UNIT II&III NOTES 1.

A true experimental design is one in which the researcher manipulates the Independent Variable (or variables) to observe its effect on some behavior. 2. Any variable that is not considered as an independent variable in the model but that influences the dependent variable (outside form the models purview) is an exogenous variable. 3. Primary data is data gathered for the first time by the researcher; secondary data is data taken by the researcher from secondary sources, internal or external. 4. A scale is basically a continuous spectrum or series of categories and has been defined as any series of items that are arranged progressively according to value or magnitude, into which an item can be placed according to its quantification 5. Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of a measure. A test is considered reliable if the researcher gets the same result repeatedly. Types of reliability: 1. Test retest method 2. Parallel form method 3. Split half method, 4. Inter item consistency method. 6. Validity: Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted. 7. In an interval scale the distance between the measure points are assumed to be equal or equidistant and a ratio scale is the top level of measurement and have a true zero. The data obtained from these scales will have adequate validity with minimum errors.When using these scales all parametric tests and other modeling techniques can be used. 8. Criterion validity is a measure of how well one variable or set of variables predicts an outcome based on information from other variables.

9. A fo

cus group is a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards a product or towards any issues or problems.

10. The target population for a survey is the entire set of units for which the survey data are to be used to make inferences. Ex if the research objective is to study old people who are 1

in the age group of 65-70 years spending pattern in a particular region then the target population should be all the people in that age group in that particular area. 11. Case Study: This study involves intensive study of a relatively small number of cases. In this method, much emphasis is on obtaining a complete description and understanding of factors in each case, regardless of the number involved. 12. Measurement is defined as the assignment of numbers to characteristics of objects or events according to rules. 13. Nominal scale are categorical scales used to identify, label or categorise objects or persons or events 14. Ordinal scale is a ranking scale that indicates ordered relationship among the objects or events. It involves assigning numbers to objects to indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic. 15. Interval scale is otherwise called as rating scale. It involves the use of numbers to rate objects or events. It interval scales, numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic being measured. 16. Ratio scales differ from interval scales in that it has a natural/absolute zero. It possesses all the properties of the normal, ordinal and interval scales. 17. Paired comparison scaling as its name indicates involves presentation of two objects and asking the respondents to select one according to some criteria. The data are obtained using ordinal scale. For example, a respondent may be asked to indicate his/her preference for TVs in a paired manner. 18. Rank order scaling: This is another popular comparative scaling technique. In rank order scaling is done by presenting the respondents with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them based on a particular criterion. 19. Non-comparative scales or otherwise called as nomadic scales because only one object is evaluated at a time. 20. Semantic differential scale is a popular scaling technique next to Likert scale. In this scale, the respondents associate their response with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. The respondents rate objects on a number of itemized, seven point rating scales bounded at each end by one of two bipolar adjectives such as Excellent and Very bad. 21. A questionnaire is defined as a formalized schedule for collecting data from respondents. It may be called as a schedule, interview form or measuring instrument.

DESCRIPTIVE ANSWERS Types of Measurement Scale and Rating scales Nominal: The lowest measurement level you can use, from a statistical point of view, is a nominal scale.A nominal scale, as the name implies, is simply some placing of data into categories, without any order or structure.In research activities a YES/NO scale is nominal. It has no order and there is no distance between YES and NO. The statistics which can be used with nominal scales are in the non-parametric group. The most likely ones would be: mode crosstabulation - with chi-square Ordinal: An ordinal scale is next up the list in terms of power of measurement. The simplest ordinal scale is a ranking. When a market researcher asks you to rank 5 types of colas from most flavorful to least flavourful, he/she is asking you to create an ordinal scale of preference. There is no objective distance between any two points on your subjective scale. For you the top beer may be far superior to the second preferred beer but, to another respondent with the same top and second beer, the distance may be subjectively small. An ordinal scale only lets you interpret gross order and not the relative positional distances. Ordinal data would use non-parametric statistics. These would include: Median and mode rank order correlation non-parametric analysis of variance Interval: The standard survey rating scale is an interval scale.When you are asked to rate your satisfaction with a piece of software on a 7 point scale, from Dissatisfied to Satisfied, you are using an interval scale. It is an interval scale because it is assumed to have equidistant points between each of the scale elements. This means that we can interpret differences in the distance along the scale. We contrast this to an ordinal scale where we can only talk about differences in order, not differences in the degree of order. Interval scales are also scales which are defined by metrics such as logarithms. In these cases, the distances are note equal but they are strictly definable based on the metric used. 3

