Atomic Theory:

Readings:

Atomic Theory States of Matter Thermodynamics Entropy

Heraclitus = everything changes, Parmenides = change is logically impossible how can matter change yet maintain its existence? answer = it is composed of indestructible units called atoms

The ancient philosopher, Heraclitus, maintained that everything is in a state of flux. Nothing escapes change of some sort (it is impossible to step into the same river). On the other hand, Parmenides argued that everything is what it is, so that it cannot become what is not (change is impossible because a substance would have to transition through nothing to become something else, which is a logical contradiction). Thus, change is incompatible with being so that only the permanent aspects of the Universe could be considered real. An ingenious escape was proposed in the fifth century B.C. by Democritus. He hypothesized that all matter (plus space and time) is composed of tiny indestructible units, called atoms. This idea seems motivated by the question of how finely one can go on cutting up matter. While Democritus performed no experiments and had only the flimsiest evidence for postulating the existence of atoms, his theory was kept alive by the Roman poet Lucretius which survived the Dark Ages to be discovered in 1417. The atoms in Democritus theory themselves remain unchanged, but move about in space to combine in various ways to form all macroscopic objects. Early atomic theory stated that the characteristics of an object are determined by the shape of its atoms. So, for example, sweet things are made of smooth atoms, bitter things are made of sharp atoms. In this manner permanence and flux are reconciled and the field of atomic physics was born. Although Democritus' ideas were to solve a philosophical dilemma, the fact that there is some underlying, elemental substance to the Universe is a primary driver in modern physics, the search for the ultimate subatomic particle.

Dalton =

It was John Dalton, in the early 1800's, who determined that each chemical

determines that each element corresponds to a unique atom develops system of chemical symbols based on atomic mass compounds = atoms linked as molecules opens way for new laws of physics

element is composed of a unique type of atom, and that the atoms differed by their masses. He devised a system of chemical symbols and, having ascertained the relative weights of atoms, arranged them into a table. In addition, he formulated the theory that a chemical combination of different elements occurs in simple numerical ratios by weight, which led to the development of the laws of definite and multiple proportions. He then determined that compounds are made of molecules, and that molecules are composed of atoms in definite proportions. Thus, atoms determine the composition of matter, and compounds can be broken down into their individual elements.

Loschmidt estimates size and mass of atoms (108 centimeters and 10-24gms)

The first estimates for the sizes of atoms and the number of atoms per unit volume where made by Joesph Loschmidt in 1865. Using the ideas of kinetic theory, the idea that the properties of a gas are due to the motion of the atoms that compose it, Loschmidt calculated the mean free path of an atom based on diffusion rates. His result was that there are 6.022x1023 atoms per 12 grams of carbon. And that the typical diameter of an atom is 10 -8 centimeters.

Matter:

four states of matter: 1. solid 2. liquid

Matter exists in four states: solid, liquid, gas and plasma. Plasmas are only found in the coronae and cores of stars. The state of matter is determined by the strength of the bonds between the atoms that makes up matter. Thus, is proportional to the temperature or the amount of

3. gas 4. plasma

energy contained by the matter.

change in state change called phase transition phase determined by mean temperature of material

The change from one state of matter to another is called a phase transition. For example, ice (solid water) converts (melts) into liquid water as energy is added. Continue adding energy and the water boils to steam (gaseous water) then, at several million degrees, breaks down into its component atoms.

atomic theory = explaining macroscopic phenomenon through the behavior of microscopic atoms, in this case, kinetic behavior temperature = velocity of atoms pressure = momentum of atoms

Atomic theory is the field of physics that describes the characteristics and properties of atoms that make up matter. The key point to note about atomic theory is the relationship between the macroscopic world (us) and the microscopic world of atoms. For example, the macroscopic world deals with concepts such as temperature and pressure to describe matter. The microscopic world of atomic theory deals with the kinetic motion of atoms to explain macroscopic quantities. Temperature is explained in atomic theory as the motion of the atoms (faster = hotter). Pressure is explained as the momentum transfer of those moving atoms on the walls of the container (faster atoms = higher temperature = more momentum/hits = higher pressure).

Ideal Gas Law:

ideal gas law is a statement of the

Macroscopic properties of matter are governed by the Ideal Gas Law of chemistry.

relation between pressure, volume (or density) and temperature it is given by PV=kT

An ideal gas is a gas that conforms, in physical behavior, to a particular, idealized relation between pressure, volume, and temperature. The ideal gas law is a generalization containing both Boyle's law and Charles's law as special cases and states that for a specified quantity of gas, the product of the volume, V, and pressure, P, is proportional to the absolute temperature T; i.e., in equation form, PV = kT, in which k is a constant. Such a relation for a substance is called its equation of state and is sufficient to describe its gross behavior. The ideal gas law can be derived from the kinetic theory of gases and relies on the assumptions that (1) the gas consists of a large number of molecules, which are in random motion and obey Newton's laws of motion; (2) the volume of the molecules is negligible small compared to the volume occupied by the gas; and (3) no forces act on the molecules except during elastic collisions of negligible duration. Although no gas has these properties, the behavior of real gases is described quite closely by the ideal gas law at sufficiently high temperatures and low pressures, when relatively large distances between molecules and their high speeds overcome any interaction. A gas does not obey the equation when conditions are such that the gas, or any of the component gases in a mixture, is near its condensation point. The ideal gas law may be written in a form applicable to any gas, according to Avogadro's law (q.v.), if the constant specifying the quantity of gas is expressed in terms of the number of molecules of gas. This is done by using as the mass unit the gram-mole; i.e., the molecular weight expressed in grams. The equation of state of n gram-moles of a perfect gas can then be written as pv/t = nR, in which R is called the universal gas constant. This constant has been measured for various gases under nearly ideal conditions of high temperatures and low pressures, and it is found to have the same value for all gases: R = 8.314 joules per gram-mole-kelvin.

ideal gas law is dependent on atoms behaving in a pure kinetic fashion, its fails at extremes of temperature and pressure or near critical points

Although no gas is perfectly described by the above laws, the behavior of real gases is described quite closely by the ideal gas law at sufficiently high temperatures and low pressures (such as air pressure at sea level), when relatively large distances between molecules and their high speeds overcome any interaction. A gas does not obey the equation when conditions are such that the gas, or any of the component gases in a mixture, is near its triple point (see below).

kinetic theory requires that the number of atoms be large, when the

The ideal gas law can be derived from the kinetic theory of gases and relies on the assumptions that (1) the gas consists of a large number of molecules, which are in random motion and obey Newton's deterministic laws of motion; (2) the volume of the molecules is negligible small compared to the volume occupied by the gas; and (3) no forces act on the molecules except during elastic

number is small their behavior is dominated by quantum physic effects

collisions of negligible duration. While all the above conditions are not strictly true, (where they breakdown interesting things happen - such as friction) in general the behavior of matter is well described by this kinetic theory. Temperature is explained by atomic theory as the motion of the atoms (faster = hotter). Pressure is explained as the momentum transfer of those moving atoms on the walls of the container (faster atoms = higher temperature = more momentum/hits = higher pressure).

Triple point :

phase diagram is a graphical tool to display the behavior of a substance through the various states where the three normal phases of matter meet in a phase diagram is called the triple point

The states of matter for a substance are determined by both its temperature and its internal pressure. A fast graphic way to display the various states is called a phase diagram. A phase diagram is a graph showing the limiting conditions for solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of a single substance or of a mixture of substances while undergoing changes in pressure and temperature or in some other combination of variables, such as solubility and temperature. The figure shown below displays a typical phase diagram for a one-component system (i.e., one consisting of a single pure substance), the curves having been obtained from measurements made at various pressures and temperatures.

phase diagrams are useful for seeing equilibrium regions and understanding the different behavior in different environments, e.g. the lower boiling point at high attitudes

At any point in the areas separated by the curves, the pressure and temperature allow only one phase (solid, liquid, or gas) to exist, and changes in temperature and pressure, up to the points on the curves, will not alter this phase. At any point on the curves, the temperature and pressure allow two phases to exist in equilibrium: solid and liquid, solid and gas, or liquid and gas. For example, the line drawn for the variation with temperature of gas pressure for the liquid is the boundary between liquid and gas; only gas can exist on the low-pressure, high-temperature side of the line, while the substance must be liquid on the high-pressure, low-temperature side; liquid and gas exist together at temperatures and pressures corresponding to points on the line; at the place where this line vanishes, called the critical point, the liquid and its gas become indistinguishable. Along the line between liquid and solid, the melting temperatures for different pressures can be found. The junction of the three curves, called the triple point, represents the unique conditions under which all three phases exist in equilibrium together. A substance triple point can have an enormous impact on the evolution of that substance. For example, life developed on the Earth because the Earth's mean temperature and air pressure are near the triple point of water. This allows water to exist in all three forms on the Earth's surface and serve as an environment for biochemical reactions and a universal solvent for the construction of complex macromolecules. The surface of Titan, Saturn's largest moon, has environment conditions near the triple point of methane (methane lakes, snow, rains, ice) and so methane life may have formed there.

