BASIC MATH

A Self-Tutorial
by

Luis Anthony Ast

Professional Mathematics Tutor

LESSON 6:
FRACTIONS

Copyright © 2005
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing of the author.
E-mail may be sent to: [email protected]
 BEFORE WE START…
=
It is EXTREMELY important you learn the material covered in
Basic Math: “Lesson 5” before doing this Lesson.

Most of the written Notes are created to be independent of the math

videos. Not this Lesson.

How to do Lesson 6:

Read these printed Notes first, until you see the icon.

Watch the corresponding numbered video clip when asked to do so. The
clip will reinforce the written notes. Most examples are duplicated, but I
also provide other examples to help. Often, visually seeing how a problem
is done is better than just seeing it in print.

During each video clip, you will be asked to do numbered problems that
look like the following in these Notes:

EXERCISE #1 (for example).

Pause ( ) the clip when you see the following appear at the bottom of the
video clip:

Do the problem, then resume play ( ) of the video clip to see the answer
worked out in detail. This “pausing – do exercise – resume playing of clip”
interaction may occur several times during each clip.

The video will then ask you to continue with the reading of these Notes.

Finally, do the Lesson Quiz at the end of Lesson. It is not as extensive

as quizzes in previous Lessons since the bulk of your work is done with the
Video Exercises.

WATCH THE “INTRODUCTION TO FRACTIONS” VIDEO NOW

Let’s do some fractions!

2
 UNDERSTANDING FRACTIONS
F A Fraction is a division between two quantities.

That’s it!

Pretty simple, eh?

Yes, believe it or not, fractions are simple to understand, at least they will
be when this Lesson is over.
The Key to understanding fractions is:

PERSPECTIVE
It’s all about perspective. You see, how you handle mathematical
quantities that are being compared all depends on what is perceived as
“the whole part” and what is “the fractional part.”

EXAMPLE 1: A loaf of bread may be considered “the whole part.”

One slice is a smaller part of a loaf. The slices are then “the fractional
parts.”

Now, we may change our perspective, and make one slice “the whole part.”
When this is the case, the loaf below is just a multiple of “the whole,” it
has 17 slices to a loaf.

3
 EXAMPLE 2: Pizza is another great example:

1 Whole Pizza Fractional Parts

––––––––––––––––––– OR –––––––––––––––––––

’
1 Whole Slice
8 Whole Slices (Multiples of
the Whole)

F The Denominator of a fraction is the number of “slices” or fractional

parts the whole part is divided by.

A loaf of bread is typically divided into 24 parts. Its denominator is 24.

A pizza is usually cut into 8 equal slices. Its denominator is 8.

F The Numerator of a fraction is the actual number of “slices” or

fractional parts taken or being compared with the whole part.

If I use two slices of bread to make a sandwich, I used 2 out of the 24

slices. The 2 is the numerator.

If I had eaten three slices of pizza, I ate 3 out of the 8 slices. The 3 is the
numerator.

4
There are many ways to express mathematically this comparison of
fractional parts (the numerator) to the whole part (the denominator). The
most common way is called…

F A Common Fraction is a fraction expressed as a division of two whole

numbers separated by a “fraction bar.” The bar may be horizontal (—) or
slanted ( )

F Common fractions are also called simple fractions

or vulgar fractions.

The number above (or to the left of) the fraction bar is the numerator, the
number below (or to the right of) the fraction bar is the denominator.

In our examples:
or or 2 24

or or 3 8

F The horizontal bar notation is the preferred one to

use. The slant is used to “compact” our fractions; for example, if the
fraction were an exponent or if we have fractions within other
fractions.

F A Unit Fraction is a fraction that has a 1 as its numerator.

Here are a few unit fractions:

Some visual examples:

How to Read: (the solid part of the figure is the numerator, the
number of slices is the denominator)

“One-Half” a
E
“One-Third”

5
 “One-Fourth” or
“One-Quarter”

“One-Sixth” ;
I
There is nothing special about using straight cuts. We may cut a circle in
two halves like this:

k
One of these halves can be represented with a shaded region:

j
But we will avoid this. It’s always a good idea to have things as simple as
possible.

Keep in mind fractions are comparisons between two quantities, not just
slices of one object. We may use fractions to represent the number of items
selected from a larger group of objects. For example, a dozen (12) eggs may
be the denominator:

If we select four of these to be the numerator:

We get four out of twelve eggs, or:

6
If we have a collection of four triangles, then:

represents . One out of the four triangles is shaded.

If a single triangle is “the whole part,” then this:

represents , since 3 out of 4 “fractional parts” of the triangle is shaded.

WATCH VIDEO CLIP #1 NOW

EXERCISE #1 "Whole Parts" and "Fractional Parts."

If: A= 1 Whole Cube Then: ) = ______________

If: ) = 1 Whole Cube Then: A = ______________

If: = 1 Whole Dollar Then: = ______________

If: = 1 Whole Cent Then: = ______________

7
EXERCISE #2 Draw the “Minute Hand” as requested in the Video.

f~ f~ f~
EXERCISE #3 Shade the number line as requested in the Video.

←||||→
0 1

←||||||→
0 1

EXERCISE #4 Shade the area represented by each fraction.

r =

e =

V =

U =

8
EXERCISE #5 Circle slicing practice (This is optional).

9
 TYPES OF FRACTIONS
F A Proper Fraction is a fraction whose numerator is smaller than the
denominator (ignoring negative signs).

Examples of proper fractions are:

F An Improper Fraction is a fraction whose numerator is greater than

or equal in value to the denominator (again, ignoring any negative signs).

Examples of improper fractions are:

An integer can be expressed as an improper fraction by making it the

numerator and writing a “1” as the denominator. Some examples:

4 can be rewritten as:

Let’s take a look at a pie graph of :

9 slices = 8 slices + 1 slice

10
Eight of the slices are combined together to form one entire shaded circle,
and we have one left over. So is really just one “whole” plus an extra
eighth. This can be expressed as:

<Read: “one and one-eighth” or “one and an eighth”>

This brings us to our next type of fraction:

F A Mixed Number is a compact form of expressing the sum of an

integer and a proper < not improper> fraction. It is just the integer followed
by the proper fraction, with no space or symbols between the numbers.

