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Bernoulli's principle

In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that for an inviscid flow, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. Bernoulli's principle is named after the DutchSwiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli who published his principle in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738. Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types of fluid flow, resulting in what is loosely denoted as Bernoulli's equation. In fact, there are different forms of the Bernoulli equation for different types of flow. The simple form of Bernoulli's principle is valid for incompressible flows (e.g. most liquid flows) and also for compressible flows (e.g. gases) moving at low Mach numbers. More advanced forms may in some cases be applied to compressible flows at higher Mach numbers (see the derivations of the Bernoulli equation). Bernoulli's principle is equivalent to the principle of conservation of energy. This states that in a steady flow the sum of all forms of mechanical energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all points on that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy remain constant. If the fluid is flowing out of a reservoir the sum of all forms of energy is the same on all streamlines because in a reservoir the energy per unit mass (the sum of pressure and gravitational potential gh) is the same everywhere. Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their own weight. If a fluid is flowing horizontally and along a section of a streamline, where the speed increases it can only be because the fluid on that section has moved from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure; and if its speed decreases, it can only be because it has moved from a region of lower pressure to a region of higher pressure. Consequently, within a fluid flowing horizontally, the highest speed occurs where the pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs where the pressure is highest.

Incompressible flow equation

In most flows of liquids, and of gases at low Mach number, the mass density of a fluid parcel can be considered to be constant, regardless of pressure variations in the flow. For this reason the fluid in such flows can be considered to be incompressible and these flows can be described as incompressible flow. Bernoulli performed his experiments on liquids and his equation in its original form is valid only for incompressible flow. The original form of Bernoulli's equation[5] valid at any point along a streamline is:

where: is the fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline, is the acceleration due to

gravity, is the elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the positive zdirection pointing upward so in the direction opposite to the gravitational acceleration, is the pressure at the point, and is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid. The following assumptions must be met for the equation to apply: The fluid must be incompressible - even though pressure varies, the density must remain constant. The streamline must not enter a boundary layer. (Bernoulli's equation is not applicable where there are viscous forces, such as in a boundary layer.) By multiplying with the mass density , the above equation can be rewritten as: or: where: is dynamic pressure, is the piezometric head or hydraulic head (the sum of the

elevation z and the pressure head)[6][7] and is the total pressure (the sum of the static pressure p and dynamic pressure q).[8] The constant in the Bernoulli equation can be normalised. A common approach is in terms of total head or energy head H: so divide the above constant by and g to get the total head H in terms of metres of fluid column.[7][6] The above equations suggest there is a flow speed at which pressure is zero, and at even higher speeds the pressure is negative. Most often, gases and liquids are not capable of negative absolute pressure, or even zero pressure, so clearly Bernoulli's equation ceases to be valid before zero pressure is reached. In liquids when the pressure becomes too low cavitation occurs. The above equations use a linear relationship between flow speed squared and pressure. At higher flow speeds in gases, or for sound waves in liquids, the changes in mass density become significant so that the assumption of constant density is invalid. Simplified form In several applications of Bernoulli's equation, the change in the Rgh term along streamlines is so small it can be ignored, compared with the other terms in the equation: for instance in the case of airfoils at low Mach number. This allows the above equation to be presented in the following simplified form: where is called total pressure, and q is dynamic pressure[9]. Many authors refer

to the pressure as static pressure to distinguish it from total pressure and dynamic pressure q. In Aerodynamics, L.J. Clancy writes: "To distinguish it from the total and dynamic pressures, the actual pressure of the fluid, which is associated not with its motion but with its state, is often referred to as the static pressure, but where the term pressure alone is used it refers to this static pressure."[10] The simplified form of Bernoulli's equation can be summarized in the following memorable word equation: static pressure + dynamic pressure = total pressure[10] Every point in a steadily flowing fluid, regardless of the fluid speed at that point, has its own unique static pressure p and dynamic pressure q. While their sum p + q is balanced by the total pressure p0. The significance of Bernoulli's principle can now be summarized as "total pressure is constant along a streamline." Furthermore, if the fluid flow is irrotational, the total pressure on every streamline is the same and Bernoulli's principle can be summarized as "total pressure is constant everywhere in the fluid flow." Examples of irrotational flow are: a wing moving at low Mach number through the air, or fluid flow through a streamlined nozzle exiting from a reservoir. However, it is important to remember that Bernoulli's principle does not apply in the boundary layer. Applicability of incompressible flow equation to flow of gases Bernoulli's equation is sometimes valid for the flow of gases: provided that there is no transfer of kinetic or potential energy from the gas flow to the compression or expansion of the gas. If both the gas pressure and volume change simultaneously, then work will be done on or by the gas. In this case, Bernoulli's equation in its incompressible flow form can not be assumed to be valid. However if the gas process is entirely isobaric, or isochoric, then no work is done on or by the gas, (so the simple energy balance is not upset). According to the gas law, an isobaric or isochoric process is ordinarily the only way to ensure constant density in a gas. Also the gas density will be proportional to the ratio of pressure and absolute temperature, however this ratio will vary upon compression or expansion, no matter what non-zero quantity of heat is added or removed. The only exception is if the net heat transfer is zero, as in a complete thermodynamic cycle, or in an individual isentropic (frictionless adiabatic) process, and even then this reversible process must be reversed, to restore the gas to the original pressure and specific volume, and thus density. Only then is the original, unmodified Bernoulli equation applicable. In this case the equation can be used if the flow speed of the gas is sufficiently below the speed of sound, such that the variation in density of the gas (due to this effect) along each streamline can be ignored. Adiabatic flow at less than Mach 0.3 is generally considered to be slow enough.