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Cold Formed Steel

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SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS
Symbol Definition Section
November 9, 2001 15
A Full unreduced cross-sectional area of the member C3.1.2.1, C4.2, C4.6, C5.2.1,
C5.2.2, C6.2, D4.1
A Area of directly connected elements or gross area E2.7
A
b
b
1
t +A
s
, for transverse stiffeners at interior support and C3.6.1
under concentrated load, and b
2
t +A
s
, for transverse
stiffeners at end support

A
b
Gross cross-sectional area of bolt E3.4
A
c
18t
2
+A
s
, for transverse stiffeners at interior support C3.6.1
and under concentrated load, and 10t
2
+A
s
, for
transverse stiffeners at end support

A
o
Reduced area due to local buckling C6.2
A
e
Effective area at the stress F
n
C3.6.1, C4, C4.2, C5.2.1,
C5.2.2, C6.2, D4, D4.1
A
e
Effective net area E2.7, E3.2
A
g
Gross area of the element including stiffeners B5.1
A
g
Gross area of the section C2, E2.7, E3.2

A
gt
Gross area subject to tension E5.3
A
gv
Gross area subject to shear E5.3
A
nt
Net area subject to tension E5.3
A
nv
Net area subject to shear E5.3

A
n
Net area of cross section C2, E3.2
A
s
Reduced cross sectional area of edge or intermediate B4, B4.1, B4.2
stiffener
A
s
Cross-sectional area of transverse stiffener C3.6.1
A
s
Gross area of stiffener B5.1
A
s
Effective area of stiffener B4, B4.1, B4.2
A
st
Gross area of shear stiffener C3.6.2
A
t
Net tensile area G4
Aw Area of web area C3.2.1
A
wn
Net web area E5.1
a Shear panel length of unreinforced web element, or C3.2.1, C3.6.2
the distance between
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Symbols and Definitions

SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS
Symbol Definition Section
16 November 9, 2001
transverse stiffeners of reinforced web elements,
a Intermediate fastener or spot weld spacing C4.5
a Fastener distance from outside web edge C4.6
a Length of bracing interval D3.2.2

B Stud Spacing D4
B
c
Term for determining the tensile yield point of corners A7.2
b Effective design width of compression element B2.1, B2.2, B3.1, B3.2,
B4.1, B4.2

b Flange width C4.6, D3.2.1
b length of web hole B2.4, C3.2.2, C3.4.2
b
d
Effective width for deflection calculation B2.1, B2.2, B3.1, B3.2, B4.1,
B4.2, B5.2
b
e
Effective with of elements, located at the centroid of the B5.1
element including stiffeners
b
e
Effective width B2.3
b
e
Effective width either determined by Section B4.2 or B5.2
Section B5.1 depending on the stiffness of the stiffeners
b
o
Dimension defined in Figure B4-1 B4, B4.1
b
o
Out-to-out width of the compression flange as defined in B2.3
Figure B2.3-2
b
o
Total flat width of stiffened element B5.1
b
o
Total flat width of the edge stiffened element B5.2
b
p
Largest sub-element flat width B5.1
b
1
, b
2
Effective widths B2.3, B2.4
b
1
, b
2
Effective widths of transverse stiffeners C3.6.1

C For flexural members, ratio of the total corner cross A7.2
-sectional area of the controlling flange to the full cross
-sectional area of the controlling flange

C
b
Bending coefficient dependent on moment gradient C3.1.2.1, C3.1.2.2
C
f
Constant G1, G3, G4
C
m
End moment coefficient in interaction formula C5.2.1, C5.2.2
C
ms
Coefficient for lateral bracing of Z-section D3.2.1
C
mx
End moment coefficient in interaction formula C5.2.1, C5.2.2
C
my
End moment coefficient in interaction formula C5.2.1, C5.2.2
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Draft North American Cold-Formed Specification

SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS
Symbol Definition Section
November 9, 2001 31