When reading mixed numbers, use the word “and” after the integer. For
example:
is read as: “two and three-fifths.”

is read as: “negative one and nine-tenths.”

F A Complex Fraction is a fraction with other fractions within it. These

“mini-fractions” can appear in the numerator, denominator, or both.

Some examples:

WATCH VIDEO CLIP #2 NOW

EXERCISE #6 On the line next to each fraction, write “proper

fraction,” “improper fraction,” “mixed number,” or “complex fraction” to
classify the fraction.
Y : _______________________
Y : _______________________

Y : _______________________ Y : _______________________

Y : _______________________ Y : _______________________

11
 EXERCISE #7 Write the improper and mixed number represented by
the pictures below:

Y =

Y =

Y ←|||||||||→ =
0 1 2 3 4

EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS
Let’s take a detailed look at slicing this octagon: (8-sided figure) into

eight equal parts:

= is 1 whole octagon or:

Now, let’s remove one slice at a time, and look at each resulting fraction.
Pay particular attention to the denominators:

12
 =

If we remove the final slice, then no shaded slices remain:

So is really just zero, since 0 slices are left.

Let’s generalize the first and last fractions:

If a is any number except zero:

and

means any number (except zero) divided by itself is 1.

means 0 parts of any number (except zero) of original cuts is just zero.

The rule is a VERY important rule, since there will be times we will
change the appearance or form of a fraction, but do not want to actually
change its value. Multiplying by “1” (the ) does not change the fraction’s
value, only its appearance.

So multiplying by 1 is the same as multiplying it by or or … and so

on.

13
Go back and take a moment to look at all the denominators of the fractions
that are next to the octagons. Notice they are all the SAME.

F We have Like Fractions when two or more fractions have the same
denominator. This matching denominator is the Common Denominator.

are all like fractions. They have a common

denominator of 8. I will discuss more on common denominators later.

Let’s take a look at some specific octagons:

This is . But exactly HALF of the octagon is shaded.

has the same value as

Here is : Looking carefully, a QUARTER of the octagon is shaded.

has the same value as

F Equivalent Fractions are fractions that are different in form, but

have the same value. We will use “ = ” to mean equivalent fractions.

and

EXAMPLE 3: What common fraction(s) is/are represented by:

SOLUTION: Three out of the six stars are shaded, so is a solution;

but we can also interpret the picture as: "half" the stars are shaded, and
"half" are not, so is also an answer.

and are equivalent fractions, therefore: =

14
We saw earlier that is also , so…

= = . All are equivalent!

There are, in fact, infinite equivalent fractions for (or for any fraction).

If you had a test question whose answer was , but you answered it as:
, even though you are correct, it would probably annoy your teacher. So
it is “standard practice” to ALWAYS try to answer in a form where the
fraction has the SMALLEST numbers possible, yet still have the value we
want.

Neither nor are the best way to state the value of “half.” We want to
use: . This is as low as we can go to express the concept of “half.”

F A Reduced Fraction is a fraction that is in its simplest form.

and are not reduced fractions because they can be changed into a form
with smaller numbers. is a reduced fraction.

How can we tell if a fraction is a reduced fraction? Look at . If you wish

to make it look like , what can you do? The 4 can become a 1 if we divide
the 4 by 4, and the 8 can become a 2 by dividing it by 4 also.

The value of a fraction remains the same if both the numerator and
denominator are divided or multiplied by the same non-zero number.
When dividing, we try to find a number (other than 1) that will divide the
top and the bottom of the fraction exactly (no remainder).

Let’s try this with :

15
=
This transformation technique does NOT work with addition or
subtraction. For example, let’s subtract 3 from the numerator and
denominator of :

This result is not equal to .

F A fraction is in Lowest Terms (or Simplest Form) if there are no

factors in common (other than 1) between the denominator and the
numerator.

A mixed number is considered to be in lowest terms (or simplest form)

when the fractional part of it is in lowest terms. For example:

is not in lowest terms because can be reduced to .

is in lowest terms.

F The Cancellation Method is a way of simplifying a fraction. Start

“canceling” common factors (mentally dividing the numerator and
denominator by the same number). Repeat this until you cannot do so
anymore.

EXAMPLE 4: Simplify (or reduce) [or write in lowest terms] the

following fraction:

SOLUTION: There are several ways to answer this problem. I notice

the fraction only has even numbers, so I can divide the numbers by 2:

Now, I notice the numbers are divisible by 3, so I can divide the 3 out:

16
Since no natural numbers, other than 1, will divide into 4 and 5 at the
same time, is the reduced form of .

Instead of using the division symbol “ ÷ ” and writing out the divisors of 2
and 3, we may “cancel” the 2’s and the 3’s:

12

15

Of course, I could have saved myself a step and divide (cancel out) the
numbers of our fraction by 6, instead of by 2 and then by 3:

<Showing the division>

or

<Doing the cancellations>

5

F The GCF Method. To simplify a fraction, find the Greatest Common

Factor (GCF) of the denominator and the numerator, then divide the
denominator and numerator by the GCF (or “cancel” the GCF out).

F The GCF is also called the Highest Common

Factor or the Greatest Common Divisor.

L …
Finding the GCF is covered in detail in Lesson 5 of the
Basic Math Self-Tutorial.

Let’s find the GCF for :

17
The factors of 24 are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24.

The factors of 30 are: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30.

The GCF is 6.

Personally, I prefer the cancellation method, but I try to mentally find the
biggest number to do my division (I would not usually start with 2 – I just
did it earlier for illustration purposes). I would repeat this procedure, if
need be. So in a way, I am combining these methods together.

EXAMPLE 5: Reduce to lowest terms.

SOLUTION: Both numbers are divisible by 5 (use a calculator to do

actual division, if you wish):
45

63
Adding the digits, I notice both numbers are now divisible by 9:

( The TI-82, TI-83 and TI-84 will automatically

reduce a fraction when you select the 4 function in the menu.
If you have another model, please consult your calculator’s manual or
guidebook for information on how to perform fraction operations.
What to do: On the Calculator Screen:
Reduce to lowest terms.
M

The answer is

18
There are instances when we would need a fraction to look like, for
example, instead of . The is a higher form of .

F A fraction is in a Higher Form when the denominator and numerator

are multiplied by the same non-zero number.

