one way to accommodate the relative movement between two laterally displaced pipes depending upon the relative positions of bellows anchors and guides. In terms of preference, axial displacement is better than angular, which in turn, is better than lateral. Angular and lateral movement should be avoided wherever possible. Figure 10.4.13 (a), (b), and (c) give a rough indication of the effects of these movements, but, under all circumstances, it is highly recommended that expert advice is sought from the bellows' manufacturer regarding any installation of expansion bellows.

Fig. 10.4.13 (a) Axial movement of bellows

Fig. 10.4.13 (b) Lateral and angular movement of bellows

Fig. 10.4.13 (c) Angular and axial movement of bellows Top

Pipe support spacing

The frequency of pipe supports will vary according to the bore of the pipe; the actual pipe material (i.e. steel or copper); and whether the pipe is horizontal or vertical. Some practical points worthy of consideration are as follows:

Pipe supports should be provided at intervals not greater than shown in Table 10.4.3, and run along those parts of buildings and structures where appropriate supports may be mounted. Where two or more pipes are supported on a common bracket, the spacing between the supports should be that for the smallest pipe. When an appreciable movement will occur, i.e. where straight pipes are greater than 15 metres in length, the supports should be of the roller type as outlined previously. Vertical pipes should be adequately supported at the base, to withstand the total weight of the vertical pipe and the fluid within it. Branches from vertical pipes must not be used as a means of support for the pipe, because this will place undue strain upon the tee joint. All pipe supports should be specifically designed to suit the outside diameter of the pipe concerned. The use of oversized pipe brackets is not good practice.

Table 10.4.3 can be used as a guide when calculating the distance between pipe supports for steel and copper pipework.

Table 10.4.3 Recommended support for pipework