Thermodynamics:

thermodynamics is the study of heat, work, temperature and energy central to thermodynamics are three laws: the first is the law of conservation of energy

The study of the relationship between heat, work, temperature and energy, now encompassing the general behavior of physical system is called thermodynamics. A central consideration of thermodynamics is that any physical system, whether or not it can exchange energy and material with its environment, will spontaneously approach a stable condition (equilibrium) that can be described by specifying its properties, such as pressure, temperature, or chemical composition. If the external constraints are changed (for example, if the system is allowed to expand), then these properties will generally alter. The science of thermodynamics attempts to describe mathematically these changes and to predict the equilibrium conditions of the system. The first law of thermodynamics is often called the law of the conservation of energy (actually mass-energy) because it says, in effect, that, when a system undergoes a process, the sum of all the energy transferred across the system boundary-either as heat or as work--is equal to the net change in the energy of the system.

the 2nd law deals with the concept of entropy, a measure of the disorder of a physical system

The second law of thermodynamics states that, in a closed system, the entropy does not decrease. Cars rust, dead trees decay, buildings collapse; all these things are examples of entropy in action, the spontaneous movement from order to disorder. There is one more influence of cosmological relationships upon macroscopic physics, which arises in connection with thermodynamics. The existence of irreversible processes in thermodynamics indicates a distinction between the positive and negative directions in time. As Clausius recognized in the 19th century, this irreversiblity reflects a quantity, first defined by him, called entropy, which measures the degree of randomness evolving from all physical processes by which their energies tend to degrade into heat. Entropy can only increase in the positive direction of time. In fact, the increase in entropy during a process is a measure of the irreversiblity of that process.

entropy is measured globally, i.e. local systems can lower their entropy, but only through the transfer to the larger system

The measure of entropy must be global. For example, you can pump heat out of a refrigerator (to make ice cubes), but the heat is placed in the house and the entropy of the house increases, even though the local entropy of the ice cube tray decreases. In a closed system, entropy never decreases. In open systems, entropy can decrease in local regions (e.g., the ice tray), but an increase in order in the open system is always paid for by a decrease in order (decrease in entropy) somewhere else (e.g., the outside room). In the growth of crystals, for example, the ordered arrangement of ions in a lattice produces heat which flows away to the nearby environment.

entropy leads to irreversible processes which are unexplained by Newtonian physics and its time independent laws temperature is the parameter that relates a system to its entropy, the 3rd law constrains temperature by making absolute zero an impossibility

Classical or Newtonian physics is incomplete because it does not include irreversible processes associated with the increase of entropy. The entropy of the whole Universe always increased with time. We are simply a local spot of low entropy and our destiny is linked to the unstoppable increase of disorder in our world => stars will burn out, civilizations will die from lack of power. The approach to equilibrium is therefore an irreversible process. The tendency toward equilibrium is so fundamental to physics that the second law is probably the most universal regulator of natural activity known to science. The concept of temperature enters into thermodynamics as a precise mathematical quantity that relates heat to entropy. The interplay of these three quantities is further constrained by the third law of thermodynamics, which deals with the absolute zero of temperature and its theoretical unattainability. Absolute zero (approximately -273 C) would correspond to a condition in which a system had achieved its lowest energy state. The third law states that, as this minimum temperature is approached, the further extraction of energy becomes more and more difficult.

Arrow of Time :

thermodynamics exposed some cracks in determinism and forced a closer look at the meaning of time in Newtonian physics the microscopic world is time reversible, the macroscopic world is not

Why do we perceive time as always moving forward? Why are our memories always of the past and never of the future? All the fundamental Newtonian laws are time reversible. Collisions look the same forwards or backwards. A box of gas molecules obeying Newton's laws perfectly does not have an inbuilt arrow of time. However, it is possible to show that the continual random molecular motions will cause the entire ensemble to visit and revisit every possible state of the box, much like the continual shuffling of a deck of cards will eventually reproduce any sequence.

Poincare's theorem states that Nature is divided in a multitude of states, less ordered states are more common then high ordered ones laws of chance requires that systems move towards high entropy states

This ability of Nature to be divided into a multitude of states makes it easier to understand why thermodynamical systems move toward equilibrium, known as Poincare's theorem. If a box of gas is in a low entropy state at one moment, it will very probably soon be in a less ordered state since given the large number of states for it to evolve to, most of those states are of higher entropy. So just by the laws of chance, the box has a higher probability of becoming a higher entropy state rather than a lower one since there are so many more possible high entropy states. Poincare's theorem claims that if every individual state has the same chance of being visited, then obviously mixed-up states are going to turn up much more often than the less mixed-up or perfectly ordered states, simply because there are many more of them.

it is not impossible for events to reverse themselves, just very, very, very improbable entropy

Thermodynamical events, such as a growing tree, are not reversible. Cracked eggs do not repair themselves. Defined by these events, time has an arrow, a preferred direction. Entropy and the arrow of time are strongly linked. Increasing entropy is in the direction of positive time. However, a study of the components to systems shows that the parts are describable in terms of time-symmetric laws. In other words, the microscopic world is ruled by time-symmetric laws, but the

determines the arrow of time, the origin of entropy may be cosmological

macroscopic world has a particular direction.

Home Companion Notes Atoms & ions

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We might as well attempt to introduce a new planet into the solar system, or to annihilate one already in existence, as to create or destroy a particle of hydrogen. John Dalton, A New System of Chemical Philosophy, 1808)

John Dalton (1766-1844) developed the first useful atomic theory of matter Vocabulary around 1803. In the course of his studies on meteorology, Dalton concluded that evaporated water exists in air as an independent gas. He wondered how water and atom air could occupy the same space at the same time, when obviously solid bodies chemical change can't. If the water and air were composed of discrete particles, Dalton reasoned, hypothesis evaporation might be viewed as a mixing of water particles with air particles. He stoichiometry performed a series of experiments on mixtures of gases to determine what effect properties of the individual gases had on the properties of the mixture as a whole. While trying to explain the results of those experiments, Dalton developed the hypothesis that the sizes of the particles making up different gases must be different. He later wrote [1] "...it became an object to determine the relative sizes and weights, together with the relative numbers of atoms entering into such combinations... Thus a train of investigation was laid for determining the number and weight of all chemical elementary particles which enter into any sort of combination one with another." Dalton's exceptional gift for recognizing and interpreting patterns in experimental data lead him from a problem in meteorology to the idea of atoms as fundamental constituents of matter. He realized the vital theoretical connection between atomic weights and weight relations in chemical reactions. He was the first to associate the ancient idea of atoms with stoichiometry. Some of the details of Dalton's original atomic theory are now known to be incorrect. But the core concepts of the theory (that chemical reactions can be explained by the union and separation of atoms, and that these atoms have characteristic properties) are foundations of modern physical science

Foundations of Dalton's atomic theory

Vocabulary atom atomic weight chemical change element hypothesis isotope law of conservation of mass law of definite proportions

Dalton's atomic theory makes the following assumptions:

1. All matter consists of tiny particles. The existence of atoms was first suggested more that 2000 years before Dalton's birth. Atoms remained pure speculation through most of this time, although Newton used arguments based on atoms to explain the gas laws in 1687. (Newton's speculations about atoms in the Principia were carefully copied by hand into Dalton's notebooks.) 2. Atoms are indestructible and unchangeable. Atoms of an element cannot be created, destroyed, broken into smaller parts or transformed into atoms of another element. Dalton based this hypothesis on the law of conservation of mass and on centuries of experimental evidence.
With the discovery of subatomic particles after Dalton's time, it became apparent that atoms could be broken into smaller parts. The discovery of nuclear processes showed that it was even possible to transform atoms from one element into atoms of another. But we don't consider processes that affect the nucleus to be chemical processes. The postulate is still useful in explaining the law of conservation of mass in chemistry. A slightly more restrictive wording is "Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or transformed into other atoms in a chemical change".

law of multiple proportions nucleus weight

3. Elements are characterized by the mass of their atoms. All atoms of the same element have identical weights, Dalton asserted. Atoms of different elements have different weights. (Dalton used the word "weight" rather than mass, and chemists have called atomic masses "atomic weights" ever since).
We now know that atoms of the same element sometimes have slightly different masses, but always have identical nuclear charge. In modern atomic theory, the postulate has been amended to read: "Elements are characterized by the nuclear charge of their atoms".

4. When elements react, their atoms combine in in the bombing of Manchester in World War II. Note the simple, whole-number ratios. This postulate incorrect formula for water. suggested a practical strategy for determining relative atomic weights from elemental percentages in compounds. Experimental atomic weights could then be used to explain the fixed mass percentages of elements in all compounds of those elements!
By suggesting that compounds contained characteristic atom-to-atom ratios, Dalton effectively explained the law of definite proportions.

A page from Dalton's notebook, burned

5. When elements react, their atoms sometimes combine in more than one simple, whole-number ratio. Dalton used this postulate to explain why the weight ratios of nitrogen to oxygen in various nitrogen oxides were themselves simple multiples of each other. Even Dalton's critics were impressed by the

power and simplicity of his explanation, and it persuaded many of them that his atomic theory was worthy of further investigation. Unfortunately, Dalton included an additional postulate that prevented his theory from being accepted for many years. When atoms combine in only one ratio, Dalton said, "..it must be presumed to be a binary one, unless some cause appear to the contrary" [2]. He had no experimental evidence to support this postulate, and it lead him to mistakenly assume that the formula of water was OH and the formula of ammonia was NH. As a result, Dalton's atomic weights for oxygen and nitrogen were incorrect and his experimental data did not support many of the conclusions he drew from it. A consistent set of atomic weights was absolutely essential before the theory could be accepted and applied. Next, we'll see how Dalton's postulates can be used to estimate atomic weights from experimental data, and how they explain three basic laws of chemistry.
Dalton's Atomic Theory

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The law of fixed composition

1 atom C @ 12 u each = 12 u C 2 atoms O @ 16 u each = 32 u O 4 atoms C @ 12 u each = 48 u C 8 atoms O @ 16 u each = 128 u O

8 atoms C @ 12 u each = 96 u C 16 atoms O @ 16 u each = 256 u O

} } }

12/32 = 0.375 u C / u O

48/128 = 0.375 u C / u O

96/256 = 0.375 u C / u O

The law of fixed composition Quiz: Dalton's Atomic Theory

1. Hydrogen combines with nitrogen in a 3:14 weight ratio to form ammonia. If every molecule of ammonia contains three atoms of hydrogen and one atom of nitrogen, an atom of nitrogen must weigh: 3/14 times the mass of a hydrogen atom 14/3 times the mass of a hydrogen atom the charge on their ions the density of their solid forms 14 times the mass of a hydrogen atom 3 times the mass of a hydrogen atom

2. Dalton said that elements are different distinguished from each other by: the shapes of their atoms the weights of their atoms

3. Which of the following is not a postulate of Dalton's atomic theory? atoms are not created or destroyed in chemical change atoms of a single element can have different masses chemical change is a rearrangement of atoms different elements have atoms of different masses atoms combine in simple whole number ratios to form compounds 4. Hydrogen combines with fluorine in a 1:19 weight ratio to form hydrogen fluoride. If every molecule of hydrogen fluoride contains one atom of hydrogen and one atom of fluorine, an atom of fluorine must weigh: 38 times the mass of a hydrogen atom 19 times the mass of a hydrogen atom 5. Dalton viewed chemical change as: a transfer of protons a nuclear exchange a change of atoms from one type into another
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1/19 times the mass of a hydrogen atom 1/38 times the mass of a hydrogen atom a rearrangement of atoms creation and destruction of atoms a transfer of electrons

