Digestive System

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A. Defn - Digestion is the rendering of parts of organisms into small molecules, which can be metabolized by: Physical Digestion - Physical, or mechanical, digestion involves physically breaking the food into smaller pieces without chemically changing it into different molecules. Physical digestion helps to facilitate the process of chemical digestion because the food is physically broken down into smaller pieces, more surface area is thus exposed for the enzymes to carry out the process of chemical digestion. With more surface area exposed, chemical digestion is much more efficient. That is, more food can be broken down chemically in a shorter time.

Notes
95% of ingested food is made available for the bodys use. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): female = 1300-1500 kcal/day male = 1600-1800 kcal/day

e.g., - Mouth Teeth (masticate, chew) - Stomach Muscle (churn, squeeze, crush) - Liver Bile (emulsification of lipids) Liver (made), Gall bladder (stored), Small intestines (operates) Chemical Digestion - Chemical digestion is the breaking down of the large molecules, such as proteins, starch and fats, into smaller soluble molecules for easy absorption by the body. i.e., via hydrolysis assisted by enzyme activity Lipid + water -Lipase (enzyme) glycerol + fatty acids Starch (amylose) + water -Amylase maltose proteins are broken up into short polypeptides by acids and then cleaved into individual amino acids by specific enzymes complex carbohydrates are broken down by enzymes ultimately into monosaccharides lipids are enzymatically reduced to glycerol and fatty
Human Biology 1

Most of the work of physical digestion takes place by churning in the stomach, between 3 layers of muscle (longitudinal, circular, and diagonally arranged), against washboard-like internal ridges, the rugae.

Phosphorolysis The distinction is that hydrolysis reactions use water to cleave bigger molecules into smaller ones, but phosphorolysis reactions instead use phosphate for the same purpose, e.g., glycogen phosphorylase (vs the hydrolytic version glycogenase (or more commonly aka amylase)).

Review the Key Enzymes Table (p12), for a more detailed list of enzymes and products.
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Digestive System
acids - humans lack the essential organic substances required to synthesize many necessary compounds and must obtain these organic substances, e.g., certain vitamins, essential a.a., essential fatty acids, from their diet. - a number of trace elements must also be present B. Pathways: Into the breach
Essential Amino acids (human), must be eaten: 1. tryptophan, 2. methionine, 3. valine, 4. threonine, 5. phenyalanine, 6. leucine, 7. isoleucine 8. lycine Essential fatty acids: Animals are able to fabricate these essential fatty acids (but we cannot). 1. Linoleic acid (an omega-6) 2. alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3) Essential vitamins: The fat-soluble (A,D,E,and K) and the water-soluble (C, B's, niacin, biotin, folic acid).

1. Mouth a. Teeth Carnivore Herbivore incisors (rip & shred), canines (hold & tear), premolars (grind) molars (grind)

= Omnivore - the number of incisors, canines, premolars, and molars in each quadrant of the mouth of a normal adult is 2-1-2-3 b. Saliva - secreted in the mouth to moisten food, aiding its journey into the digestive system lubricates

Human Biology

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Digestive System
Asides: (just for fun)

Salivary gland secretes amylase, an enzyme that converts starches into disaccharides Mucus is a "slimy" material that coats many epithelial surfaces and is secreted into fluids such as saliva. It is composed chiefly of mucins and inorganic salts suspended in water. - Mucus adheres to many epithelial surfaces, where it serves as a diffusion barrier against contact with noxious substances (e.g. gastric acid, smoke) and as a lubricant to minimize shear stresses; such mucus coatings are particularly prominent on the epithelia of the respiratory, gastrointestinal and genital tracts. Mucus is also an abundant and important component of saliva, giving it virtually unparalleled lubricating properties - Mucins are glycoproteins Tooth health - Antibacterial - Wash the tooth surface, to clear bacteria - Buffer - Control demineralization and mineralization

Anosmia inability to smell Ageusia inability to taste

Bolus (food ball) - Mucins help hold chewed food together 2. Swallowing (Deglutition)

Uvula - A fleshy, pendulous portion of the soft palate that blocks the nasopharynx during swallowing.