EXAMPLE 6: Write equivalent fractions with the denominators in

the indicated higher form:

'(
Y
%&

SOLUTION: Just divide the 36 by 4. This gives us 9. Now

multiply the 3 by the 9 to get 27. So…

SOLUTION: 110 ÷ 11 = 10.

5 × 10 = 50

WATCH VIDEO CLIP #3 NOW

EXERCISE #8 What fraction(s) is/are represented by:

Answer: _________________
19
 EXERCISE #9 Write the “Fractions of Time” mentioned in the video in
lowest terms:

f~ f~ f~ f~ f~
f~ f~ f~ f~ f~
EXERCISE #10 Using the fraction circles (or pizza slices) find several
equivalent fractions for the following shaded region:

Answer: ___________________

EXERCISE #11 Simplify the following fractions:

Y Y

Y Y

Y Y

Y Y

EXERCISE #12 Change into 30ths

Answer: ___________________
20
 THE LCD & FRACTION
COMPARISONS
How can we compare the values of two or more fractions? For example,
which is larger, or ? trying to compare these fractions directly is like
trying to compare apples with oranges. The difficulty is that the fractions
have unlike denominators. Fractions with like denominators are easy to
compare. Whichever one has the larger numerator is the larger fraction.
For example:
is larger than

This is not necessarily the case if the denominators are not common.

Of course, using the fraction circles or pizza slices (in video), we could
compare these fractions, but what if we are given fractions that we don’t
have circle representations for? We need a method to compare “apples
with apples” and not with “oranges.”

The way we do this is to find a higher form for our fractions that share a
common denominator. Let’s try 15:

, so

, so

Now, it’s easy to see that is larger than ; therefore, .

I did not have to use 15. Any common denominator would do. Let’s try 30:

, so

, so

21
 is bigger than ; therefore, .

There are, in fact, infinite choices for finding common denominators, they
are all multiples of 15:
15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90…

Since “in mathematics, we should always strive for simplicity and

elegance” (that is a quote from one of my former math professors), we will
always try to use the smallest of these multiples. The 15, in this case.

F The Least (or Lowest) Common Denominator (LCD) is the Least

Common Multiple (LCM) of the denominators of two or more fractions. It
is the smallest number that all the denominators will divide into.

15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90… are all common multiples of 3 and 5, but only 15 is
the least. It is the LCM and therefore the LCD of 3 and 5.

To compare the sizes of two or more fractions, rewrite them in a higher

form using the LCD.

EXAMPLE 7: Find the LCD for and .

SOLUTION: Find the LCM of 4 and 6 <Lesson 5 covers this in detail>

4 6

2 • 2
2 • 3

2 • 2 • 3 = 12

The LCD for and is 12.

22
 EXAMPLE 8: Which fraction is smaller, or ?

SOLUTION: Find the LCM between 3 and 16:

3 is prime. 16 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2

The LCM is 3 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 48. So the LCD is 48.

Create equivalent fractions in higher form:

is smaller than , therefore is smaller than .

To quickly determine if a fraction has the same value

(equivalent) to another one, say , compare the
HOT TIP! multiplication ad with bc.
This can be seen in the way the following equation is “encircled.” This is
called the “cross product” or “cross multiplication.”

?
ad = bc

If this multiplication were true, then the fractions are equivalent;

otherwise, proceed as we did in our previous example. Let’s try this with
our previous fractions:

Is ?

23
Do the cross multiplication:
?

2 × 16 = 32 3 × 11 = 33

, so… no, they are not equivalent.

Many standardized tests ask questions about the size of one fraction
compared with another. Let’s look at some pictures of fractions, paying
close attention to the amount of area shaded, and to the pattern of how the
numerators and denominators change (or don’t change):

Y Pattern #1:

The pattern above is: if the numerator stays the same, then as the
denominator gets larger, the fraction gets SMALLER.

Y Pattern #2:

The pattern above is: if the denominator stays the same, then the fraction
becomes LARGER as the numerator gets larger.

Let’s put this information into practice:

24
 EXAMPLE 9: Y Which fraction is larger, or ?

SOLUTION: is larger.

Y Which fraction is larger, or ?

SOLUTION: is larger.

Y Which fraction is larger, or ?

SOLUTION: For this problem, we can’t use our “patterns.” To figure

this out, we find the LCD and rewrite the fractions in higher form to
compare.

The LCD of 6 and 9 is 18.

is the larger fraction, so is larger than .

WATCH VIDEO CLIP #4 NOW

EXERCISE #13 Find the LCD of and .

25
 EXERCISE #14 Find the LCD of and .

EXERCISE #15 Write the following fractions in ascending order

(smallest to largest):

26
 EXERCISE #16 Is equivalent to ?

Answer: ______

EXERCISE #17 Which fraction is larger:

or ?

Answer: ______

EXERCISE #18 Which fraction has the smaller value:

or ?

Answer: ______

27
OTHER FRACTIONAL EXPRESSIONS
There are many ways to express a division between two quantities. The
common fractions we have been doing are the most… well… COMMON
way. This section deals with the others.

F DECIMAL FRACTIONS F
Let’s divide a portion of a number line between zero and one into ten equal
parts:

←|||||||||||→
0 1

Now, let’s add small pie graphs and fractions to represent each
subdivision:

0= =1

Dividing whole parts by 10, 100, 1000 and other powers of ten is done so
much; we have a special way of expressing these fractions.

F A Decimal Fraction is any fraction in which the denominator is a

power of 10 (10, 100, 1000, 10000, etc.). It is written in the following
“decimal form:”

“integer” . “a string of digits (possibly infinite)”

↑
Decimal Point

Note: The decimal point is a comma ( , ) instead of a period ( . ) in many

countries. I will use the period.

If the decimal fraction is a proper fraction, then the numerator is used for
the string of digits to the right of the decimal point. “Leading zeros” may

28
be needed, if the numerator does not contain the same number of digits as
the number of zeros past the 1 in the denominator.

Note: For clarity, I will always place a zero to the left of the decimal
point if the decimal fraction is proper. Whole numbers do not
have to have the decimal point added to them.