Interval scale data would use parametric statistical techniques: Mean and standard deviation Correlation - r Regression Analysis of variance Factor analysis Plus a whole range of advanced multivariate and modelling techniques Ratio: A ratio scale is the top level of measurement and is not often available in social research. The factor which clearly defines a ratio scale is that it has a true zero point.The simplest example of a ratio scale is the measurement of length All type of parametric tests and other modelings can be applied Types of Rating Scales: Measurement scales that allow a respondent to register the degree (or amount) of a characteristic or attribute possessed by an object directly on the scale. Six main types of rating scales: 1. Category scale 2. Semantic differential scale 3. Stapel scale 4. Likert scale (Summated ratings scale) 5. Constant sum scale 6. Graphic scale

1. Category Scale
A rating scale which the response options provided for a closed-ended question are labeled with specific verbal descriptions. Example: Please rate car model A on each of the following dimensions: Poor a)Durability [ ] ] Fair [ [ ] ] Good V.goodExcellent [ [ ] [ ] [ ][ ][ ] ]

b)Fuel consumption [

Characteristics: 1. Response options are still verbal descriptions. 2. Response categories are usually ordered according to a particular descriptive or evaluative dimension. 3. Therefore scale has ordinal properties. 4. However, researchers often assume that it possesses interval properties => but this is only an assumption. 4

** One special version is the Simple category scale. Simple Category Scale A category scale with only two response categories (or scale points) both of which are labeled. Example: Please rate brand A on each of the following dimensions: poor a) Durability b) Fuel consumption [ [ ] ] excellent [ [ ] ]

2. Semantic Differential Scale

A rating scale in which bipolar adjectives are placed at both ends (or poles) of the scale, and response options are expressed as semantic space. Example: Please rate car model A on each of the following dimensions: Durable ---:-X-:---:---:---:---:--- Not durable ---:---:---:---:---:-X-:--- High fuel consumption

Low fuel consumption

Characteristics 1. The scale has properties of an interval scale. 2. Sometimes descriptive phrases are used instead of bipolar adjectives, especially when it is difficult to get adjectives that are exact opposites 3. It is often used to construct an image profile.

3.Stapel Scale
A simplified version of the semantic differential scale in which a single adjective or descriptive phrase is used instead of bipolar adjectives.

Characteristics 1. The scale measures both the direction and intensity of the attribute simultaneously. 2. It has properties similar to the semantic differential.

Example:

Model A -3 -2 -1 Durable Car 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 Good Fuel Conaumption 1 2 3

4. Constant-Sum Scale
A rating scale in which respondents divide a constant sum among different attributes of an object (usually to indicate the relative importance of each attribute). Assumed to have ratio level properties.

Example: Divide 100 points among the following dimensions to indicate their level of importance to you when you purchase a car:

Durability Fuel Consumption Total 100

5. Numerical Scale
Any rating scale in which numbers rather than semantic space or verbal descriptions are used as response options. Examples: Poor Durability Durable 1 1 2 2 3 4 3 5 4 6 5 6 Excellent 7

7 Not durable

6.Graphic Ratings Scales

Rating scales in which respondents rate an object on a graphic continuum, usually a straight line. Modified versions are the ladder scale and happy face scale.

Characteristics 1. The straight line scale has ratio level properties. 2. The ladder and happy face scales have properties depending on the labeling option chosen whether all response categories are labeled (ordinal properties) or only the scale end-points are labeled (interval properties).

7.The Likert Scale (Summated Ratings Scale)

A multiple item rating scale in which the degree of an attribute possessed by an object is determined by asking respondents to agree or disagree with a series of positive and/or negative statements describing the object.

Example:

Characteristics of the Likert Scale 1. The following procedure is used to analyze data from Likert scales: 2. First, weights are assigned to the responses options, e.g. Totally agree=1, Agree=2, etc 3. Then negatively-worded statements are reverse-coded (or reverse scored). E.g. a score of 2 for a negatively-worded statement with a 5-point response options is equivalent to a score of 4 on an equivalent positive statement. 4. Next, scores are summed across statements to arrive at a total (or summated) score. 5. Each respondents score can then be compared with the mean score or the scores of other respondents to determine his level of attitude, loyalty, or other construct that is being measured 6. Note that the response for each individual statement is expressed on a category scale. ===================================================================== Issues In Selecting A Measurement Scale Whether to use single or index measure. Whether to use a ranking, sorting, choice, or rating scale. Whether to use monadic or comparative scale. Monadic rating scale is one in which respondents evaluate an object in isolation Comparative scale s one in which the object is evaluated in relation to other objects Construction and labeling is different for monadic and comparative scales Whether to use category labels or not. If the decision is to use category labels, what labels to use. Number of response options (scale categories) to use, i.e whether to use 2, 3, 4, 5, etc response categories In general, the larger the number of categories the more sensitive the scale is; but also the more difficult it is for respondents to answer Whether to use balanced or unbalanced scale. A balanced scale has an equal number of points to the left and right of a mid-point. An unbalanced scale has more response options on one side than the other Whether the scale should force choice among the response categories, i.e should the scale contain a neutral or dont know category. ================================================================== Types of Experimental Designs PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 7

After only Design with one EG Before after design with one EG After only design with one EG & One CG TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Pre test- post test control group Post-test only control group Solomon four group design STATISTICAL DESIGN Completely Randomized Design Randomised Block Design Factorial Design Latin Square Design WRITE THE CONTENTS FROM THE CLASS POWERPOINT ==================================================================== Techniques of Primary Data collection method: 1. Observation Natural versus Contrived observation Disguised versus non-disguised observation Other Types 2. Questionnaire: Structured vs unstructured Disguised vs non-disguised WRITE THE CONTENTS FROM THE CLASS POWERPOINT ==================================================================== TYPES OF SAMPLING METHODS: Probability Samples The idea behind this type is random selection. More specifically, each sample from the population of interest has a known probability of selection under a given sampling scheme. There are four categories of probability samples described below. Simple Random Sampling The most widely known type of a random sample is the simple random sample (SRS). This is characterized by the fact that the probability of selection is the same for every case in the population. Simple random sampling is a method of selecting n units from a population of size N such that every possible sample of size n has equal chance of being drawn. An example may make this easier to understand. Imagine you want to carry out a survey of 100 voters in a small town with a population of 1,000 eligible voters. With a town this size, there are "old-fashioned" ways to draw a sample. For example, we could write the names of all voters on a piece of paper, put all pieces of paper into a box and draw 100 tickets at random. You shake the 8

box, draw a piece of paper and set it aside, shake again, draw another, set it aside, etc. until we had 100 slips of paper. These 100 form our sample. And this sample would be drawn through a simple random sampling procedure - at each draw, every name in the box had the same probability of being chosen. Systematic Sampling This method of sampling is at first glance very different from SRS. In practice, it is a variant of simple random sampling that involves some listing of elements - every nth element of list is then drawn for inclusion in the sample. Say you have a list of 10,000 people and you want a sample of 1,000. Creating such a sample includes three steps: 1. Divide number of cases in the population by the desired sample size. In this example, dividing 10,000 by 1,000 gives a value of 10. 2. Select a random number between one and the value attained in Step 1. In this example, we choose a number between 1 and 10 - say we pick 7. 3. Starting with case number chosen in Step 2, take every tenth record (7, 17, 27, etc.). More generally, suppose that the N units in the population are ranked 1 to N in some order (e.g., alphabetic). To select a sample of n units, we take a unit at random, from the 1st k units and take every k-th unit thereafter. The advantages of systematic sampling method over simple random sampling include: It is easier to draw a sample and often easier to execute without mistakes. This is a particular advantage when the drawing is done in the field. Intuitively, you might think that systematic sampling might be more precise than SRS. In effect it stratifies the population into n strata, consisting of the 1st k units, the 2nd k units, and so on. Thus, we might expect the systematic sample to be as precise as a stratified random sample with one unit per stratum. The difference is that with the systematic one the units occur at the same relative position in the stratum whereas with the stratified, the position in the stratum is determined separately by randomization within each stratum Stratified Random Sampling In this form of sampling, the population is first divided into two or more mutually exclusive segments based on some categories of variables of interest in the research. It is designed to organize the population into homogenous subsets before sampling, then drawing a random sample within each subset. With stratified random sampling the population of N units is divided into subpopulations of units respectively. These subpopulations, called strata, are non-overlapping and together they comprise the whole of the population. When these have been determined, a sample is drawn from each, with a separate draw for each of the different strata. The sample sizes within the strata are denoted by respectively. If a SRS is taken within each stratum, then the whole sampling procedure is described as stratified random sampling. Stratification is a common technique. There are many reasons for this, such as: If data of known precision are wanted for certain subpopulations, than each of these should be treated as a population in its own right. 9