Human Biology

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Digestive System
Source: http://www.dysphagiaonline.com/en/1patient/01_What_is_dysphagia.jsp

Source: http://greenfield.fortunecity.com/rattler/46/upali4.htm

Once past the mouth: 1. Pressure from the bolus on the pharynx stimulates a swallowing response. - muscular contractions in the pharynx. 2. The palate seals off the nasal cavity, preventing food from entering it. - The soft palate closes off the nasopharynx. The vocal cords in the larynx are moved up and towards the front of the throat thus closing it off to the passage of food. - This is extremely important in preventing food from entering the airway. 3. This response stops breathing and seals off the trachea. - Another effect of the process is to widen the opening of the oesophagus thus making the passage of the bolus along the alimentary canal easier.
Taste Buds on the tongue detect sweet, salt, sour, bitter and umami (essentially the taste of protein rich food, and MSG) and possibly fat (or more precisely the texture or feeling of fat) The Olfactory bulb (one of two clusters of olfactory neurons at the base of the brain one on the left and one on the right) in the nose would seem to detect all other flavours Chemesthesis - sensations that arise when chemical compounds activate receptor mechanisms for other senses, usually those involved in pain, touch, and thermal perception in the eye, nose, mouth and throat. The burn from chili pepper, the cooling from the menthol in mouthwash, and the stinging of carbonation. Gustation the sense of taste, all of the above
Digestive System

Talking and eating at the same time can lead to a Caf Coronary choking.
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Digestive System
Tummy Taste Buds The taste receptor T1R3 and the taste G protein gustducin are critical to sweet taste in the tongue. These two sweetsensing proteins are also expressed in specialized taste cells of the gut where they sense glucose within the intestine. The small intestine is the major site where dietary sugars are absorbed into the body to provide energy, and maintain normal metabolism and homeostasis. If glucose is absorbed in excess obesity may occur. Carbs ingested break down into glucose, which stimulates the sweet-sensing proteins in these gut taste cells. The gut taste cells then regulate secretion of insulin and hormones that regulate appetite (insulin stimulates hunger), which may explain why current artificial sweeteners may not help with weight loss. Source: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/20 07/08/070820175426.htm

3. Esophagus (Oesphagus) - Peristalsis - rhythmic contractions of the esophagus (also stomach, small intestine, and large intestine) - moves the food (bolus) forward - increases SA, by stirring, folding, mixing and agitating C. At the Stomach - 1/2L empty, stretchable to ~2L - the upper epithelial surface of the stomach is dotted with deep depressions called gastric pits, the source of the stomachs digestive juices - pH 1-3 the gastric pits contain two types of secreting cells: 1. Parietal cells - secretes concentrated HCl - ~ 2L a day 2. Chief cells - which secrete pepsinogen - within the stomach HCl converts pepsinogen into the enzyme pepsin HCl breaks up connective tissue and proteins into molecular fragments, - which are further digested by pepsin into short polypeptides. Protein -pepsin short strands of a.a. ( a.a.) Carbohydrates and fats are not chemically digested, only proteins are chemically digested within the stomach Mucus - epithelial cells (goblets cells in the gastric pits) in the stomach also secrete mucus - which lubricates the stomach wall and facilitates the passage of food, - protects stomach wall from abrasion by food, - and protects the walls from autodigestion by the gastric juices

stomach

still the cells lining the stomach are replaced every 2-3 days.
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Digestive System
failure to do this may result in ulcers - cause: bacterial infection (heliobacterium Heliobacter pylori), possibly acerbated by stress and diet - treatment: antibiotic regime

N.B. The Parasympathetic nervous system regulates normal or at rest body activity slowing down the heart beat and respiration, but also stimulates digestive activity when food is present. Similarly when body activity increases during periods of stress the Symapthetic nervous system, decreases digestive activity (an increases heart rate, respiration) to ensure sufficient blood for muscles, heart etc. Chyme (as food exits stomach = a pasty material) D. The Small Intestines - food passes from the stomach to the small intestines: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. - where pH is neutralized, by the presence of bicarbonate secreted by the pancreas - and a variety of enzymes, many synthesized in the pancreas and small intestine, act to complete digestion. Most digestion occurs in the duodenum. - The duodenum received its name from being about equal in length to the breadth of twelve fingers (25-30cm). - It is the shortest, the widest, and the most fixed part of the small intestine. Its course presents a remarkable curve, somewhat of the shape of an imperfect circle or letter C, so that its termination is not far removed from its starting-point. - pH 6-6.5 Liver produces bile salts, which are stored in the gall bladder, which are then directed to the small intestines to emulsify fats - to increase the lipids SA for the enzyme lipase to act upon
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Intestines

Duodenum & Pancreas

Liver

Hemochromatosis: a common genetic disorder inability to excrete excess iron.