Our number line graph can now be rewritten:

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

EXAMPLE 10: Here are a few other examples of decimal fractions. A

picture is given, then the common fraction, followed by the decimal form.

Y → = 0.3 <Read: “three tenths” or “zero point three”>

→ = = 1.7 <Read: “one and seven tenths” or “ one point seven”>

→ = 0.25 <Read: “twenty-five hundredths” or zero point two five”>

29
Y If ) (a thousand little cubes) is the “whole part,” then:

)@]F
is: 1000 + 200 + 30 + 4 = 1234

→ = = 1.234 <Read: “one and two hundred thirty-four

thousandths” or “one point two three four”>

Y <Read: “one-tenth” or “zero point one”>

<Read: “one-hundredth” or “zero point zero one”>

<Read: “one-thousandth” or “zero point zero zero one”>

<Read: “one-ten-thousandth” or “zero point zero zero zero

one”>

<Read: “one-hundred thousandth” or “zero point zero

zero zero zero one”>

<Read: “one-millionth” or “zero point zero zero zero

zero zero one”>

30
 EXAMPLE 11: Rewrite in decimal form.

SOLUTION: There are three zeros in the denominator, so rewriting

the numerator with a “leading zero” helps in answering this:

<Read: “thirty-seven thousandths” or “zero point zero

three seven”>

Note: Again, the zero to the left of the decimal point (0.037) is optional.
Writing .037 is also an answer. I use the extra zero for clarity. I
recommend you use it too. Make it a habit.

F PERCENTAGES F
F A Percentage is a fraction whose denominator is 100.

Math Symbol: or %
<Read: “percent”>

When writing percentages, you only write the numerator, followed by the
percent symbol (also called the percent sign):

F “Percent” comes from the Latin words:

PER CENTUM
which mean: “by the hundred.”

Percentage is mainly used in two situations:

If the “whole part” is divided into 100 equal parts, and you select a
portion of this division.

In the picture on the next page, 32 out of the 100 grids are shaded.

32 fractional parts out of 100 is

31
 If you are selecting some items out of 100 total items.

In the picture below, 27 out of 100 total stars are shaded.

27 shaded items out of 100 total items is

HHHIIIIIII
HHHIIIIIII
HHHIIIIIII
HHHIIIIIII
HHHIIIIIII
HHHIIIIIII
HHHIIIIIII
HHIIIIIIII
HHIIIIIIII
HHIIIIIIII

EXAMPLE 12: Express the shaded region as a percentage.

SOLUTION: There are 61 shaded squares out of 100 total squares, so

the percentage is: 61 <Read: “sixty-one percent”>

32
 F RATIOS F
F A Ratio is a comparison between the sizes of quantities of the same
type. The value of a ratio is the quotient or fraction of the quantities.

Math Symbol: :
<Read: “to”>

The ratio of quantity a to quantity b can be represented as:

a:b or <Read: “a to b”>

Ratios are always expressed in lowest terms. So

L …
something like 5 : 10 is:

5 : 10 → → → 1 : 2 <Read: “one to two”>

EXAMPLE 13: Find the ratio of the red disks to the blue ones below:

SOLUTION: There are 4 red disks for every 6 blue ones. We create the
fraction and reduce it:

The ratio of red to blue disks is 2 : 3.

WATCH VIDEO CLIP #5 NOW

33
 EXERCISE #19 Write the decimal fraction and decimal form for the
following:

Y Decimal Fraction: _______ Decimal Form: ________

Decimal Fraction: _______ Decimal Form: ________

Y <View video for problem involving cubes>

Decimal Fraction: _______ Decimal Form: ________

Y <View video for problem involving cubes>

Decimal Fraction: _______ Decimal Form: ________

EXERCISE #20 Rewrite the following in decimal form:

34
Y

EXERCISE #21 Shade the portion of the graph that represents 20 .

EXERCISE #22 Express the shaded region as a percentage.

Answer: ______

EXERCISE #23 Find the ratios of boys to girls presented in the video.

The ratio of boys to girls is: _______

35
 CONVERTING FRACTIONAL
EXPRESSIONS
With all these different ways of expressing a fraction, it is useful to learn
ways of changing one form into another.

F IMPROPER FRACTION MIXED NUMBER F

¿ Ω ¿ Ω Step - By - Step ¿ Ω ¿ Ω
Divide the numerator by the denominator.
Use the remainder as the numerator of the fractional part of the mixed
number.
The denominator stays the same.
Reduce the fraction to lowest terms, if possible.

EXAMPLE 14: Convert into a mixed number.

SOLUTION: Perform the long division:

EXAMPLE 15: Convert into a mixed number.

SOLUTION: Perform the long division:

36
The mixed number is: , but needs to be reduced to , so our answer is:

F I could have reduced to first, then converted

to a mixed number.

( Unfortunately, the TI-82, TI-83, and TI-84 do not

have convenient ways of converting improper fractions into mixed
numbers. A “work around” method would be:

Divide the numerator by the denominator.

Write down the number to the left of the decimal point. This is the
whole part of the mixed number.
Subtract this whole part.
Convert the decimal back into a fraction using .
Write the fractional part next to the whole part.

Let’s try this with .

What to do: On the Calculator Screen:

Convert into a mixed number.
M

Write the 2/3 next to the 5 for

answer:

37
 F MIXED NUMBER IMPROPER FRACTION F

¿ Ω ¿ Ω Step - By - Step ¿ Ω ¿ Ω
Multiply the whole part by the denominator.
Add this product to the numerator of the fractional part.
The denominator stays the same.
If applicable, reduce the fraction to lowest terms, if possible.

EXAMPLE 16: Convert into an improper fraction.

SOLUTION:
Then add 15 to 4

3
Multiply to get 15

The denominator stays the same

Does not apply.

The Answer:

( Add the whole part to the fractional part first;

then convert using
What to do: On the Calculator Screen:
Convert into an improper
fraction.
M

<Must press first>

The Answer is .

38
 F COMMON FRACTION DECIMAL FORM F

@ denominator. Simply divide the numerator by the

When doing the division, you may get what is called a

L …
Repeating (or Periodic) Decimal. This occurs when
the remainder never becomes zero and a series of digits
repeat themselves forever. In this case, write a bar over
the repeated digit(s).
F If the division results in a decimal form that has a remainder of zero,
we say the number is a Terminating Decimal. It stops (terminates) after
a definite number of digits.