W
Wind load factor A6.1.2, A.6.1.2.1

l/
x
, Magnification factors C5.2.1, C5.2.2
l/
y

Coefficient B5.1.1, B5.1.2, C4.2, D4.1

o
Target reliability index C3.1.5, F1.1

,
i
, Coefficients B5.1.1, B5.1.2
,
i
,
,
i

Actual shear strain in the sheathing D4.1
Permissible shear strain of the sheathing D4.1
Importance factor A1.2a, A6.1.2, A6.1.2.3

i
Load factor F1.1

Angle between web and bearing surface >45 but no C3.4.1
more than 90

Angle between the vertical and the plane of the web of D3.2.1
the Z-section, degrees

Angle between an element and its edge stiffener B4, B4.2

,
c
Slenderness factors B2.1, B2.2, B5.1, C3.5.1,
C3.5.2, C4, C6.2

1
,
2
Parameters used in determining compression strain C3.1.1
factor
Poissons ratio for steel =0.30 B2.1, C3.2.1
Reduction factor A7.2, B2.1, B5.1, F3.1

CR
Theoretical elastic buckling stress D4.1

ex
(
2
E)/ (K
x
L
x
/ r
x
)
2
C3.1.2.1, C4.2
(
2
E)/ (L/ r
x
)
2
D4.1

exy
(
2
EI
xy
)/ (AL
2
) D4.1
)
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Symbols and Definitions

SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS
Symbol Definition Section
32 November 9, 2001

ey
(
2
E)/ (K
y
L
y
/ r
y
)
2
C3.1.2.1
(
2
E)/ (L/ r
y
)
2
D4.1

tQ

t
+Q
t
D4.1

t
Torsional buckling stress C3.1.2.1, C4.2, C4.3, D4.1

Resistance factor A1.2, A5.1.1, A6.1.1, C3.1.5,
C3.5.2, , C4.6, E2.1, E2.2.1,
E2.2.2, E2.3, E2.4, E2.5, E2.6,
E2.7, E3.1, E3.2, E3.3.1, E3.3.2,
E3.4, E4, E4.3.2, E4.4, E4.4.3,
E5.1, F1.1, F1.2

b
Resistance factor for bending strength C3.1.1, C3.1.2, C3.1.3, C3.1.4,
C3.3.2, C3.5.2, C5.1.2, C5.2.2,
C6.1, D4.2

c
Resistance factor for concentrically loaded compression A2.3.1, C3.6.1, C4, C5.2.2,
member C6.2, D4.1

d
Resistance factor for diaphragms D5

t
Resistance factor for tension member C2, C5.1.2

v
Resistance factor for shear strength C3.2.1, C3.3.2

w
Resistance factor for web crippling strength C3.4.1, C3.5.2
| f
2
/ f
1
| B2.3

Load combination factor A6.1.2.3

Factor of safety A1.2, A4.1.1, C3.1.5, C3.5.1,
C4.6, E2.1, E2.2.1, E2.2.2,
E2.3, E2.4, E2.5, E2.6, E2.7
E3.1, E3.2, E3.3.1, E3.3.2, E3.4,
E4, E4.3.2, E4.4, E4.4.3, E5.1,
F.1.2

b
Factor of safety for bending strength C3.1.1, C3.1.2, C3.1.3, C3.1.4,
C3.3.1, C3.5.1, C5.1.1, C5.2.1,
C6.1, D4.2

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Draft North American Cold-Formed Specification

SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS
Symbol Definition Section
November 9, 2001 33

c
Factor of safety for concentrically loaded compression A2.3.1, C4, C5.2.1, C6.2, D4.1
member

c
Factor of safety for bearing strength C3.6.1

d
Factor of safety for diaphragms D5

t
Factor of safety for tension member C2, C5.1.1

v
Factor of safety for shear strength C3.2.1, C3.3.1

November 9, 2001 39
ASTM A606, Steel, Sheet and Strip, High Strength, Low Alloy, Hot-Rolled and
Cold-Rolled, with Improved Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance
ASTM A653/ A653M (SS Grades 33 (230), 37 (255), 40 (275), and 50 (340) Class
1 and Class 3; HSLAS Types A and B, Grades 40 (275), 50 (340), 60 (410),
70 (480) and 80 (550)), Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) or Zinc-Iron
Alloy-Coated (Galvannealed) by the Hot-Dip Process
ASTM A792/ A792M (Grades 33 (230), 37 (255), 40 (275), and 50 Class 1 (340
Class 1)), Steel Sheet, 55% Aluminum-Zinc Alloy-Coated by the Hot-Dip
Process
ASTM A847 Cold-Formed Welded and Seamless High Strength, Low Alloy
Structural Tubing with Improved Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance
ASTM A875/ A875M (SS Grades 33 (230), 37 (255), 40 (275), and 50 (340) Class
1 and Class 3; HSLAS Types A and B, Grades 50 (340), 60 (410), 70 (480),
and 80 (550)), Steel Sheet, Zinc-5% Aluminum Alloy-Coated by the Hot-
Dip Process
ASTM A1003/ A1003M, Steel Sheet, Carbon, Metallic- and Nonmetallic-
Coated for Cold-Formed Framing Members
ASTM A1008/ A1008M (SS Grades 25 (170), 30 (205), 33 (230) Types 1 and 2,
and 40 (275) Types 1 and 2; HSLAS Classes 1 and 2, Grades 45 (310), 50
(340), 55 (380), 60 (450), 65 (450), and 70 (480); HSLAS-F Grades 50 (340),
60 (410), 70 (480), and 80 (550)), Steel, Sheet, Cold-Rolled, Carbon,
Structural, High-Strength Low-Alloy and High-Strength Low-Alloy with
Improved Formability
ASTM A1011/ A1011M (SS Grades 30 (205), 33 (230), 36 (250) Types 1 and 2, 40
(275), 45 (310), 50 (340), and 55 (380); HSLAS Classes 1 and 2, Grades 45
(310), 50 (340), 55 (380), 60 (410), 65 (450), and 70 (480); HSLAS-F Grades
50 (340), 60 (410), 70 (480), and 80(550)), Steel, Sheet and Strip, Hot-Rolled,
Carbon, Structural, High-Strength Low-Alloy and High-Strength Low-
Alloy with Improved Formability
A2.2 Other Steels
The listing in Section A2.1 does not exclude the use of steel up to and
including one in. (25.4 mm) in thickness ordered or produced to other than
the listed specifications provided such steel conforms to the chemical and
mechanical requirements of one of the listed specifications or other published
specification which establishes its properties and suitability, and provided it is
subjected by either the producer or the purchaser to analyses, tests and other
controls to the extent and in the manner prescribed by one of the listed
specifications and Section A2.3.
A2.3 Ductility
Steels not listed in Section A2.1 and used for structural members and
connections in accordance with Section A2.2 shall comply with one of the
following ductility requirements:
A2.3.1 The ratio of tensile strength to yield point shall not be less than
1.08, and the total elongation shall not be less than 10 percent for a two-
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Chapter A, General Provisions

40 November 9, 2001
inch gage (50 mm) length or 7 percent for an eight-inch (200 mm) gage
length standard specimen tested in accordance with ASTM A370. If these
requirements cannot be met, the following criteria shall be satisfied: (1)
local elongation in a 1/ 2 in. (12.7 mm) gage length across the fracture
shall not be less than 20%, (2) uniform elongation outside the fracture
shall not be less than 3%. When material ductility is determined on the
basis of the local and uniform elongation criteria, the use of such material
is restricted to the design of purlins and girts in accordance with Sections
C3.1.1(a), C3.1.2, C3.1.3, and C3.1.4. For purlins and girts subject to
combined axial load and bending moment (Section C5),
n
c
P
P
shall not
exceed 0.15 for ASD,
n c
u
P
P

shall not exceed 0.15 for LRFD and

n c
f
P
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Draft North American Cold-Formed Steel Specification