Human Biology

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Digestive System
Adult humans produce 400 to 800 ml of bile daily. Bile: - Emulsification of lipids o Increased SA for lipase activity o physical digestion - Transport of lipids in an aqueous environment - Critical for transport and absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins - Cholesterol Homeostasis

Bile is a complex fluid containing water, electrolytes and a battery of organic molecules including bile acids, cholesterol, phospholipids and bilirubin that flows through the biliary tract into the small intestine. There are two fundamentally important functions of bile in all species: Bile contains bile acids, which are critical for digestion and absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins in the small intestine. Many waste products are eliminated from the body by secretion into bile and elimination in feces. Bile acids are lipid carriers and are able to solubilize many lipids by forming micelles - aggregates of lipids such as fatty acids, cholesterol and monoglycerides that remain suspended in water. Hepatic synthesis of bile acids accounts for the majority of cholesterol breakdown in the body. In humans, roughly 500 mg of cholesterol are converted to bile acids and eliminated in bile every day.

The gall bladder stores and concentrates bile during the fasting state. Typically, bile is concentrated five-fold in the gall bladder by absorption of water and small electrolytes - virtually all of the the organic molecules are retained. Secretion into bile is a major route for eliminating cholesterol. Free cholesterol is virtually insoluble in aqueous solutions, but in bile, it is made soluble by bile acids and lipids like lethicin. Gallstones, most of which are composed predominantly of cholesterol, result from
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Digestive System
processes that allow cholesterol to precipitate from solution in bile.
Source: http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/liver/bile.htm

Surface area of the small intestine is ~ 250-300m2 (about the size of a tennis court 260m2).
Source: Campbell & Reece, Biology, 6e

Most absorption of nutrients and water occur in the Jejunum and Ileum - The remainder of the small intestine (~ 6 m) - ~3m while alive, and muscles contracted - pH 7-8 - The wider Jejunum occupies the upper twofifths and the Ileum the lower three-fifths. - There is no morphological line of distinction between the two, and the division is arbitrary; but at the same time the character of the intestine gradually undergoes a change, so that a portion of the bowel taken from these two situations would present characteristic and marked differences.

a. Absorption of Nutrients - The products of digestion are absorbed across the heavily folded walls of the small intestine, which possess numerous villi, - ~ 30 per mm2, ~ 1 mm long the membranes of the epithelial cells have microscopic projections, called microvilli - produce a surface layer called the brush border - and so achieves a very great absorptive surface area.
Question: The average length of the small intestine, when fully extended after death, is ~6m (to 7m), with a diameter of ~2.5cm. Because of folds, villi, and microvilli, the surface area is 25,000cm2. What percentage of increase is attributed to the folding, villi, and microvilli in the small intestine? Answer: The small intestine is essentially a long cylinder and to calculate the surface area of a cylinder you multiply the length by the circumference, which in this case is: 600 cm x.2.5 = 4,710cm2 Now, to calculate the percentage of increase attributed to the folding, villi, and microvilli subtract the calculated surface area from the total surface area and divide by the calculated surface area: 25,000 4,710 / 4,710= 4.3x larger (~5x or ~80% more surface area) Aside: The nature of the chyme also increases the surface area for absorption even further.

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Digestive System
Liver: bile production o excretion of bilirubin, cholesterol, hormones, and drugs fat, carbohydrate storage regulation blood glucose o glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis) synthesis blood (plasma) proteins o prothrombin, fibrinogen, albumin, hemoglobin (globulins)* storage iron, vitamins conversion of ammonia >> urea detoxification of blood The liver is among the few internal human organs capable of natural regeneration of lost tissue; as little as 25% of remaining liver can regenerate into a whole liver again. wikipedia

1. Amino acids and sugars are transported by specific transmembrane channels directly to the blood stream, via the hepatic portal vein into the liver - to form plasma (blood) proteins, including albumin and fibrinogen the metabolism of excess proteins form a.a. that may be oxidized for energy or stored as fat - a.a. undergo oxidative deamination, which ultimately form (as the amine group is split) the toxic nitrogenous wastes ammonia (NH3) - which is converted, within the liver (NH3 + CO2) - to (the less toxic) urea and released in the blood stream for the kidneys to remove (via excretion).