Administrative convenience may dictate the use of stratification, for example, if an agency administering a survey may have regional offices, which can supervise the survey for a part of the population. Sampling problems may be inherent with certain sub populations, such as people living in institutions (e.g. hotels, hospitals). Stratification may improve the estimates of characteristics of the whole population. It may be possible to divide a heterogeneous population into sub-populations, each of which is internally homogenous. If these strata are homogenous, i.e., the measurements vary little from one unit to another; a precise estimate of any stratum mean can be obtained from a small sample in that stratum. The estimate can then be combined into a precise estimate for the whole population. There is also a statistical advantage in the method, as a stratified random sample nearly always results in a smaller variance for the estimated mean or other population parameters of interest. Cluster Sampling: In some instances the sampling unit consists of a group or cluster of smaller units that we call elements or subunits (these are the units of analysis for your study). There are two main reasons for the widespread application of cluster sampling. Although the first intention may be to use the elements as sampling units, it is found in many surveys that no reliable list of elements in the population is available and that it would be prohibitively expensive to construct such a list. In many countries there are no complete and updated lists of the people, the houses or the farms in any large geographical region. The below diagram is for understanding purpose only do not draw in examination

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Important things about cluster sampling: Most large scale surveys are done using cluster sampling; Clustering may be combined with stratification, typically by clustering within strata; In general, for a given sample size n cluster samples are less accurate than the other types of sampling in the sense that the parameters you estimate will have greater variability than an SRS, stratified random or systematic sample. Nonprobability Sampling Social research is often conducted in situations where a researcher cannot select the kinds of probability samples used in large-scale social surveys. For example, say you wanted to study homelessness - there is no list of homeless individuals nor are you likely to create such a list. However, you need to get some kind of a sample of respondents in order to conduct your research. To gather such a sample, you would likely use some form of non-probability sampling. To reiterate, the primary difference between probability methods of sampling and non-probability methods is that in the latter you do not know the likelihood that any element of a population will be selected for study. 11

There are four primary types of non-probability sampling methods: Availability Sampling Availability sampling is a method of choosing subjects who are available or easy to find. This method is also sometimes referred to as haphazard, accidental, or convenience sampling. The primary advantage of the method is that it is very easy to carry out, relative to other methods. A researcher can merely stand out on his/her favourite street corner or in his/her favorite tavern and hand out surveys. One place this used to show up often is in university courses. Years ago, researchers often would conduct surveys of students in their large lecture courses . For example, all students taking introductory sociology courses would have been given a survey and compelled to fill it out. There are some advantages to this design - it is easy to do, particularly with a captive audience, and in some schools you can attain a large number of interviews through this method. The primary problem with availability sampling is that you can never be certain what population the participants in the study represent. The population is unknown, the method for selecting cases is haphazard, and the cases studied probably don't represent any population you could come up with. However, there are some situations in which this kind of design has advantages - for example, survey designers often want to have some people respond to their survey before it is given out in the "real" research setting as a way of making certain the questions make sense to respondents. For this purpose, availability sampling is not a bad way to get a group to take a survey, though in this case researchers care less about the specific responses given than whether the instrument is confusing or makes people feel bad. Quota Sampling Quota sampling is designed to overcome the most obvious flaw of availability sampling. Rather than taking just anyone, you set quotas to ensure that the sample you get represents certain haracteristics in proportion to their prevalence in the population. Note that for this method, you have to know something about the characteristics of the population ahead of time. Say you want to make sure you have a sample proportional to the population in terms of gender - you have to know what percentage of the population is male and female, then collect sample until yours matches. Marketing studies are particularly fond of this form of research design. The primary problem with this form of sampling is that even when we know that a quota sample is representative of the particular characteristics for which quotas have been set, we have no way of knowing if sample is representative in terms of any other characteristics. If we set quotas for gender and age, we are likely to attain a sample with good representativeness on age and gender, but one that may not be very representative in terms of income and education or other factors. Moreover, because researchers can set quotas for only a small fraction of the characteristics relevant to a study quota sampling is really not much better than availability sampling. To reiterate, you must know the characteristics of the entire population to set quotas; otherwise there's not much point to setting up quotas. Finally, interviewers often introduce bias when allowed to self-select respondents, which is usually the case in this form of research. In choosing males 18-25, interviewers are more likely to choose those that are better-dressed, seem more 12