November 9, 2001 49
(2) When using bearing stiffeners and intermediate stiffeners,
(h/ t)
max
=300
In the above,
h =Depth of flat portion of web measured along the plane of web
t =Web thickness
Where a web consists of two or more sheets, the h/ t ratio shall
be computed for the individual sheets.
B2 Effective Widths of Stiffened Elements
B2.1 Uniformly Compressed Stiffened Elements
(a) Strength Determination
The effective width, b, shall be determined from the following equations:
b =w when 0.673 (Eq. B2.1-1)
b =w when >0.673 (Eq. B2.1-2)
where
w =Flat width as shown in Figure B2.1-1
=(1 - 0.22/ )/ (Eq. B2.1-3)
is a slenderness factor determined as follows:
=
cr
F
f
(Eq. B2.1-4)
F
cr
=
2
2
2
w
t
) 1 ( 12
E
k

,
_

(Eq. B2.1-5)
where
t =Thickness of the uniformly compressed stiffened elements
=Poissons ratio of steel, and
f is as follows:
For flexural members:
(l) If Procedure I of Section C3.1.1 is used:
When the initial yielding is in compression in the element
considered, f =F
y
.
When the initial yielding is in tension, the compressive stress, f,
in the element considered shall be determined on the basis of the
effective section at M
y
(moment causing initial yield).
(2) If Procedure II of Section C3.1.1 is used, f is the stress in the
element considered at M
n
determined on the basis of the
effective section.
(3) If Section C3.1.2.1 is used, f is the stress F
c
as described in that
Section in determining S
c
.
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Chapter B, Elements
50 November 9, 2001
For compression members, f is taken equal to F
n
as determined in
Section C4 or D4.1 as applicable.
E = Modulus of elasticity
k = Plate buckling coefficient
= 4 for stiffened elements supported by a web on each
longitudinal edge. Values for different types of elements are
given in the applicable sections.
(b) Serviceability Determination
The effective width, b
d
, used in determining serviceability shall be
calculated from the following equations:
b
d
=w when 0.673 (Eq. B2.1-6)
b
d
=w when >0.673 (Eq. B2.1-7)
where
w =Flat width
=Reduction factor determined by either of the following two procedures:
(1) Procedure I.
A low estimate of the effective width may be obtained from Eqs. B2.1-3
and B2.1-4 except that f
d
is substituted for f, where f
d
is the computed
compressive stress in the element being considered.
(2) Procedure II.
For stiffened elements supported by a web on each longitudinal
edge, an improved estimate of the effective width can be obtained by
calculating as follows:
=1 when 0.673 (Eq. B2.1-8)
=(1.358 - 0.461/ )/ when 0.673 < <
c
(Eq. B2.1-9)
=(0.41 +0.59
d y
f / F - 0.22/ )/ when
c
(Eq. B2.1-10)
shall not exceed 1.0 for all cases.
where

c
=0.256 +0.328 (w/ t) E / F
y
(Eq. B2.1-11)
and is as defined by Eq. B2.1-4, except that f
d
is substituted for f.

w
Actual Element
b/2
Effective Element, b, and Stress, f,
on Effective Elements
b/2
f

Figure B2.1 Figure B2.1 Figure B2.1 Figure B2.1- -- -1 1 1 1 Stiffened Stiffened Stiffened Stiffened Elements Elements Elements Elements
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Draft North American Cold-Formed Steel Specification