EXAMPLE 17: Convert each fraction to its decimal form:

SOLUTION: Doing the long division , we get an answer of: 0.5

<This is a terminating decimal>

SOLUTION: Doing the long division , we get an answer of: 9.75

<This is a terminating decimal>

SOLUTION: Doing the long division , the remainder of 2 will keep

repeating itself, so this is a repeating decimal: 0.2222222…
For brevity, we place a bar over the 2:

The answer is:

39
( Even though there is a special 4 function to
convert numbers into decimals, you will probably never need to use it.
Simply type the fraction into the calculator, using the for the fraction
bar, then press . The result is in decimal form.
What to do: On the Calculator Screen:
Convert into its decimal form.
M

The answer is:

Look at the last digit on the right in the calculator display. It is a
= 7. The calculator rounds our answer. Be aware it is not really 7. It
is always a repeating 6: 0.66666666666666666666… <Forever>

F TERMINATING DECIMAL FRACTION F

¿ Ω ¿ Ω Step - By - Step ¿ Ω ¿ Ω
Write the decimal as the numerator of the fraction.
Write a 1 in the denominator, followed by a series of zeros to its right.
The number of zeros is equal to the number of digits to the right of the
decimal point.
Remove the decimal point and any zeros on the left (“leading zeros”).
Reduce the fraction to lowest terms, if possible.

EXAMPLE 18: Convert 0.6 to a fraction.

SOLUTION:
→
<A single zero is added for 1 decimal place>
→

Answer:

40
 EXAMPLE 19: Change 2.05 to a common fraction.

SOLUTION:
→
<Two zeros are added for 2 decimal places>
→

Answer: or if you want a mixed number.

( Just use4 .
What to do: On the Calculator Screen:
Change 2.05 to a common fraction.
M

Answer is:

=
The TI-84 is designed to convert decimals to fractions that have at
most three digits in the denominator; but will convert some that
have four digits. For example, it can handle converting 0.123 (try
it!) but not 0.001 (which you can mentally figure out is ). This
may be annoying to some, but be aware that the Texas
Instruments® graphing calculators have a great conversion
program. It surpasses those by Casio® and Sharp® calculators. HP
calculators have excellent fraction capabilities, but are not as
“user-friendly” as TI’s.

F REPEATING DECIMAL FRACTION F

Unfortunately, this is a rather complicated procedure requiring knowledge
of algebra to do. It will not be covered here.

. Converting repeating decimals into fractions is covered in the

“Solving Linear Equations” Lesson in the Algebra Self-Tutorials.
There is some good news…
41
( The TI-84 should be able to convert most
repeating decimals. Just type in a long string of repeating digits (14 or so
should be enough), then use 4 ( ).
What to do: On the Calculator Screen:
Convert the following repeating
decimals into fractions:

Answer:

Answer:

Answer:

F DECIMAL PERCENTAGE F

¿ Ω ¿ Ω Step - By - Step ¿ Ω ¿ Ω
Multiply the decimal by 100.
Add the percent symbol: % to the right of the result.

Moving the decimal point two places to the right is the

same as multiplying by 100.
HOT TIP!

42
 EXAMPLE 20: Convert 0.153 to a percent.

SOLUTION: 0.153 × 100 = 15.3

Add the percent symbol: 15.3%

Answer: 0.153 = 15.3%

EXAMPLE 21: Convert 0.0007 to a percent.

SOLUTION: Using our “Hot Tip”:

0.0 0 07 = 000.07

Remove the extra zeros and add the percent symbol: 0.07%

Answer: 0.0007 = 0.07%

( There is no “%” operation on the TI-84. All you

have to do is multiply the number by 100. Add the percent symbol yourself
at the end of the number when writing it on paper.
What to do: On the Calculator Screen:
Convert 1.3 to a percent.
M

The answer is 130%

F COMMON FRACTION PERCENTAGE F

¿ Ω ¿ Ω Step - By - Step ¿ Ω ¿ Ω
Convert the fraction to a decimal.
Convert the decimal to a percentage.

43
 EXAMPLE 22: Convert to a percentage.

SOLUTION: Convert to a decimal.

Performing the long division , we get the decimal: 0.33333333… =

Convert to a percentage:

0.3 3 3 3… =

( See previous sections for keystrokes.

F PERCENTAGE DECIMAL F

¿ Ω ¿ Ω Step - By - Step ¿ Ω ¿ Ω
Remove the percent symbol: %.
Divide the number by 100 (or just shift the decimal point two places to
the left).

EXAMPLE 23: Change 1.8% to a decimal.

SOLUTION: Remove the percent symbol: 1.8

.0 1 . 8 = .018

Answer: 1.8% = 0.018

( Divide the percentage by 100.

What to do: On the Calculator Screen:
Change 5% to a decimal.
M

The answer is: 0.05

44
 F PERCENTAGE COMMON FRACTION F

¿ Ω ¿ Ω Step - By - Step ¿ Ω ¿ Ω
Remove the percent symbol: %.
Place the number in the numerator, and place a “100” in the
denominator.
If there is a decimal point in the numerator, multiply both parts of the
fraction by the power of 10 needed to remove the decimal point.
Reduce the fraction to lowest terms, if possible.

Note: Step does not occur often, but is a necessary thing to take into
consideration. Example #25 below performs this step.

EXAMPLE 24: Change 16% into a common fraction.

SOLUTION:

16% =

EXAMPLE 25: Rewrite 2.8% as a simple fraction.

SOLUTION: & : . Since there is a decimal point in the

numerator, multiply the top and bottom of the fraction by 10 (for 1 decimal
place).

Now reduce the fraction to lowest terms:

So 2.8% =

45
( Divide by 100. Use 4 to convert to a
fraction.
What to do: On the Calculator Screen:
Rewrite 2.8% as a simple fraction.
M

The answer is:

F COMPLEX FRACTION SIMPLE FRACTION F

Note: This will be covered in the “Division of Fractions” section of this
Lesson.

F CONVERTING RATIOS F
¿ Ω ¿ Ω Step - By - Step ¿ Ω ¿ Ω
Rewrite the ratio as a fraction. a : b →
Use the Step-By-Step procedures mentioned previously to convert to a
decimal or a percentage. We will not do any examples here, since this was
all covered beforehand.