The Atomic Theory

The development of the atomic theory owes much to the work of two men: Antoine Lavoisier, who did not himself think of matter in terms of atoms but whose work laid organization groundwork for thinking about elements, and John Dalton, to whom the atomic theory is attributed. Much of Lavoisiers work as a chemist was devoted to the study of combustion. He became convinced that when a substance is burned in air, it combines with some component of the air. Eventually he realized that this component was the dephlogisticated air which had been discovered by Joseph Priestly (1733 to 1804) a few years earlier. Lavoisier renamed this substance oxygen. In an important series of experiments he showed that when mercury is heated in oxygen at a moderatetemperature, a red substance, calx of mercury, is obtained. (A calx is the ash left when a substance burns in air.) At a higher temperature this calx decomposes into mercury and oxygen. Lavoisiers careful experiments also revealed that the combined masses of mercury and oxygen were exactly equal to the mass of calx of mercury. That is, there was no change in mass

upon formation or decomposition of the calx. Lavoisier hypothesized that this should be true of all chemical changes, and further experiments showed that he was right. This principle is now called the law of conservation of mass. As Lavoisier continued his experiments with oxygen, he noticed something else. Although oxygen combined with many other substances, it never behaved as though it were itself a combination of other substances. Lavoisier was able to decompose the red calx into mercury and oxygen, but he could find no way to break down oxygen into two or more new substances. Because of this he suggested that oxygen must be anelementan ultimately simple substance which could not be decomposed by chemical changes. Lavoisier did not originate the idea that certain substances (elements) were fundamental and all others could be derived from them. This had first been proposed in Greece during the fifth century B.C. by Empedocles, who speculated that all matter consisted of combinations of earth, air, fire, and water. These ideas were further developed and taught by Aristotle and remained influential for 2000 years. Lavoisier did, however, produce the first table of the elements which contained a large number of substances that modern chemists would agree should be classifies as elements. He published it with the knowledge that further research might succeed decomposing some of the substances listed, thus showing them not to be elements. One of his objectives was to prod his contemporaries into just that kind of research. Sure enough the earth substances listed at the bottom were eventually shown to be combinations of certain metals with oxygen. It is also interesting to note that not even Lavoisier could entirely escape from Aristotles influence. The second element in his list is Aristotles fire, which Lavoisier called caloric, and which we now call heat. Both heat and light, the first two items in the table, are now regarded as forms of energyrather than of matter. Although his table of elements was incomplete, and even incorrect in some instances, Lavoisiers work represented a major step forward. By classifying certain substances as elements, he stimulated much additional chemical research and brought order and structure to the subject where none had existed before. His contemporaries accepted his ideas very readily, and he became known as the father of chemistry. John Dalton[1] (1766 to 1844) was a generation younger than Lavoisier and different from him in almost every respect. Dalton came from a working class family and only attended elementary school. Apart from this, he was entirely self-taught. Even after he became famous, he never aspired beyond a modest bachelors existence in which he supported himself by teaching mathematics to private pupils. Dalton made many contributions to science, and he seems not to have realized that his atomic theory was the most important of them. In his New System of Chemical Philosophy published in 1808, only the last seven pages out of a total of 168 are devoted to it! The postulates of the atomic theory are given in the following table. The first is no advance on the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus[2] who had theorized almost 2000 years earlier that matter consists of very small particles.

The Postulates of Dalton's Atomic Theory 1 All matter is composed of a very large number of very small particles called atoms. 2 For a given element, all atoms are identical in all respects. In particular all atoms of the same element have the same constant mass, while atoms of different elements have different masses. 3 The atoms are the units of chemical changes. Chemical reactions involve the combination, separation, or rearrangement of atoms, but atoms are neither created, destroyed, divided into parts, or converted into atoms of any other kind. 4 Atoms combine to form molecules in fixed ratios of small whole numbers. The second postulate, however, shows the mark of an original genius; here Dalton links the idea of atom to the idea of element. Lavoisiers criterion for an element had been essentially a macroscopic, experimental one. If a substance could not be decomposed chemically, then it was probably an element. By contrast, Dalton defines an element in theoretical, microscopic terms. An element is an element because all its atoms are the same. Different elements have different atoms. There are just as many different kinds of elements as there are different kinds of atoms. Now look back a moment to the physical states of mercury, where microscopic pictures of solid, liquid, and gaseous mercury were given. Applying Daltons second postulate to this figure, you can immediately conclude that mercury is an element, because only one kind of atom appears. Although mercury atoms are drawn as spheres in the figure, it would be more common today to represent them using chemical symbols. The chemical symbol for an element (or an atom of that element) is a oneor two-letter abbreviation of its name. Usually, but not always, the first two letters are used. To complicate matters further, chemical symbols are sometimes derived from a language other than English. For example the symbol for Hg for mercury comes from the first and seventh letters of the elements Latin name, hydrargyrum. Names, Chemical Symbols, and Atomic Weights of the Element

Name Actinium2 Aluminum Americium2 Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine2 Barium Berkelium2

Atomic Symbo Atomic Numbe Name l Weight r Ac 89 (227) Molybdenum Al 13 26.981 5386(8) Neodymium Am 95 (243) Neon Sb 51 121.760(1) Neptunium2 Ar 18 39.948(1) Nickel As 33 74.92160(2) Niobium At 85 (210) Nitrogen Ba 56 137.327(7) Nobelium2 Bk 97 (247) Osmium

Atomic Symbo Atomic Numbe l Weight r Mo 42 95.96(2) Nd 60 144.242(3) Ne 10 20.1797(6) Np 93 (237) Ni 28 58.6934(4) Nb 41 92.90638(2) N 7 14.0067(2) No 102 (259) 190.23(3) Os 76

Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium2 Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium2 Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Curium2 Darmstadtium
2

Be Bi Bh B Br Cd Ca Cf C Ce Cs Cl Cr Co Cu Cm Ds Db Dy Es Er Eu Fm F Fr Gd Ga Ge Au Hf Hs He Ho H In I Ir

4 83 107 5 35 48 20 98 6 58 55 17 24 27 29 96 110 105 66 99 68 63 100 9 87 64 31 32 79 72 108 2 67 1 49 53 49

9.012182(3) 208.98040(1) (272) 10.811(7) 79.904(1) 112.411(8) 40.078(4) (251) 12.0107(8) 140.116(1) 132.9054519(2 ) 35.453(2) 51.9961(6) 58.933195(5) 63.546(3) (247) (281) (268) 162.500(1) (252) 167.259(3) 151.964(1) (257) 18.9984032(5) (223) 157.25(3) 69.723(1) 72.64(1) 196.966569(4) 178.49(2) (277) 4.002602(2) 164.93032(2) 1.00794(7) 114.818(3) 126.90447(3) 192.217(3)

Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium2 Polonium2 Potassium Praseodymium Promethium2 Protactinium2 Radium2 Radon2 Rhenium Rhodium Roentgenium2 Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium
2

O Pd P Pt Pu Po K Pr Pm Pa Ra Rn Re Rh Rg Rb Ru Rf Sm Sc Sg Se Si Ag Na Sr S Ta Tc Te Tb Tl Th Tm Sn Ti W

8 46 15 78 94 84 19 59 61 91 88 86 75 45 111 37 44 104 62 21 106 34 14 47 11 38 16 73 43 52 65 81 90 69 50 22 74

15.9994(3) 106.42(1) 30.973762(2) 195.084(9) (244) (209) 39.0983(1) 140.90765(2) (145) 231.03588(2) (226) (222) 186.207(1) 102.90550(2) (280) 85.4678(3) 101.07(2) (267) 150.36(2) 44.955912(6) (271) 78.96(3) 28.0855(3) 107.8682(2) 22.98976928(2 ) 87.62(1) 32.065(5) 180.94788(2) (98) 127.60(3) 158.92535(2) 204.3833(2) 232.03806(2) 168.93421(2) 118.710(7) 47.867(1) 183.84(1)

Dubnium2 Dysprosium Einsteinium2 Erbium Europium Fermium2 Fluorine Francium2 Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium2 Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium

Samarium Scandium Seaborgium2 Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium2 Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium2 Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten

Iron Fe Krypton Kr Lanthanum La 2 Lawrencium Lr Lead Pb Lithium Li Lutetium Lu Magnesium Mg Manganese Mn 2 Meitnerium Mt Mendelevium2 Md Mercury Hg

26 36 57 103 82 3 71 12 25 109 101 80

55.845(2) 83.798(2) 138.90547(7) (262) 207.2(1) [6.941(2)]1 174.9668(1) 24.3050(6) 54.938045(5) (276) (258) 200.59(2)

Uranium2 Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium -2,3,4 -2,3 - 2,3 -2,3 -2,3 -2,3

U V Xe Yb Y Zn Zr

92 23 54 70 39 30 40 112 113 114 115 116 118

238.02891(3) 50.9415(1) 131.293(6) 173.054(5) 88.90585(2) 65.38(2) 91.224(2) (285) (284) (287) (288) (293) (294)

The chemical symbols for all the currently known elements are listed above in the table, which also includes atomic weights. These symbols are the basic vocabulary of chemistry because the atoms they represent make up all matter. You will see symbols for the more important elements over and over again, and the sooner you know what element they stand for, the easier it will be for you to learn chemistry. These more important element have been indicated in the above table by colored shading around their names. Daltons fourth postulate states that atoms may combine to form molecules. An example of this is provided by bromine, the only element other than mercury which is a liquid at ordinary room temperature (20C). Macroscopically, bromine consists of dark-colored crystals below 7.2C and a reddish brown gas above 58.8C. The liquid is dark red-brown and has a pungent odor similar to the chlorine used in swimming pools. It can cause severe burns on human skin and should not be handled without the protection of rubber gloves. The microscopic view of bromine in the following figure is in agreement with its designation as an elementonly one kind of atom is present. Except at very high temperatures, though, bromine atoms always double up. Whether in solid, liquid, or gas, they go around in pairs. Such a tightly held combination of two or more atoms is called a molecule.