approachable or less threatening. That may be understandable from a practical point of view, but it introduces bias into research findings. Purposive Sampling Purposive sampling is a sampling method in which elements are chosen based on purpose of the study. Purposive sampling may involve studying the entire population of some limited group (Psychology faculty at India) or a subset of a population (Indian faculty who have won Prizes in psychology). As with other non-probability sampling methods, purposive sampling does not produce a sample that is representative of a larger population, but it can be exactly what is needed in some cases - study of organization, community, or some other clearly defined and relatively limited group. Snowball Sampling Snowball sampling is a method in which a researcher identifies one member of some population of interest, speaks to him/her, then asks that person to identify others in the population that the researcher might speak to. This person is then asked to refer the researcher to yet another person, and so on. Snowball sampling is very good for cases where members of a special population are difficult to locate. For example, several studies of Mexican migrants in Los Angeles have used snowball sampling to get respondents. The method also has an interesting application to group membership - if you want to look at pattern of recruitment to a community organization over time, you might begin by interviewing fairly recent recruits, asking them who introduced them to the group. Then interview the people named, asking them who recruited them to the group. The method creates a sample with questionable representativeness. A researcher is not sure who is in the sample. In effect snowball sampling often leads the researcher into a realm he/she knows little about. It can be difficult to determine how a sample compares to a larger population. Also, there's an issue of who respondents refer you to - friends refer to friends, less likely to refer to ones they don't like, fear, etc.

Questionnaire Design
Preliminary Concerns
1. Consider the data collection method. 2. Consider the measurement scale and statistical analysis to be used.

Wording
1. Use correct grammar and sentence structure. Avoid slang and colloquialisms. 2. Wording should be as simple as possible without being condescending to respondent. 3. Use a conversational tone. Wording should be as closely as possible to the manner in which people would talk to each other. 4. Wording should be neutral and clearly communicate the intent of question.
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Instructions
1. Instructions on how to answer should be communicated to the respondent as part of the question. 2. Special instructions to the interviewer should be clear and located on the questionnaire. 3. Clearly distinguish the instructions to the interviewer questions and responses by always putting the instructions to the interviewer CAPS, Italics, etc.

Content
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Write brief questions. Have a specific goal for each question. Make efforts to write questions that are valid measures of the studys variables. Be careful not to assume behavior or knowledge on the part of any respondent. If a question contains facts, make sure they are accurate. Carefully choose wording so that accurate information is collected. Be precise and specific in the use of concepts (for example, government--is it city, county, or federal?). Be precise and specific regarding time, either as a period of recall or as a time limit to a certain behavior. Avoid "loaded" questions that suggest to respondents that one answer is preferable to another. Avoid double questions where two or more issues are mentioned. Avoid all-inclusive terms such as "never" or "always." Avoid the use of technical terms and abbreviations that can be misconstrued. Avoid the use of inflammatory words such as "racist" or "exploitation." 7. Be sure all questions are relevant to the research goal. 8. Be certain all important questions are asked.
Response Categories

1. Response categories must match the attributes mentioned in question. 2. Response categories to closed-ended items must be: sufficiently exhaustive. mutually exclusive. the categories respondents would naturally use to classify the item or themselves. 3. Questions may contain a response category of "don't know" or "no answer/refusal."

Threats to internal validity Write the contents from the power point given

Problems
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Try to solve the slef assessment problems given in the power point slides Sampling slides

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Order
1. Treat all questions as part of a whole, not isolated or separate from other items. 2. Remember that each question is perceived by the respondent to be in a context of questions. Thus, answers to one question can be affected by responses to others in the same group. 3. Questions should be grouped according to topic. 4. Within a topic it is usually best to arrange questions so they move from general to specific. 5. The question order should permit the interviewer to keep the interview moving at a conversational, yet purposeful pace. To achieve this: Order questions using a logic that will make sense to the respondent. Use transitional statements freely so that the questions "flow" easily one to another. 6. The first questions should be relatively easy-to-answer questions that are related to the research topic that was expressed in the introductory message or cover letter. 7. Place important/sensitive questions in the middle of the questionnaire. 8. Place easy-to-answer questions, such as demographic items, at the end of the questionnaire.

Format
1. Clearly distinguish questions from response categories.

2. Vary response patterns and group topics as often as is practical to prevent fatigue. 3. Avoid breaking a question between pages of the questionnaire. 4. Splitting complex issues into two or more simple questions in order to eliminate respondent confusion and error. 5. Avoid questions that duplicate earlier items or appear to the respondent to be redundant.

6. Precode the questionnaire. Include the response codes on the questionnaire.

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