WATCH VIDEO CLIP #6 NOW

EXERCISE #24 Convert into a mixed number.

Answer: _______

EXERCISE #25 Convert into an improper fraction.

Answer: _______

46
 EXERCISE #26 Convert each fraction into its decimal form.

Y ________

Y ________

EXERCISE #27 Convert the decimals into fractions.

Y 0.2 = ________

Y 3.12 = ________

Y 0.006 = ________

47
 EXERCISE #28 Convert to a percentage.

Answer: ______

EXERCISE #29 Convert 0.228 to a percentage.

Answer: ______

EXERCISE #30 Change 100 to a decimal.

Answer: ______

EXERCISE #31 Change 0.205 to a decimal.

Answer: ______

EXERCISE #32 Change 14 into a fraction.

Answer: ______

EXERCISE #33 Change 0.001 into a common fraction.

Answer: ______
48
 ARITHMETIC OF FRACTIONS
F MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS F
Let’s say we are given a half:

What would half of the half be?

← What is this?

It’s easy to see that the answer is one quarter .

of is

What about “a third of a third”?

This is

of is

49
What would of be?

Looking carefully at the slices above, the answer is:

of is which is the same as

Now, if we wish to find a fractional part of another fraction, in general,

what should we do? Well, if we replaced the word “of ” that is between the
fractions above with a multiplication sign, see what happens:

(The reduces to )

¿ Ω ¿ Ω Step - By - Step ¿ Ω ¿ Ω
To multiply proper or improper fractions:

Multiply the numerators together to get the NEW numerator.

Multiply the denominators together to get the NEW denominator.
Reduce the new fraction to lowest terms, if possible.

EXAMPLE 26: Multiply

SOLUTION:

50
There is an “improved” procedure we can also use. Instead of multiplying
right away, try to “cancel” common factors above and below the fractions.
This gives us “smaller” numbers to multiply together. When canceling, the
numbers do not have to be directly above each other. As long as one
common factor is above the fraction bar and the other is below it, they can
be cancelled out. This is called “cross canceling.” Let’s try this with our
previous example:
1 2

1 3

Notice how much faster and easier this is now.

¿ Ω ¿ Ω Step - By - Step ¿ Ω ¿ Ω
To multiply proper or improper fractions (improved version):

Cancel any common factors by “cross canceling.”

Multiply the numerators.
Multiply the denominators.
Simplify, if possible.

Note: If we cancelled out all common factors, then there is no Step . It

is included here in case we miss a common factor during Step ,
but then notice at the end that we can reduce further.

EXAMPLE 27: Evaluate the following expression:

SOLUTION:
1
2 11 1

7 3 1
1
The answer is:

51
( Input the fractions directly into the calculator,
but I recommend to enclose each one within a set of parentheses. The
result is usually in decimal form (except when the answer is an integer), so
use 4 to place the answer in fraction form.
What to do: On the Calculator Screen:
Evaluate the following expression:

The answer is:

Note: If multiplying a whole number by a fraction, first rewrite the

whole number with a “1” in its denominator,

F MULTIPLICATION OF MIXED NUMBERS F

To multiply mixed numbers, convert them to improper fractions first, then
proceed as before. Change the result back into a mixed number.

EXAMPLE 28: Multiply

SOLUTION: Convert to improper fractions:

4 8

1 3

Changing to a mixed number (use long division) we get:

52
( Enclose the mixed numbers within sets of
parentheses. Use a “+” to combine the whole part to the fractional part of
the mixed numbers. If you want the answer to be an improper fraction, use
, otherwise, use the procedure mentioned earlier to covert
to a mixed number. I will do this here.
What to do: On the Calculator Screen:
Multiply
M

<Write down the 10, then subtract it

to find fractional part>

The answer is:

Note: Traditionally, if a problem has mixed numbers in it, the final

answer should also be a mixed number, if possible.

WATCH VIDEO CLIP #7 NOW

EXERCISE #34 Multiply the following fractions:

53
 F DIVISION OF FRACTIONS F
Let’s count some slices:

Y How many quarters are there in a half?

There are 2 quarters in a half.

Y How many thirds are there in 3 whole parts?

There are 9 thirds in 3 whole parts.

Y And finally, how many eighths are in three-quarters?

There are 6 eighths in three-quarters.

The past three scenarios can be written as divisions of fractions:

54
We got these answers from the pictures. Now, let’s learn how to do division
of fractions mathematically.

F The Reciprocal of a fraction is a fraction where the numerator and

denominator swap places. This “swapping” is called Inverting a fraction.

EXAMPLE 29: Find the reciprocal of the following numbers:

ANSWER: The reciprocal of is

Y5

ANSWER: First, rewrite 5 as: . The reciprocal is

Y0

ANSWER: Zero has no reciprocal, because division by zero is

undefined.

ANSWER: . Its reciprocal is:

@ To divide fractions:

Invert (find reciprocal) of the second fraction, then multiply (cross

cancel) the fractions together. If mixed numbers are involved,
change them to improper fractions. Place whole numbers over 1.
Let’s show this with our original problems:
2

Y
1

55
 2

Y
1

EXAMPLE 30: Divide the following fractions:

Y
3

ANSWER:
2

ANSWER: Convert to improper fractions first:

=<Do not cancel at this point> <Nothing cancels>

So

F DIVIDING COMPLEX FRACTIONS F

(CONVERTING COMPLEX FRACTIONS TO SIMPLE FRACTIONS)

To convert complex fractions to simple fractions (or divide them), just

change the “main” fraction bar (the widest one) into a division symbol (÷),
then proceed as before.

56
 EXAMPLE 31: Simplify the complex fraction:

SOLUTION:

EXAMPLE 32: Divide the following, if possible:

SOLUTION:
3

SOLUTION: Zero divided by any non-zero number is zero.

SOLUTION: Undefined. Cannot divide by zero.

( Since it is the same as for multiplication, we

won’t do another example, but I will stress it is VERY important to enclose
each fraction within parentheses.
57
 WATCH VIDEO CLIP #8 NOW

EXERCISE #35 What is the reciprocal of the following numbers?