* Fcn: prothombrin, fibrinogen blood clotting albumin osmotic control in blood, buffer hemoglobin - O2 / CO2 transport, buffer

if there are excess proteins in the diet those amino acids converted into pyruvic acid and acetyl CoA can be converted into lipids by the lipogenesis process. If carbohydrates are lacking in the diet or if glucose cannot get into the cells (as in diabetes), then those amino acids converted into pyruvic acid and oxaloacetic acids can be converted into glucose or glycogen.
Source: http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/631tra nsam.html

2. Simple fats (glycerol [as monoglycerides, a glycerol joined to a single fatty acid] and free fatty acids) which are lipid soluble, pass readily across the membranes of the villi and are reassembled into triglycerides. They are coated with proteins, phospholipids and cholesterol to form chylomicrons (lipoprotein droplets filled with, e.g., triglycerides), and move (via exocytosis) into the lacteals, lymph vessel draining the villi.
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Digestive System
eventually passing through the lymph system to drain into the left subclavian vein (via the thoracic duct) superior vena cava heart the enzyme lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes the chylomicrons in the blood, the freed fatty acids (triglycerides) are taken up by muscle and adipose tissues - where they are primarily stored, or may be oxidized for energy the remnant chylomicrons pass on to the liver and deliver dietary cholesterols and are - are hydrolyzed releasing glycerol and fatty acids which can be used for energy or stored for later use - glycerol may be converted by gluconeogenesis into glucose, or oxidized to drive gylcolysis for cell respiration - and forming VLDLs LDLs, HDLs and bile salts
A lipoprotein is a particle made up of a core of triglycerides and cholesterol and a covering of protein and phospholipids that makes it water-soluble. Chylomicrons produced in the intestines are the largest, but also include VLDL (Very Low Density Lipoprotein) is made in your liver and it delivers fat (triglyceride) and cholesterol to different parts of your body. Once its done its job some VLDL goes back to the liver and the remainder gets made into LDL. LDL (Low Density Lipoprotein) made from VLDL, its main job is to deliver cholesterol to different parts of the body. Once LDL does its job it goes back to the liver. Not a bad cholesterol, but with excess Over time VLDL and LDL may be damaged, WBC attempt to remove these but get stuck, and themselves become foam cells, while cholesterols continue to accumulate blocking arteries (atheromas). HDL (High Density Lipoprotein) aka good cholesterols comes out of your liver and intestine as a flat empty particle. It travels around the body picking up excess cholesterol The filled HDL can emptied in two ways: By recycling some of the cholesterol by transferring it to VLDL and LDL and by returning the excess to the to the liver which will dispose of it in the gut. Once the HDL particle is emptied it can go back around the body and pick up more cholesterol.
Source: http://myfatdog.com/vldl_ldl_hdl

3. Glucose and other metabolic products of digestion do not enter the general circulation directly, but instead flow to the liver, via the hepatic portal vein - the liver removes and stores any excess metabolic products and maintains blood glucose levels within narrow bounds. (homeostasis) excess glucose is converted to glycogen by the liver. - excess glycogen is stored as fat. associated hormone: insulin - lowers blood glucose levels by causing the muscles and liver (body cells) to actively take up and store glucose as glycogen

E. The large Intestines: Colon (Bowels) - extends (~1.5m) from the end of the ileum to the anus. - pH 5.5-7 - varies along its length - the large intestines have little digestive or (nutrient) absorptive activity; - it functions principally to compact the
Human Biology 10

Insulin promotes the active transport of glucose into cells (against the concentration gradient), where glucose is concentrated as glycogen (glycogenesis).

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Digestive System
undigested wastes that is left over from digestion for easier elimination/defecation bacterium E. coli aid in this process by breaking down & softening further undigested material - E. coli also synthesizes vitamin K, needed by the liver to synthesize prothrombin, a necessary enzyme of blood clotting
Good Bacteria & the Colon: There are10x more bacteria in the gut, than cells in your body Up to 60% of feces is bacteria More lymph tissue than anywhere else in the body Good bacteria keep bad bacteria from getting a foot hold Digest mucus, synthesis of vitamins, e.g., K Lactobacillus aids in lactose digestion, as does yogurts acidophilus Probiotic hype? But they do like fibre

- colon also absorbs water - Principal function on exam - it receives approximately 10 liters of water per day. 1.5 liters is from food and 8.5 liters is from secretions into the gut. 95% of this water is reabsorbed if water is not absorbed, diarrhea can result, causing dehydration and ion loss.