'''Microscopic view of the diatomic molecule of the element bromine (''a'') in the gaseous state (above 58C); (''b'') in liquid form (between -7.2 and 58.8C); and (''c'') in solid form (below 7.2C).'''

a the gas phase

b the liquid phase

c the solid phase

The composition of a molecule is indicated by a chemical formula. A subscript to the right of the symbol for each element tells how many atoms of that element are in the molecule. For example, the atomic weights table gives the chemical symbol Br for bromine, but each molecule contains two bromine atoms, and so the chemical formulais Br2. According to Daltons fourth postulate, atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers, and so the subscripts in a formula should be small whole numbers. (Instructors must log in to get editing information.)

The Structure of Atoms

We have examined the theoretical implications and practical applications of John Daltons ideas about atoms in our discussion on atoms, molecules and chemical reactions, and using chemical equations in calculations. Clearly the atomic theory is a powerful tool which aids our thinking about how much of one substance can combine with (or be produced from) a given quantity of another. The theory is much less helpful, however, when we try to speculate about what holds the atoms together in molecules such as Br2, HgBr2 and Hg2Br2. As you have seen, techniques are available forexperimental determination of the formula of a new compound, but Daltons theory is of little value in predicting formulas. Neither does it tell us which elements are likely to combine with which, nor indicate what chemical and physical properties are to be expected of the compounds which form. The ability to make predictions about chemical reactivity and properties is very important because it guides chemists efforts to synthesize new substances which are of value to society at large. Medicines, metals, transistors, plastics, textiles, fertilizers, and many other things that we take for granted today have been made possible by detailed knowledge of chemical and physical properties. Such knowledge also permits greater understanding of how the natural world works and what changes (favorable or detrimental) may be brought about by human activities. Knowledge of chemical reactivity and properties may be approached on both the macroscopic and microscopic levels. Macroscopically this involves what is called descriptive chemistry. The person who first carries out a chemical reaction describes what happened, usually in terms of a balanced equation,

and lists properties of any new substances. This enables other scientists to repeat the experiment if they wish. Even if the work is not carried out again, the descriptive report allows prediction of what would happen if it were repeated. The microscopic approach uses theory to predict which substances will react with which. During the past century Daltons atomic theory has been modified so that it can help us to remember the properties of elements and compounds. We now attribute structure to each kind of atom and expect atoms having similar structures to undergo similar reactions. Such work has led to the classification of groups of elements, for instance the alkali metals, halogens, alkaline earth metals, and many more. The additional complication of learning about atomic structure is repaid manyfold by the increased ability of our microscopic model to predict macroscopic properties. In the following sections, you will see that a number of quite different kinds of experiments contributed to the extension of Daltons atomic theory to include subatomic particles and atomic structure. The periodic variation of valence and theperiodic tables successful correlation of macroscopic properties indicate that atoms must have certain specific ways of connecting to other atoms. It is reasonable to assume that valence depends on some underlying atomic structure. Atoms which are similar in structure should exhibit the same valence and have similar chemical and physical properties. While the periodicity was initially based upon atomic weight,exceptions to periodic law based upon weight implied some other property led to periodicity. The property on which periodicity is based is the electronic structure of atoms. Our model for electronic structure is both scientifically and philsophically interesting, because it is based on a wave model for electrons. Click on the " orbital" notations 1s , 1s , 2s to see the spherical overall shapes of the 3 dimensional distributions for the first 3 electrons added to a lithium nucleus. The dots represent positions of electrons at various times. The discovery of radioactivity and transmutation implied that one kind of atom could change into another. This can he explained if atoms have structure. A change in that structure may produce a new kind of atom. Experiments with cathode-ray tubes indicated that electrons, which are very light and carry a negative charge, are present in all atoms. Rutherfords interpretation of the Geiger-Marsden experiment suggested that electrons occupy most of the volume of the atom while most of the mass is concentrated in a small positively charged nucleus.Moseleys x-ray spectra and the existence of isotopes made it quite clear that Daltons emphasis on the importance of atomic weight would have to he dropped.The chemical behavior of an atom is determined by how many protons are in the nucleus. Changing the number of neutrons changes the atomic mass but has very little effect on chemistry. The identity of an element depends on its atomic number, not on its atomic weight. If the periodic law is restated as When the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, their properties vary periodically, there are no exceptions. (Instructors must log in to get editing information.)
1 2 1

Atoms, Molecules, and Chemical Reactions

Two very important things that chemists (and scientists in general) do include making quantitative measurements, and communicating the results of experiments as clearly and unambiguously as possible. We will now deal with another important activity of chemists the use of their imaginations to devise theories or models to interpret their observations and measurements. Such theories or models are useful in suggesting new observations or experiments that yield additional data. They also serve to summarize existing information and aid in its recall. The atomic theory, first proposed in modern form by John Dalton, is one of the most important and useful ideas in chemistry. It interprets observations of the every-day world in terms of particles called atoms and molecules. Macroscopic eventsthose which humans can observe or experience with their unaided sensesare interpreted by means of microscopic objectsthose so small that a special instrument or apparatus must be used to detect them. (Perhaps the term submicroscopic really ought to be used, because most atoms and molecules are much too small to be seen even under a microscope.) In any event, chemists continually try to explain the macroscopic world in microscopic terms. The contrasting properties of solids, liquids, and gases, for example, may be ascribed to differences in spacing between and speed of motion of the constituent atoms or molecules. In the form originally proposed by John Dalton, the atomic theory distinguished elements from compounds and was used to explain the law of constant composition and predicted the law of multiple proportions. The theory also agreed with Lavoisier's law of conservation of mass. An important aspect of the atomic theory is the assignment of relative masses (atomic weights) to the elements. Atoms and molecules are extremely small. Therefore, when calculating how much of onesubstance is required to react with another, chemists use a unit called the mole. Onemole contains 6.022 10
23

of whatever kind of microscopic particles one

wishes to consider. Referring to 2 mol Br2 specifies a certain number of Br2 molecules in the same way

that referring to 10 gross of pencils specifies a certain number of pencils. The quantity which is measured in the units called moles is known as the amount of substance. The somewhat unusual number 6.022 10 , also refered to as theAvogadro Constant, which specifies how many particles are in a mole, has been chosen so that the mass of 1 mol of atoms of any element is the atomic weight of that element expressed in grams. Similarly, the mass of a mole of molecules is themolecular weight expressed in grams. The molecular weight is obtained by summing atomic weights of all atoms in the molecule. This choice for the mole makes it very convenient to obtain molar massessimply add the units grams per mole to the atomic or molecular weight. Using molar mass and the Avogadro constant, it is possible to determine the masses of individual atoms or molecules and to find how many atoms or molecules are present in a macroscopic sample of matter. A table of atomic weights and the molar masses which can be obtained from it can also be used to obtain the empirical formula of a substance if we know the percentage by weight of each element present. The opposite calculation, determination of weight percent from a chemical formula, is also possible. Once formulas for reactants and products are known, abalanced chemical equation can be written to describe any chemical change.Balancing an equation by adjusting the coefficients applied to each formula depends on the postulate of the atomic theory which states that atoms are neither created, destroyed, nor changed into atoms of another kind during a chemical reaction. (Instructors must log in to get editing information.
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The Mass The standard for every unit must be defined. Length is an example. The basic unit of length is the meter which was defined in 1983 as equal to the distance traveled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second. Mass must also be defined. The definition of mass today is the amu (atomic mass unit). The amu is defined in the following way: the mass of one atom of the carbon-12 isotope is EXACTLY 12 amu. mass of one carbon-12 atom = 12 amu All other masses are measured relative to this carbon-12 standard. For example, suppose we do an experiment and find that the isotope bromine-81 has a mass that is 6.743 times that of carbon-12. Then the mass of bromine-81 would be given by

tomic Weights

Most elements can be found on earth (with the exception of those elements that too unstable and thus must be synthesized in the laboratory). Since all elements have isotopes then we must consider how much of one isotope of an element exists versus another isotope of the same element. These are called the "natural" abundances on earth. Natural Abundances:
Suppose we go to a cave and mine element "X". After careful analysis we find that in our sample of element X there exists three isotopes: Xa, Xb and Xc. Moreover, we find that out of every 100 atoms the various isotopes are distributed as follows: For Every 100 atoms of X No. of Isotope atoms Xa 30 Xb 60 Xc 10 Then we say that the natural percent abundance of Xa is 30 %, of Xb is 60 % and of Xc is 10 %.

Next, we can inquire what the mass of element X is? Since each isotope has a different mass (because each isotope has a different number of neutrons) the simplest

answer is to give the "average" mass of element X - the atomic weight. After more analysis the mass of each isotope is determined to be the following:
Isotope Masses of X Mass Isotope (amu) Xa 54 Xb 56 Xc 59

Then the average mass (atomic weight) is given by:

The atomic weight of each element is included along with the element symbol in the periodic table. It is important to note that no one atom has a mass equal to that of the atomic weight. Remember: the atomic weight represents that average mass of the atoms. Dalton's Atomic Theory Democritus first suggested the existence of the atom but it took almost two millennia before the atom was placed on a solid foothold as a fundamental chemical object by John Dalton (1766-1844). Although two centuries old, Dalton's atomic theory remains valid in modern chemical thought.

Dalton's Atomic Theory 1) All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible. 2) All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties 3) Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms. 4) A chemical reaction is arearrangement of atoms.

Modern atomic theory is, of course, a little more involved than Dalton's theory but the essence of Dalton's theory remains valid. Today we know that atoms can be destroyed via nuclear reactions but not by chemical reactions. Also, there are different kinds of atoms (differing by their masses) within an element that are known as "isotopes", but isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties. Many heretofore unexplained chemical phenomena were quickly explained by Dalton with his theory. Dalton's theory quickly became the theoretical foundation in chemistry. Composition of the Atom Atoms have a definite structure. This structure determines the chemical and physical properties of matter. This atomic structure was not fully understood until the discovery of the neutron in 1932. The history of the discovery of atomic structure is one of the most interesting and profound stories in science. In 1910 Rutherford was the first to propose what is accepted today as the basic structure of the atom. Today

the Rutherford model is called the "planetary" model of the atom. In the planetary model of the atom there exists a nucleus at the center made up of positively charged particles called "protons" and electrically neutral atoms called "neutrons". Surrounding or "orbiting" this nucleus are the electrons. In elements the number of electrons equals the number of protons.