Y : The reciprocal is: ______

Y : The reciprocal is: ______

Y : The reciprocal is: ______

EXERCISE #36 Perform the following divisions:

58
 F ADDITION OF PROPER & IMPROPER FRACTIONS F

If the following circle is divided into eight equal parts, how many shaded
slices are there?

There are 2 green and 3 red slices, for a total of 5 shaded slices.

Mathematically, this can be represented as:

2* + 3* = 5*
Let’s look at another situation:

How many shaded sections are there in the picture below?

There is 1 gray section plus 3 green ones added to 4 red blocks for a total
sum of 8 shaded areas for a rectangle that is divided into 12 equal parts.

Mathematically:

!1@ + !3@ + !4@ = !8@

can be reduced:

So another way of answering this questions is of the rectangle is shaded.

Notice how easy it was to add up our fractions. All we had to do was add
the numerator values. The denominators did not change nor affected our
answer. You simply count the slices (numerator). The total number of cuts
59
(the denominator) is not changed. This is VERY important to realize if we
wish to add fractions together.

Since the denominators all stay the same, I can rewrite our last sum of
fractions as follows:

Since all the individual denominators are the same, they share a common
denominator of 12, so I wrote a single denominator, then placed all the
numerators above it:

Now, it is easy to find the answer (sum):

EXAMPLE 33: Find the sum of the following fractions:

SOLUTION: Since they all share a common denominator of 11, it is

easy to rewrite and add the numerators together:

H Common Denominator! H

The sum is .

What if we DID NOT have a common denominator?

Let’s try to figure out the value of the following shaded region:

60
How can we add and ?

Let’s see…

What if we added numerators and denominators together? We were able

to multiply these together earlier. Maybe it’s the same for addition:

Is this correct?

Well, a shaded area of looks like:

This is obviously not the same as our first figure above.

Previously, we did not think much about adding slices together, since they
all shared a common denominator. So if we could somehow change the
fractions into a form where they all share a common denominator, THEN
we could easily add them up.

We learned in an earlier section of this Lesson how to find the Lowest

Common Denominator (LCD) of two fractions. Let’s use the LCD to help us
add our fractions together.

The LCD of and is 6.

61
Changing our fractions to a higher form with this LCD, we get:

and

Let’s add these fractions now:

So:

We had to do quite a bit of writing to get our answer. Let’s now try to
“compact” our work.

¿ Ω ¿ Ω Step - By - Step ¿ Ω ¿ Ω
Find the LCD.
Rewrite our sum with “blank fractions” of the form: either just before
or just after each fraction that needs to be changed to a higher form.
Multiply the numerators and the denominators by what is needed to get
the LCD. Place these numbers inside the blank spots.
Rewrite the addition as a sum of numerators with a single denominator
(which is the LCD).
Add up our numerators.
Reduce the fraction to lowest terms, if possible.

This method may look worse, but in practice, it actually “flows” quite
nicely (and you will see this in the video).

62
 EXAMPLE 34: What is ?

SOLUTION: Find the LCD:

8 12

4 4

2 • 2 • 2
2 • 2 • 3

2 • 2 • 2 • 3 = 24

Now, showing each of the 6 steps, this is how we will find the sum (don’t
worry, it gets faster):

The LCD is 24.

Put in the “blanks”:

Multiply the numerators and the denominators by what is needed to get

the LCD. Place these numbers inside the blank spots:

Rewrite the addition as a sum of numerators with a single denominator:

Add up our numerators:

does not reduce.

63
So our sum is:

In actual practice, this is how this problem would look like:

What is ?

SOLUTION: Find the LCD:

8 12

4 4

2 • 2 • 2
2 • 2 • 3

2 • 2 • 2 • 3 = 24
Now find the sum:

See how nice and compact this is?

F This method of adding fractions is very useful

when we need to add more complicated fractions in algebra. Some
teachers make students do addition of fractions in a “vertical” format
instead of the “horizontal” format shown here. DON’T do vertical
format! (OK, if your teacher “forces” you to, then you don’t have a
choice, but if you have an option, do it the way I’m showing you. It is
the better method in the long run).

( If you are strictly just adding fractions together,

you don’t need to enclose each one within its own set of parentheses;
however, I think it is a good habit to enclose them, since you need to for
other operations with fractions.

64
What to do: On the Calculator Screen:
What is ?
M

The answer is:

EXAMPLE 35: Find the sum of the following fractions:

SOLUTION: Find the LCD:

2 is prime. 5 is prime. 6

2
5
2 • 3
2 • 5 • 3 = 30
Now, find the sum:

reduces to , so…

=
A common mistake some students make when adding fractions is
to try to “cross cancel” common factors. This is only done with
multiplication of fractions, NOT for addition or subtraction.

8Not correct! L 4This is correct! J

65
 F ADDITION OF MIXED NUMBERS F
There are two procedures for adding mixed numbers together:

@ numbers) into improper. Change all mixed numbers (and whole

fractions, then add as shown previously.
Change final sum into a mixed number.

@ up all the fractional parts.

. First, add up all the whole parts; then add
Rewrite the sum of the fractional parts
as a mixed number, if possible, then add the whole part to the other
whole part to create our final mixed number.

Note: Procedure #1 is better if the numbers involved are relatively

small in size. Procedure #2 is better for larger values.

Let’s use both procedures for the following example:

EXAMPLE 36: Add and .

SOLUTION: (Procedure #1)

The LCD is 6.

Changing back into a mixed number using long division, we get:

So + =

SOLUTION: (Procedure #2)

Add up the whole parts:

3+2=5

66
Add up the fractional parts:

The LCD is 6.

Changing back into a mixed number using long division, we get:

Add up our results: 5 + =

So + =

( As before, if we are strictly just adding mixed

numbers together, we don’t need to enclose them within parentheses; but I
recommend you do so for clarity and is a good habit to get into. Remember
that to input mixed numbers, you place a between the whole and
fractional parts.
What to do: On the Calculator Screen:
Add and .
M

The whole part is 6. Subtract it, then

find the fractional part:

The fractional part is

Our final answer is:

WATCH VIDEO CLIP #9 NOW

67
 EXERCISE #37 What sum is represented by the shaded regions?
(Write the fractions and their sum). Reduce to lowest terms, if possible.