- excretes iron and calcium salts - absorbs sodium and other ions the last 20 cm is the rectum.

- Feces is composed of approximately 75% water and 25% solids. - One-third of the solids is intestinal bacteria, 2/3s is undigested materials - The cecum is a pouch at the junction of the small intestine and large intestine. - In herbivorous mammals, it is large and houses bacteria capable of digesting cellulose. - In human ancestors, the cecum was larger but has been reduced by evolutionary change to form the appendix. Appendicitis is an infection. - The appendix may swell and burst, leading to peritonitis (infection of the abdominal lining). Hypothesized functions for the appendix include lymphatic, exocrine, endocrine, and neuromuscular.
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Human Biology

Digestive System
while it is rich in infection-fighting lymphoid cells, suggesting that it might play a role in the immune system. it appears to lack significant function - and exist primarily as a vestigial remnant of the larger cellulose-digesting cecum found in our herbivorous ancestors.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermiform_appendix http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/vestiges/appendix.html http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/Michael.Gregory/files/Bio%20 102/Bio%20102%20lectures/Digestive%20System/digestive%20system .htm

How Fibre works: - draws water into colon - swells - and initiates peristaltic contractions to remove watery wastes - daily fibre requirement (?) no definitive data, but a range between 25 - 35 grams/day is most recommended - How to tell? Are you regular, defecating at least once in a 24h period at about the same time each day, in a relatively quick process not long and drawn out

Other Hormones: Grehlin makes people want to eat Leptin suppresses hunger (a lack of sleep lowers leptin levels, and increases hunger)

Key Hormones of Digestion (abridged key function) HORMONE SOURCE STIMULUS Gastrin Pyloric section of Entry of food stomach (bolus) into the stomach Cholecystokinin Duodenum Arrival of food (CCK) (lipid-rich chyme) cholecysto = gallbladder in the small kinin = movement intestines

ACTION Regulates secretion of HCl from parietal cells Stimulates gall bladder contraction, to release bile salts (to emulsify fats physical digestion) to intestines. Stimulates secretion of digestive enzymes from pancreas

Secretin

Duodenum

HCl entering the duodenum (acidrich chyme)

Stimulates pancreas to secrete Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), to neutralize stomach acids (Buffer)
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Digestive System
Stimulates gall bladder to release alkaline bile, to counter acidity of chyme. Insulin Pancreas High blood glucose levels Stimulates the conversion of glucose into glycogen, stored in the liver and muscle Stimulates the conversion of glycogen into glucose

Glucagon

Pancreas

Low blood glucose levels

Key Digestive Enzyme (abridged) LOCATION Salivary glands Stomach Small Intestines ENZYME Amylase Pepsin Peptidases Nucleases (Nucleosidases) (Nucleotidase) SUBSTRATE starch, glycogen proteins short peptides DIGESTION PRODUCT maltose (disaccharides) short peptides amino acids

(Disaccharidase) Maltase Sucrase Lactase Pancreas Lipase All fcn in the Trypsin, small intestine. (Chymotrypsin) Nucleases (DNAse, RNAse) DNA, RNA nucleotides Amylase starch, glycogen maltose (disaccharides) Glycogen: Alternate naming for amylase, in the context of glycogen, also includes glycogenase, but amylase is the more common catch-all term. Nucleases: RNA and DNA are hydrolyzed into nucleotides by ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease, respectively. Phosphatases remove the phosphate group from a nucleotide, and nucleosidase decomposes the remnant of the nucleotide (a nucleoside, a sugar and a base) into a pentose (5-carbon sugar) and a nitrogenous base.

nucleoside pentose (5-carbon and a nitrogenous base (purines, pyrimidines) nucleotides nucleosides and phosphates(H3PO4) disaccharides monosaccharides Maltose glucose Sucrose glucose and fructose Lactose glucose and galactose triglycerides fatty acids, glycerol proteins peptides

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Digestive System
Proteases: Pepsin and Trypsin. - The pancreas secretes protein-digesting enzymes in an inactive form, e.g., trypsinogen, which is activated by enterokinase / enteropeptidase (from the small intestine) and converts trypsinogen into trypsin Sketch Diagram of the digestive system

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Digestive System