The picture above greatly exaggerates the size of the nucleus relative to that of the atom. The nucleus is about 100,000 times smaller than the atom. Nevertheless, the nucleus contains essentially all of the mass of the atom. In order to discuss the mass of an atom we need to define a new unit of mass appropriate to that of an atom. This new unit of mass is called the "atomic mass unit" or amu. The conversion between the amu and gram is 1 amu = 1.67x10-24 g The mass, in amu, of the three particles is given in the table below:

Note that the mass of an electron is about 2000 times smaller than that of the proton and neutron. Also note that the mass of the proton and neutron is close to 1 amu. This is a useful fact to remember. If the number of electrons does not equal the number of protons in the nucleus then the atom is an ion: cation: number of electrons < number of protons anion: number of electrons > number of protons

are the basis of chemistry. They are the basis for everything in the Universe. You should start by remembering that matter is composed of atoms. Atoms and the study of atoms are a world unto themselves. We're going to cover basics like atomic structure and bonding between atoms. As you learn more, you can move to thebiochemistry pages and see how atoms form compounds that help the biological world survive.

Smaller Than Atoms?

Are there pieces of matter that are smaller than atoms? Sure there are. You'll soon be learning that atoms are composed of pieces like electrons, protons, and neutrons. But guess what? There are even smaller particles moving around in atoms. These super-small particles can be found inside the protons and neutrons. Scientists have many names for those pieces, but you may have heard ofnucleons and quarks. Nuclear chemists and physicists work together at particle acceleratorsto discover the presence of these tiny, tiny, tiny pieces of matter. Even though super-tiny atomic particles exist, you only need to remember the three basic parts of an atom: electrons, protons, and neutrons. What are electrons, protons, and neutrons? A picture works best to show off the idea. You have a basic atom. There are three types of pieces in that atom: electrons, protons, and neutrons. That's all you have to remember. Three things! As you know, there are almost 120 known elements in the periodic table. Chemists and physicists haven't stopped there. They are trying to make new ones in labs every day. The thing that makes each of those elements different is the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons. The protons and neutrons are always in the center of the atom. Scientists call the center region of the atom the nucleus. The nucleus in a cell is a thing. The nucleus in an atom is a place where you find protons and neutrons. The electrons are always found whizzing around the center in areas called shells or orbitals. You can also see that each piece has either a "+", "-", or a "0." That symbol refers to the charge of the particle. Have you ever heard about getting a shock from a socket, static electricity, or lightning? Those are all different types of electric charges. Those charges are also found in tiny particles of matter. The electron always has a "-", or negative, charge. The proton always has a "+", or positive, charge. If the charge of an entire atom is "0", or neutral, there are equal numbers of positive and negative pieces. Neutral means there are equal numbers of electrons and protons. The third particle is the neutron. It has a neutral charge, also known as a charge of zero. All atoms have equal

numbers of protons and electrons so that they are neutral. If there are more positive protons or negative electrons in an atom, you have a special atom called an ion.

Atomic Structure The text provides a historical perspective of how the internal structure of the atom was discovered. It is certainly one of the most important scientific discoveries of this century, and I recommend that you read through it. However, we will begin our discussion of the atom from the modern day perspective. All atoms are made from three subatomic particles Protons, neutron & electrons. These particles have the following properties: Particle Proton Neutron Electron Charge +1 0 -1 Mass (g) 1.6727 x 10-24 g 1.6750 x 10-24 g 9.110 x 10-28 g Mass (amu) 1.007316 1.008701 0.000549

In the above table I have used a unit of mass called the atomic mass unit (amu). This unit is much more convenient to use than grams for describing masses of atoms. It is defined so that both protons and neutrons have a mass of approximately 1 amu. Its precise definition will be given later. The important points to keep in mind are as follows:

Protons and neutrons have almost the same mass, while the electron is approximately 2000 times lighter.

Protons and electrons carry charges of equal magnitude, but opposite charge. Neutrons carry no charge (they are neutral).

It was once thought that protons, neutrons and electrons were spread out in a rather uniform fashion to form the atom (see J.J. Thompsons plum pudding model of the atom on page 42), but now we know the actual structure of the atom to be quite different. What does an atom look like? Protons and neutrons are held together rather closely in the center of the atom. Together they make up the nucleus, which accounts for nearly all of the mass of the atom. Electrons move rapidly around the nucleus and constitute almost the entire volume of the atom. Although quantum mechanics are necessary to explain the motion of an electron about the nucleus, we can say that the distribution of electrons about an atom is such that the atom has a spherical shape. Atoms have sizes on the order of 1-5 (1 angstrom = 1 = 1 10-10 m) and masses on the order of 1-300 amu. To put the mass and dimensions of an atom into perspective consider the following analogies. If an atom were the size of Ohio stadium, the nucleus would only be the size of a small marble. However, the mass of that marble would be ~ 115 million tons. What holds an atom together? The negatively charged electron is attracted to the positively charged nucleus by a Coulombic attraction. The protons and neutrons are held together in the nucleus by the strong nuclear force.

How many electrons, protons and neutrons are contained in an atom? Atoms in their natural state have no charge, that is they are neutral. Therefore, in a neutral atom the number of protons and electrons are the same. If this condition is violated the atom has a net charge and is called an ion. The number of protons in the nucleus determines the identity of the atom. For example all carbon atoms contain six protons, all gold atoms contain 79 protons, all lead atoms contain 82 protons. Two atoms with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. How does the structure of the atom relate to its properties? Chemical reactions involve either the transfer or the sharing of electrons between atoms. Therefore, the chemical reactivity/ properties of an element is primarily dependent upon the number of electrons in an atom of that element. Protons also play a significant role because the tendency for an atom to either lose, gain or share electrons is dependent upon the charge of the nucleus. Therefore, we can say that the chemical reactivity of an atom is dependent upon the number of electrons and protons, and independent of the number of neutrons. The mass and radioactive properties of an atom are dependent upon the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Note: The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom completely determine its properties and identity, regardless of how and where the atom was made. So it is inaccurate to speak of synthetic atoms and natural atoms. In other words a lead atom is a lead atom, end of story. It doesnt matter if was mined from the earth, produced in a nuclear reactor, or came to earth on an asteroid.

Symbolism There is a symbolism or shorthand for describing atoms which is universally used across all scientific disciplines Atomic Number (Z) The # of protons Mass Number (A) [The # of protons] + [the # of neutrons] The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom are uniquely specified by the following symbol
A

SyC

where:

Sy = The elemental symbol (i.e. C, N, Cr) defines the # of protons A = The mass number [# of protons] + [# of neutrons] C = The net charge [# of protons] [# of electrons]

Example Lets start with a neutral boron 10 atom 10B Since the atom is a boron atom the periodic table tells us that there are 5 protons in the nucleus Z = 5. The atom is neutral so that the number of electrons must balance the number of protons, 5 electrons. The mass number is 10, so that the number of neutrons is A - Z = 10 - 5 = 5 neutrons.

In chemistry and physics the idea of the atom is a key concept. To understand many of the other concepts in chemistry some knowledge of the atom is necessary. In this section the following topics will be discussed:

SubAtomic Particles Basic Structure of an Atom Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes Avogadro's Number and The Mole

Subatomic Particles
The basic conception of a subject now known as subatomic particle physics dates back to 500 BC when the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his pupil Democritus suggested that matter consists of small, indivisible particles, which they called atoms. For more than 2000 years after this, the notion of atoms lay in obscurity. For quite a long time, people believed that all matter consisted of four elements: earth, fire, air, and water. We now know that atoms do exist, and that some particles smaller than atoms also exist. These subatomic particles are divided into two main groups, the leptons and the hadrons. The best known lepton ("light" particle) is the electron. In order to account for the emission of electrons from the nucleus, the neutrino, an essentially massless neutral particle was postulated. The muon and the tau, both much more massive than the electron, comprise the rest of the lepton family. The hadrons are divided into two groups, the mesons and the baryons. Protons and neutrons are baryons. Mesons and baryons are made of smaller particles called quarks. There are six different quarks: up, down, charmed, strange, top, and bottom. While these are cool names, they convey nothing about the distinct properties of the quark. Each quark comes in three different colors: red blue and green. Again, the color label has nothing to do with the quark's appearance. Baryons are composed of three quarks,

mesons are composed of a quark and an antiquark. Now that you have probably been thoroughly confused, move on, and hopefully that confusion will go away.

SubAtomic Particles | Basic Structure of an Atom | Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes | Avogadro's Number, The Mole, and Atomic Weight | Top of the page

Basic structure of an atom

The picture below is an example of the arrangement of the particles in an atom. Most of the atom is just empty space. The rest of the atom consists of a positively charged nucleus of protons and neutrons that are surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The nucleus is the center of the atom. An atom is an extremely small particle of matter that retains its identity during chemical reactions. During the latter nineteenth century a series of experiments showed that atoms are comprised of smaller particles. An atom consists of a nucleus and one or more electrons surrounding the nucleus. The nucleus, the core of the atom, has the majority of the mass of the atom and a positive charge. An electron is a very light particle which circles the nucleus. It has a negative charge. In an electrically neutral atom, the number of electrons equals the positive charge on the nucleus. The nucleus of the atom is composed of smaller particles called neutrons and protons. A proton has a positive charge equal in magnitude to the negative charge of an electron. This means that in an electrically neutral atom, the postive of charge the protons, combined with the negative charge of the electrons, would result in no charge because they would cancel each other out. A proton's mass, however, is a whopping 1836 times that of the electron. A neutron, however, has a mass almost identical to a proton's, but it has no electrical charge associated with it.