Y Answer: _______________________

Answer: _______________________

EXERCISE #38 Find the sum of the following fractions and mixed
numbers: (reduce, if possible):

68
Y

F SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS & MIXED NUMBERS F

@ rewrite the subtraction

To subtract fractions or mixed numbers, just
as “adding the opposite,” then proceed as
we did with adding fractions or mixed numbers. If you don’t want
to do this, then just subtract the numerators, but follow the
procedures for adding fractions.

Mixed numbers are best handled by converting them into improper

fractions first, to avoid the “borrowing” dilemma. You will see this
in Example # 38 below.

EXAMPLE 37: Subtract from

SOLUTION: Subtracting from is written as:

<They switch places!>

Now, change the subtraction to “adding the opposite”:

← Subtracting is the same as adding -

69
Next, proceed as before, and just add the fractions together:

The LCD is 12.

The answer is:

EXAMPLE 38: What is ?

SOLUTION: To see why converting the mixed numbers into improper

fractions first is the better way, let’s do it in a typical way done in classes,
namely subtracting the whole parts, then subtracting the fractional parts:

5 – 2 = 3, LCD is 21

We now have 3 + . This is cumbersome to work with. We can “borrow” a

1 from the 3, or rewrite 3 as , then continue subtracting. I personally
don’t like the “borrowing” method, since it can be confusing when dealing
with negative fractions, so let’s try another approach. We will change the
mixed numbers into improper fractions in the first place:

We now have: . The LCD is still 21.

70
Converting this into a mixed number, (use long division), we get:

So =

( This is the same as addition, except if dealing

with mixed numbers, the second term MUST be enclosed within its own
set of parentheses. Again, just always use the parentheses.
What to do: On the Calculator Screen:
What is ?
M

The whole part is 2. Subtract it,

then find the fractional part:

The fractional part is

Our final answer is:

WATCH VIDEO CLIP #10 NOW

EXERCISE #39 Perform the subtractions below. Reduce, if possible.

Problems with mixed numbers should have a final answer as a mixed
number, if possible.

71
Y

IT’S QUIZ TIME!

72
 LESSON 6 QUIZ
Note: When doing these problems, ALWAYS try to reduce the fractions
to lowest terms. Unless otherwise stated, problems with mixed
numbers should have a final result as a mixed number, if
possible.

1 What is the denominator and numerator for the fraction below?

← ______________
← ______________

2 What fraction is represented by the shaded regions?

Fraction: ________

What is the reduced form? ______

3 Shade in the figure below:

Y What is the reduced form of ? Answer: ______

73
4 Classify the expressions below as:
• Proper • Improper • Mixed Number
• Complex Fraction • Unit Fraction • Percentage
• Ratio • Decimal Fraction • Whole Number
• Undefined in Decimal Form

Y 2.8

Y4

Y 0.8

Y1:5

Y 3.12121212…

Y 6 to 5

Y 10
74
Y

5 Simplify (or reduce) the following numbers:

6 Write an equivalent fraction with the denominator in the indicated

higher form:

Y Change into 54ths.

7 Find the LCD for and .

LCD:_____

75
8 Place one of these symbols: between the two fractions to
create a true statement:

9 Perform the following conversions:

Y → Mixed Number: ______

Y → Improper Fraction: ______

Y → Decimal Form: ______

Y → Decimal Form: ______

Y 1.8 → Common Fraction: ______

76
Y 0.35 → Percentage: ______

Y → Percentage: ______

Y 2.1 → Decimal Form: ______

Y 17 → Common Fraction: ______

Y → Common Fraction: ______

bl What is the value of the unknown fractional part of the pie graph?

1$
?

1%

1^

77
bm Perform the following arithmetic operations:
Y

Y Subtract from :

ANSWERS ON NEXT PAGE…

78
 ANSWERS
1 What is the denominator and numerator for the fraction below?
← Numerator
← Denominator

2 What fraction is represented by the shaded regions?

Fraction: 2$
What is the reduced form? @1

3 Shade in the figure below:

Y What is the reduced form of ? Answer: 1#

4 Classify the expressions below as:
• Proper • Improper • Mixed Number
• Complex Fraction • Unit Fraction • Percentage
• Ratio • Decimal Fraction • Whole Number
• Undefined in Decimal Form
Y Improper

79
Y 2.8 Decimal Fraction in Decimal Form

Y 4 Whole Number

Y 0.8 Percentage

Y 1 : 5 Ratio

Y Undefined

Y Mixed Number

Y Unit Fraction and Proper Fraction

Y Proper Fraction

Y Complex Fraction

Y Improper Fraction

Y 3.12121212… Decimal Fraction in Decimal Form

Y 6 to 5 Ratio

Y 10 Percentage

Y Complex Fraction

Y Proper Fraction (it is a decimal fraction, but not in decimal

form. It is not a percentage, since there is no % symbol)

80
5 Simplify (or reduce) the following numbers:

Y 1@

Y !7% <It is already reduced.>

Y $3
Y 5#2

6 Write an equivalent fraction with the denominator in the indicated

higher form:

42
Y

Y Change into 54ths.

Answer: %1 $2
7 Find the LCD for and .

LCD: 60

8 Place one of these symbols: between the two fractions to

create a true statement:

>
9 Perform the following conversions:

Y → Mixed Number: 2 #2
81
Y → Improper Fraction: 2#9
Y → Decimal Form: 1.25

Y → Decimal Form: 0.27

Y 1.8 → Common Fraction: %9

Y 0.35 → Percentage: 35%

Y → Percentage: 80%

Y 2.1 → Decimal Form: 0.021

Y 17 → Common Fraction: !1)7)

Y → Common Fraction: @1$

bl What is the value of the unknown fractional part of the pie graph?

1$
^2 )3

1%

1^

82
bm Perform the following arithmetic operations:
Y ^1
Y 81&@ 7$
Y #4
Y #2 $7
Y !1 ^1

Y @2 !9

Y @4 )1
Y 14^5

Y Subtract from : @7$

Y 3$1 )3
WATCH THE “ANSWERS TO QUIZ QUESTIONS” VIDEO NOW

END OF LESSON 6
See? I told you fractions were simple.

83