Particle Proton Neutron

Location Nucleus Nucleus

Weight 1.0073 amu 1.0087 amu

Charge Positive Neutral

Electrons Electron Cloud 0.000549 amu Negative

SubAtomic Particles | Basic Structure of an Atom | Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes | Avogadro's Number, The Mole, and Atomic Weight | Top of the page

Atomic Number and Mass Number

The atomic number of an element is what distinguishes it from all other elements. An atom's atomic number is the number of protons there are in the nucleus. Hydrogen's atomic number is 1. Helium's atomic number is 2. Any atom that has an atomic number of 1 is a hydrogen atom no matter how many electrons or neutrons the atom has. The mass number is the number of neutrons added to the number of protons. The mass number of the most common isotope can be obtained from the periodic table. If you take the decimal number on the periodic table and round it to the nearest whole number, you have the mass number. For example the atomic weight of Iron(Fe) is 55.847. When rounded it gives a mass number of 56. The atomic number of Fe is 26. so most Fe atoms have 30 (56-26) neutrons. In addition, all neutral Fe atoms have 26 protons and 26 electrons. Atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons are called isotopes. The most common isotope of an element is the one that is on the periodic table.

The above graphic shows two isotopes of Hydrogen. The picture on the left is the most common isotope of hydrogen with one electron and one proton. The picture on

the right is another isotope of hydrogen with one proton, one electron, and a neutron. The most common isotope of uranium is uranium-238 which has 92 protons, 92 electrons, and 146 neutrons. Another isotope is uranium-235 with 92 protons, 92 electrons, and 143 neutrons. SubAtomic Particles | Basic Structure of an Atom | Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes | Avogadro's Number, The Mole, and Atomic Weight | Top of the page

Avagodro's number
Avogadro's number and the mole are very important to the understanding of atomic structure. The Mole is like a dozen. You can have a dozen guitars, a dozen roosters, or a dozen rocks. If you have 12 of anything then you would have what we call a dozen. The concept of the mole is just like the concept of a dozen. You can have a mole of anything. The number associated with a mole is Avogadro's number. Avogadro's number is 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (6.02 x 1023). A mole of marbles would spread over the surface of the earth, and produce a layer about 50 miles thick. A mole of sand, spread over the United States, would produce a layer 3 inches deep. A mole of dollars could not be spent at the rate of a billion dollars a day over a trillion years. This shows you just how big a mole is. This number is so large that it is usually only represented in scientific notation. Probably the only thing you will ever have a mole of is atoms or molecules. One mole of magnesium atoms (6.02 x 1023 magnesium atoms) weigh 24.3 grams. 6.02 x 1023 carbon atoms weigh a total of 12.0 grams. 6.02 x 1023 molecules of CO2 gas only weigh a total of 44.0 grams. The decimal number on the periodic table is the atomic mass, the mass of one atom measured in atomic mass units(amu). Amu's are defined to be 1/12 the weight of the most common isotope of Carbon. This number in grams is the mass of 1 mole of that element. For example, 6.02 x 1023iron atoms weigh only 55.847 grams.(This is equivalent to saying one mole of iron atoms weighs 55.847 grams.) One mole of sulfur weighs 32.066 grams. (This is the same as saying 6.02 x 1023 Sulfur atoms weigh 32.066 grams) When not measured in grams, the decimal number on the periodic table is called the atomic mass and is in atomic mass units(amu). As mentioned earlier, one proton weighs 1.0073 amu and 1 neutron weighs 1.0087 amu. So the atomic mass is the mass in amus of one atom of an element, but you rarely use the mass of one atom. Even if you have a tiny speck of a metal or a microgram of an element, you have billions and

billions of atoms. Thus, the mass in grams of one mole of an element (the gram atomic weight) is more useful. SubAtomic Particles | Basic Structure of an Atom | Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes | Avogadro's Number, The Mole, and Atomic Weight | Top of the page

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Matter has mass and takes up space. Atoms are basic building blocks of matter, and cannot be chemically subdivided by ordinary means.
The word atom is derived from the Greek word atom which means indivisible. The Greeks concluded that matter could be broken down into particles to small to be seen. These particles were called atoms
Note: Teachers, Parents, Students. It's time to

start preparing for State Math and Science Tests

Grades 4-8 Atoms are composed of three type of particles: protons, neutrons, and electron. Protons and neutrons are responsible for most of the atomic mass e.g in a 150 person 149 lbs, 15 oz are protons and neutrons while only 1 oz. is electrons. The mass of an electron is very small Mass (9.108 X 10-28 grams). Volume Both the protons and neutrons reside in the nucleus. Protons have a postive (+) charge, neutrons have no charge --they are neutral. Electrons reside in orbitals around the nucleus. They have a negative charge (-). It is the number of protons that determines the atomic number, e.g., H = 1. The number of protons in an element is constant (e.g., H=1, Ur=92) but neutron number may vary, so mass number (protons + neutrons) may vary. The same element may contain varying numbers of neutrons; these forms of an element are called isotopes. The chemical properties of isotopes are the same, although the physical properties of some isotopes may be different. Some isotopes are radioactive-meaning they "radiate" energy as they decay to a more stable form, perhaps another element half-life: time required for half of the atoms of an element to decay into stable form. Another example is oxygen, with atomic number of 8 can have 8, 9, or 10 neutrons.
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What are elements?

Biology

All matter is made up of elements which are fundamental substances which cannot be broken down by chemical means. There are 92 elements that occur naturally. The elements hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen are the elements that make up most living organisms. Some other elements found in living organisms are: magnesium, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium. By the late 1800's many elements had already been discovered. The scientist Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, proposed an arrangement of know elements based on their atomic mass. The modern arrangement of the elements is known as the Periodic Table of Elements and is arranged according to the atomic number of elements.

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Here is an Interactive Table of Elements where you can learn more about each of the elements.

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What makes each element unique? Every atom would like to have an electron configuration like a noble gases. In noble gases the outer electron shell is complete. This makes the element chemically inert. Helium is an example of a noble (inert) gas. It is not present in organisms because it is not chemically reactive.
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Historical Models of the atom BOHR MODEL Bohr model shows electrons circling the nucleus at different levels or orbitals much like planets circle the sun. Electrons move from one energy state to another but can only exist aft defineite energy levels. The energy absorbed or released when electrons change states is in the form of electromagnetic radiation. THE WAVE MODEL AND QUANTUM THEORY The Bohr model was only able to explain the very simplest atoms, like hydrogen. Today's modern day theory is based on mathematics and the properties of waves. The wave model forms the basis for the Quantum Theory . This theory gives the probability of locating electrons in a particular location, unlike assuming electrons orbit the nucleus as in the Bohr model.

How are electrons organized around the nucleus? All atoms would like to attain electron configurations like noble gases. That is, have completed outer shells. Atoms can form stable electron configurations like noble gases by: 1. losing electrons 2. sharing electrons 3. gaining electrons. For a stable configuration each atom must fill its outer energy level. In the case of noble gases that means eight electrons in the last shell (with the exception of He which has two electrons). Atoms that have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer levels will tend to lose them in interactions with atoms that have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer levels. Atoms that have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer levels will tend to gain electrons from atoms with 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer levels. Atoms that have 4 electrons in the outer most energy level

will tend neither to totally lose nor totally gain electrons during interactions. This Periodic Table of Elements will show you the electron configuration for any element you click on.

Visualizing Atomic Orbitals The atomic orbitals of the hydrogen atom can be visualized as a cloud around the nucleus. The orbital represents a probability of finding the electron at a particular location. Darker regions signify a greater probability. Shown below are the 1s (lowest orbital and the 2s orbital.

1s

2s

Atomic orbitals do not always have the shape of a sphere. Higher orbitals have very unusual shapes.

2px

3px

These orbitals were prepared by Dr. Yue-Ling Wong from the University of Florida for more images click here. Remember molecular orbitals are 3-Dimensional 3D models of atomic orbitals

Here is more information on:

Model of the Atom Guide to Nuclear Wallcharts -- Complete overview of atomic structure. Excellent for K-12. Visualization of atomic orbitals. 3D Molecule Library - 3D Interactive Images of common Molecules using the Jmol Applet Atomic Structure Timeline --Discoveries related to atomic structure including the electron, proton and neutron Carbon Atom Structure Atoms Elements and Compounds for K-12 States of Matter

Atomic Structure Timeline

Welcome to the atomic structure tim discoveries related to atomic structur proton and neutron. The dates used since many scientist's spent decades links for more in depth material. Mo

Created by Lee Buescher, ScienceDe SchoolWatertown, Wisconsin 53098

Visit these sites for original papers in chemistry. 1. Selected Classic Papers from the History of Chemistry by Carmen Giunta at Le Moyne College. 2. John Parks Chem Team site on Classic Papers from the History of Chemistry

Early theories of the structure of matter were not based upon experiments. As scientists began to study the relationshi phenomenon such as electricity, and magnetism they began to develop different models about atomic structure. Year Scientist(s) Discovery

Greek era 1704 1803

Democritus Isaac Newton John Dalton

"by convention bitter, by convention sweet, but in reality atoms and void" Proposed a mechanical universe with small solid masses in motion. Proposed an "atomic theory" with spherical solid atoms based upon measurable properties of mass. Studied the effect of electricity on solutions, coined term "electrolysis" as a splitting of molecules with electricity, developed laws of electrolysis. Faraday himself was not a proponent of atomism. Built one of the first gas discharge tubes ("cathode ray tube").

1832

Michael Faraday

1859

J. Plucker

1869

Arranged elements into 7 groups with similar properties. He discovered that the properties of Dmitri Mendeleev elements "were periodic functions of the their atomic weights". This became known as the Periodic Law. James Clerk Maxwell Proposed electric and magnetic fields filled the void. Discovered cathode rays had the following properties: travel in straight lines from the cathode; cause glass to fluoresce; impart a negative charge to objects they strike; are deflected by electric fields and magnets to suggest a negative charge; cause pinwheels in their path to spin indicating they have mass. Used a CRT to study "canal rays" which had electrical and magnetic properties opposite of an electron. Proposed that electricity was made of discrete negative particles he called electrons ". (Link to info on electrons)

1873

1879

Sir William Crookes

1886

E. Goldstein

1894

G.J. Stoney

1895

Using a CRT he observed that nearby chemicals glowed. Further experiments found very Wilhelm Roentgen penetrating rays coming from the CRT that were not deflected by a magnetic field. He named them "X-rays". Henri Becquerel While studying the effect of x-rays on photographic film, he discovered some chemicals spontaneously decompose and give off very pentrating rays. Used a CRT to experimentally determine the charge to mass ratio (e/m) of an electron =1.759 x 10 8 coulombs/gram. Studied "canal rays" and found they were associated with the proton H + . Studied radiations emitted from uranium and thorium and named them alpha and beta.

1896

1897 1897 1898

J.J. Thomson J.J. Thomson Rutherford

1898

Marie Sklodowska Studied uranium and thorium and called their spontaneous decay process "radioactivity". She Curie and her husband Pierre also discovered the radioactive elements polonium and radium. Observed spontaneous disintegration of radioactive elements into variants he called "isotopes" or totally new elements, discovered "half-life", made initial calculations on energy released during decay. used the idea of quanta (discrete units of energy) to explain hot glowing matter. Postulated a "Saturnian" model of the atom with flat rings of electrons revolving around a positively charged particle.

1900

Soddy

1900 1903 1904 1905 1906 1909

Max Planck Nagaoka Abegg Albert Einstein Hans Geiger R.A. Millikan

Discovered that inert gases had a stable electron configuration which lead to their chemical inactivity.
Published the famous equation E=mc 2 Developed an electrical device to "click" when hit with alpha particles. Oil drop experiment determined the charge (e=1.602 x 10 -19 coulomb) and the mass (m = 9.11 x 10 -28 gram) of an electron.

1911

Using alpha particles as atomic bullets, probed the atoms in a piece of thin (0.00006 cm)gold Ernest Rutherford foil . He established that the nucleus was: very dense,very small and positively charged. He also assumed that the electrons were located outside the nucleus. Using x-ray tubes, determined the charges on the nuclei of most atoms. He wrote"The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus". This work was used to reorganize the periodic table based upon atomic number instead of atomic mass. Discovered the existence of isotopes through the use of a mass spectrograph. Developed an explanation of atomic structure that underlies regularities of the periodic table of elements. His atomic model had atoms built up of sucessive orbital shells of electrons. Discovered that electrons had a dual nature-similar to both particles and waves. Particle/wave duality. Supported Einstein. Described atoms by means of formula connected to the frequencies of spectral lines. Proposed Principle of Indeterminancy - you can not know both the position and velocity of a particle.

1914

H.G.J. Moseley

1919 1922

Aston Niels Bohr

1923

de Broglie

1927

Heisenberg

1929

Cockcroft / Walton Built an early linear accelerator and bombarded lithium with protons to produce alpha particles

1930

Schrodinger

Viewed electrons as continuous clouds and introduced "wave mechanics" as a mathematical model of the atom. Proposed anti-particles . Anderson discovered the anti-electron (positron) in 1932 and Segre/Chamberlain detected the anti-proton in 1955.. Using alpha particles discovered a neutral atomic particle with a mass close to a proton. Thus was discovered the neutron.

1930

Paul Dirac

1932

James Chadwick

1938

Conducted experiments verifying that heavy elements capture neutrons and form unstable Lise Meitner, products which undergo fission. This process ejects more neutrons continuing the fission chain Hahn , Strassman reaction. Glenn Seaborg Enrico Fermi Synthesized 6 transuranium elements and suggested a change in the layout of the periodic table. Conducted the first controlled chain reaction releasing energy from the atoms nucleus.

1941 51 1942 1950's -

New Follow this link to current theories about atomic stucture. findings/particles

The Mass The standard for every unit must be defined. Length is an example. The basic unit of length is the meter which was defined in 1983 as equal to the distance traveled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second. Mass must also be defined. The definition of mass today is the amu (atomic mass unit). The amu is defined in the following way: the mass of one atom of the carbon-12 isotope is EXACTLY 12 amu. mass of one carbon-12 atom = 12 amu All other masses are measured relative to this carbon-12 standard. For example, suppose we do an experiment and find that the isotope bromine-81 has a mass that is 6.743 times that of carbon-12. Then the mass of bromine-81 would be given by

tomic Weights

Most elements can be found on earth (with the exception of those elements that too unstable and thus must be synthesized in the laboratory). Since all elements have isotopes then we must consider how much of one isotope of an element exists versus another isotope of the same element. These are called the "natural" abundances on earth. Natural Abundances:
Suppose we go to a cave and mine element "X". After careful analysis we find that in our sample of element X there exists three isotopes: Xa, Xb and Xc. Moreover, we find that out of every 100 atoms the

various isotopes are distributed as follows: For Every 100 atoms of X No. of Isotope atoms Xa 30 Xb 60 Xc 10 Then we say that the natural percent abundance of Xa is 30 %, of Xb is 60 % and of Xc is 10 %.

Next, we can inquire what the mass of element X is? Since each isotope has a different mass (because each isotope has a different number of neutrons) the simplest answer is to give the "average" mass of element X - the atomic weight. After more analysis the mass of each isotope is determined to be the following:
Isotope Masses of X Mass Isotope (amu) Xa 54 Xb 56 Xc 59

Then the average mass (atomic weight) is given by:

The atomic weight of each element is included along with the element symbol in the periodic table. It is important to note that no one atom has a mass equal to that of the atomic weight. Remember: the atomic weight represents that average mass of the atoms.

Dalton's Atomic Theory Democritus first suggested the existence of the atom but it took almost two millennia before the atom was placed on a solid foothold as a fundamental chemical object by John Dalton (1766-1844). Although two centuries old, Dalton's atomic theory remains valid in modern chemical thought.
Dalton's Atomic Theory 1) All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible. 2) All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties 3) Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms. 4) A chemical reaction is arearrangement of atoms.

Modern atomic theory is, of course, a little more involved than Dalton's theory but the essence of Dalton's theory remains valid. Today we know that atoms can be destroyed via nuclear reactions but not by chemical reactions. Also, there are different kinds of atoms (differing by their masses) within an element that are known as "isotopes", but isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties. Many heretofore unexplained chemical phenomena were quickly explained by Dalton with his theory. Dalton's theory quickly became the theoretical foundation in chemistry.

Composition of the Atom Atoms have a definite structure. This structure determines the chemical and physical properties of matter. This atomic structure was not fully understood until the discovery of the neutron in 1932. The history of the discovery of atomic structure is one of the most interesting and profound stories in science. In 1910 Rutherford was the first to propose what is accepted today as the basic structure of the atom. Today the Rutherford model is called the "planetary" model of the atom. In the planetary model of the atom there exists a nucleus at the center made up of positively charged particles called "protons" and electrically neutral atoms called "neutrons". Surrounding or "orbiting" this nucleus are the electrons. In elements the number of electrons equals the number of protons.

The picture above greatly exaggerates the size of the nucleus relative to that of the atom. The nucleus is about 100,000 times smaller than the atom. Nevertheless, the nucleus contains essentially all of the mass of the atom. In order to discuss the mass of an atom we need to define a new unit of mass appropriate to that of an atom. This new unit of mass is called the "atomic mass unit" or amu. The conversion between the amu and gram is 1 amu = 1.67x10-24 g The mass, in amu, of the three particles is given in the table below:

Note that the mass of an electron is about 2000 times smaller than that of the proton and neutron. Also note that the mass of the proton and neutron is close to 1 amu. This is a useful fact to remember. If the number of electrons does not equal the number of protons in the nucleus then the atom is an ion: cation: number of electrons < number of protons anion: number of electrons > number of protons are the basis of chemistry. They are the basis for everything in the Universe. You should start by remembering that matter is composed of atoms. Atoms and the study of atoms are a world unto themselves. We're going to cover basics like atomic structure and bonding between atoms. As you learn more, you can move to thebiochemistry pages and see how atoms form compounds that help the biological world survive.

The Atom
By the early 20th century, there was rather compelling evidence that matter could be described by an atomic theory. That is, matter is composed of relatively few building blocks that we refer to as atoms. This theory provided a consistent and unified picture for all known chemical processes at that time. However, some mysteries could not be explained by this atomic theory. In 1896, A.H. Becquerel discovered penetrating radiation. In 1897, J.J. Thomson showed that electrons have negative electric charge and come from ordinary matter. For matter to be electrically neutral, there must also be positive charges lurking somewhere. Where are and what carries these positive charges? A monumental breakthrough came in 1911 when Ernest Rutherford and his coworkers conducted an experiment intended to determine the angles through which a beam of alpha particles (helium nuclei) would scatter after passing through a thin foil of gold.

Models of the atom. The dot at the center of the Rutherford atom is the nucleus. The size of the dot is enlarged so that it can be seen in the figure. What results would be expected for such an experiment? It depends on how the atom is organized. A prevailing model of the atom at the time (the Thomson, or "plum-pudding," atom) proposed that the negatively charged electrons (the plums) were mixed with smearedout positive charges (the pudding). This model explained the neutrality of bulk material, yet still allowed the description of the flow of electric charges. In this model, it would be very unlikely for an alpha particle to scatter through an angle greater than a small fraction of a degree, and the vast majority should undergo almost no scattering at all. The results from Rutherfords experiment were astounding. The vast majority of alpha particles behaved as expected, and hardly scattered at all. But there were alpha particles that scattered through angles greater than 90 degrees, incredible in light of expectations for a "plum-pudding" atom. It was largely the evidence from this type of experiment that led to the model of the atom as having a nucleus. The only model of the atom consistent with this Rutherford experiment is that a small central core (the nucleus) houses the positive charge and most of the mass of the atom, while the majority of the atoms volume contains discrete electrons orbiting about the central nucleus. Under classical electromagnetic theory, a charge that is moving in a circular path, loses energy. In Rutherfords model, the electrons orbit the nucleus similar to the orbit of planets about the sun. However, under this model, there is nothing to prevent the

electrons from losing energy and falling into the nucleus under the influence of its Coulomb attraction. This stability problem was solved by Niels Bohr in 1913 with a new model in which there are particular orbits in which the electrons do not lose energy and therefore do not spiral into the nucleus. This model was the beginning of quantum mechanics, which successfully explains many properties of atoms. Bohrs model of the atom is still a convenient description of the energy levels of the hydrogen atom.

The Nucleus

The nucleus depicted above is now understood to be a quantum system composed of protons and neutrons, particles of nearly equal mass and the same intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of 1/2. The proton carries one unit of positive electric charge while the neutron has no electric charge. The term nucleon is used for either a proton or a neutron. The simplest nucleus is that of hydrogen, which is just a single proton, while the largest nucleus studied has nearly 300 nucleons. A nucleus is identified as in the example below by its atomic number Z (i.e., the number of protons), the neutron number, N, and the mass number, A, where A = Z + N.

The convention for designating nuclei is by atomic number,Z, and mass number, A, as well as its chemical symbol. The neutron number is given by N = A - Z. What else do we know about the nucleus? In addition to its atomic number and mass number, a nucleus is also characterized by its size, shape, binding energy, angular momentum, and (if it is unstable) half-life. One of the best ways to determine the size of a nucleus is to scatter high-energy electrons from it. The angular distribution of the scattered electrons depends on the proton distribution. The proton distribution can be characterized by an average radius. It is found that nuclear radii range from 1-10 1015 m. This radius is much smaller than that of the atom, which is typically 10-10 m. Thus, the nucleus occupies an extremely small volume inside the atom. The nuclei of some atoms are spherical, while others are stretched or flattened into deformed shapes. The binding energy of a nucleus is the energy holding a nucleus together. This energy varies from nucleus to nucleus and increases as A increases. Because of variations in binding energy, some nuclei are unstable and decay into other ones. The rate of decay is related to the mean lifetime of the decaying nucleus. The time required for half of a population of unstable nuclei to decay is called the half-life. Half-lives vary from tiny fractions of a second to billions of years.

Sub-nucleonic Structure and the Modern Picture of a Nucleus

Do protons and neutrons have internal structure? The answer is yes. With the development of higher and higher energy particle

accelerators, physicists have found experimentally that the nucleons are complex objects with their own interesting internal structures. One of the most significant developments in modern physics is the emergence of the Standard Model of Fundamental Interactions (figure below). This model states that the material world is made up of two categories of particles, quarks and leptons, together with their antiparticle counterparts. The leptons are either neutral (such as the neutrino) or carry one unit of charge, e (such as the electron, muon, and tau ). The quarks are pointlike objects with charge 1/3e or 2/3 e. Quarks are spin-1/2 particles, and therefore are fermions, just as electrons are. The quarks and leptons can be arranged into three families. The upand down-quarks with the electron and the electron neutrino form the family that makes up ordinary matter. The other two families produce particles that are very short-lived and do not significantly affect the nucleus. It is a significant fact in the evolution of the universe that only three such families are found in naturemore families would have lead to a quite different world.

The Standard Model of Particles and Interactions

One could imagine, then, trying to understand the structure of protons and neutrons in terms of the fundamental particles described in the Standard Model. Because the protons and neutrons of ordinary matter are affected by the strong interaction (i.e., the interaction that binds quarks and that ultimately holds nuclei together), they fall into the category of composite particles known as hadrons. Hadrons that fall into the subcategory known as baryons are made of three quarks. Protons, which consist of two up and one down quark, and neutrons (two down and one up quark) are baryons. There are also hadrons called mesons, which are made of quark-antiquark pairs, an example of which is the pion. Because baryons and mesons have internal quark structure, they can be put into excited states, just as atoms and nuclei can. This requires that energy be deposited in them. One example is the first excited state of the proton, usually referred to as the Delta-1232 (where 1232 MeV/c2 is the mass of the particle). In the Delta, it is thought that one of the quarks gains energy by flipping its spin with respect to the other two. In an atom, the energy needed to excite an electron to a higher state is on the order of a few to a thousand electron volts. In comparison, in a nucleus, a single nucleon excitation typically costs a MeV (106 eV). In a proton, it takes about 300 MeV to flip the spin of a quark. This kind of additional energy is generally only available by bombarding the proton with energetic particles from an accelerator. Finding a proper theoretical description of the excited states of baryons and mesons is an active area of research in nuclear and particle physics. Because the excited states are generally very short-lived; they are often hard to identify. Research tools at the newly commissioned Jefferson Lab accelerator have been specially designed to look at the spectrum of mesons and baryons. Such research is also being actively pursued at Brookhaven National Laboratory and at many other laboratories. To study the Standard Model, accelerators that produce much higher energy beams are often needed. Such facilities include Fermilab, near Chicago, SLAC at Stanford, and CERN in Geneva. Accelerators for nuclear physics are described in more detail in Chapter 11.

Atomic Number and Mass Number

The atomic number of an element is what distinguishes it from all other elements. An atom's atomic number is the number of protons there are in the nucleus. Hydrogen's atomic number is 1. Helium's atomic number is 2. Any atom that has an atomic number of 1 is a hydrogen atom no matter how many electrons or neutrons the atom has. The mass number is the number of neutrons added to the number of protons. The mass number of the most common isotope can be obtained from the periodic table. If you take the decimal number on the periodic table and round it to the nearest whole number, you have the mass number. For example the atomic weight of Iron(Fe) is 55.847. When rounded it gives a mass number of 56. The atomic number of Fe is 26. so most Fe atoms have 30 (56-26) neutrons. In addition, all neutral Fe atoms have 26 protons and 26 electrons. Atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons are called isotopes. The most common isotope of an element is the one that is on the periodic table.

The above graphic shows two isotopes of Hydrogen. The picture on the left is the most common isotope of hydrogen with one electron and one proton. The picture on the right is another isotope of hydrogen with one proton, one electron, and a neutron. The most common isotope of uranium is uranium-238 which has 92 protons, 92 electrons, and 146 neutrons. Another isotope is uranium-235 with 92 protons, 92 electrons, and 143 neutrons.

Particle Proton Neutron

Location Nucleus Nucleus

Weight 1.0073 amu 1.0087 amu

Charge Positive Neutral

Electrons Electron Cloud 0.000549 amu Negative

Home Companion Notes Atoms & ions

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We might as well attempt to introduce a new planet into the solar system, or to annihilate one already in existence, as to create or destroy a particle of hydrogen. John Dalton, A New System of Chemical Philosophy, 1808)

John Dalton (1766-1844) developed the first useful atomic theory of matter Vocabulary around 1803. In the course of his studies on meteorology, Dalton concluded that evaporated water exists in air as an independent gas. He wondered how water and atom air could occupy the same space at the same time, when obviously solid bodies chemical change can't. If the water and air were composed of discrete particles, Dalton reasoned, hypothesis evaporation might be viewed as a mixing of water particles with air particles. He stoichiometry performed a series of experiments on mixtures of gases to determine what effect properties of the individual gases had on the properties of the mixture as a whole. While trying to explain the results of those experiments, Dalton developed the hypothesis that the sizes of the particles making up different gases must be different. He later wrote [1] "...it became an object to determine the relative sizes and weights, together with the relative numbers of atoms entering into such combinations... Thus a train of investigation was laid for determining the number and weight of all chemical elementary particles which enter into any sort of combination one with another." Dalton's exceptional gift for recognizing and interpreting patterns in experimental data lead him from a problem in meteorology to the idea of atoms as fundamental constituents of matter. He realized the vital theoretical connection between atomic weights and weight relations in chemical reactions. He was the first to associate the ancient idea of atoms with stoichiometry. Some of the details of Dalton's original atomic theory are now known to be incorrect. But the core concepts of the theory (that chemical reactions can be explained by the union and separation of atoms, and that these atoms have characteristic properties) are foundations of modern physical science

Foundations of Dalton's atomic theory

Vocabulary atom atomic weight chemical change element hypothesis isotope law of conservation of mass

Dalton's atomic theory makes the following assumptions:

6. All matter consists of tiny particles. The existence of atoms was first suggested more that 2000 years before Dalton's birth. Atoms remained pure speculation through most of this time, although Newton used arguments based on atoms to explain the gas laws in 1687. (Newton's speculations about atoms in the Principia were carefully copied by hand into Dalton's notebooks.) 7. Atoms are indestructible and unchangeable. Atoms of an element cannot be created, destroyed, broken into smaller parts or transformed into atoms of another element. Dalton based this hypothesis on the law of conservation of mass and on centuries of experimental evidence.
With the discovery of subatomic particles after Dalton's time, it became apparent that atoms could be broken into smaller parts. The discovery of nuclear processes showed that it was even possible to transform atoms from one element into atoms of another. But we don't consider processes that affect the nucleus to be chemical processes. The postulate is still useful in explaining the law of conservation of mass in chemistry. A slightly more restrictive wording is "Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or transformed into other atoms in a chemical change".

law of definite proportions law of multiple proportions nucleus weight

8. Elements are characterized by the mass of their atoms. All atoms of the same element have identical weights, Dalton asserted. Atoms of different elements have different weights. (Dalton used the word "weight" rather than mass, and chemists have called atomic masses "atomic weights" ever since).
We now know that atoms of the same element sometimes have slightly different masses, but always have identical nuclear charge. In modern atomic theory, the postulate has been amended to read: "Elements are characterized by the nuclear charge of their atoms".

9. When elements react, their atoms combine in in the bombing of Manchester in World War II. Note the simple, whole-number ratios. This postulate incorrect formula for water. suggested a practical strategy for determining relative atomic weights from elemental percentages in compounds. Experimental atomic weights could then be used to explain the fixed mass percentages of elements in all compounds of those elements!
By suggesting that compounds contained characteristic atom-to-atom ratios, Dalton effectively explained the law of definite proportions.

A page from Dalton's notebook, burned

10. When elements react, their atoms sometimes combine in more than one simple, whole-number ratio. Dalton used this postulate to explain why the weight ratios of nitrogen to oxygen in various nitrogen oxides were themselves simple multiples of each other. Even Dalton's critics were impressed by the

power and simplicity of his explanation, and it persuaded many of them that his atomic theory was worthy of further investigation. Unfortunately, Dalton included an additional postulate that prevented his theory from being accepted for many years. When atoms combine in only one ratio, Dalton said, "..it must be presumed to be a binary one, unless some cause appear to the contrary" [2]. He had no experimental evidence to support this postulate, and it lead him to mistakenly assume that the formula of water was OH and the formula of ammonia was NH. As a result, Dalton's atomic weights for oxygen and nitrogen were incorrect and his experimental data did not support many of the conclusions he drew from it. A consistent set of atomic weights was absolutely essential before the theory could be accepted and applied. Next, we'll see how Dalton's postulates can be used to estimate atomic weights from experimental data, and how they explain three basic laws of chemistry.