November 9, 2001 51
B2.2 Uniformly Compressed Stiffened Elements with Circular Holes
(a) Strength Determination
The effective width, b, shall be determined as follows:
for 0.50
w
d
h
0, and
t
w
70 and
the distance between centers of holes 0.50w and 3d
h
,

b =w - d
h
when 0.673 (Eq. B2.2-1)

b =

1
]
1

w
) d 8 . 0 ( ) 22 . 0 (
1 w
h
when >0.673 (Eq. B2.2-2)

b shall not exceed w - d
h
where
w =Flat width
d
h
=Diameter of holes
is as defined in Section B2.1.
(b) Serviceability Determination
The effective width, b
d
, used in determining serviceability shall be equal
to b calculated in accordance with Procedure I of Section B2.1(b), except
that f
d
is substituted for f, where f
d
is the computed compressive stress
in the element being considered.

B2.3 Webs and other Stiffened Elements under Stress Gradient
The following notation is used in this section:
b
1
=Effective width, dimension defined in Figure B2.3-1
b
2
=Effective width, dimension defined in Figure B2.3-1
b
e
=Effective width b determined in accordance with Section B2.1 with
f
1
substituted for f and with k determined as given in this section
b
o
=Out-to-out width of the compression flange as defined in Figure
B2.3-2
f
1
, f
2
=Stresses shown in Figure B2.3-1 calculated on the basis of effective
section. Where f
1
and f
2
are both compression, f
1
f
2

h
o
=Out-to-out width of the web as defined in Figure B2.3-2
k =Plate buckling coefficient
=| f
2
/ f
1
| (absolute value) (Eq. B2.3-1)
(a) Strength Determination
(i) For webs under stress gradient (f
1
in compression and f
2
in tension as
shown in Figure B2.3-1)
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Chapter B, Elements
52 November 9, 2001
k =4 +2(1 +)
3
+2(1 +) (Eq. B2.3-2)
For h
o
/ b
o
4
b
1
=b
e
/ (3 +) (Eq. B2.3-3)
b
2
=b
e
/ 2 when >0.236 (Eq. B2.3-4)
b
2
=b
e
b
1
when 0.236 (Eq. B2.3-5)
In addition, b
1
+b
2
shall not exceed the compression portion of the
web calculated on the basis of effective section.
For h
o
/ b
o
>4
b
1
=b
e
/ (3 +) (Eq. B2.3-6)
b
2
=b
e
/ (1 +) b
1
(Eq. B2.3-7)
(ii) For other stiffened elements under stress gradient (f
1
and f
2
in
w
b
f (Compression)
Actual Element
Effective Elements and Stress
on Effective Elements
1
b
2
2
f (Compression)
1
f (Tension)
2
f (Compression)
1
b
1
b
2
(a) Webs under Stress Gradient (b) Other Stiffened Elements under Stress Gradient

Figure B2.3 Figure B2.3 Figure B2.3 Figure B2.3- -- -1 Webs and other Stiffened Elements under Stress Gradient 1 Webs and other Stiffened Elements under Stress Gradient 1 Webs and other Stiffened Elements under Stress Gradient 1 Webs and other Stiffened Elements under Stress Gradient
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Draft North American Cold-Formed Steel Specification

November 9, 2001 53
compression as shown in Figure B2.3-1)
k = 4 +2(1 - )
3
+2(1 - ) (Eq. B2.3-8)
b
1
= b
e
/ (3 - ) (Eq. B2.3-9)
b
2
= b
e
b
1
(Eq. B2.3-10)
(b) Serviceability Determination
The effective widths used in determining serviceability shall be
calculated in accordance with Section B2.3(a) except that f
d1
and f
d2
are
substituted for f
1
and f
2
, where f
d1
and f
d2
are the computed stresses f
1

and f
2
based on the effective section at the load for which serviceability is
determined.

B2.4 C-Section Webs with Holes under Stress Gradient
These provisions shall be applicable within the following limits:
(1) d
0
/ h <0.7
(2) h / t 200
(3) Holes centered at mid-depth of the web
(4) Clear distance between holes 18 in. (457 mm)
(5) Non-circular holes, corner radii 2t
(6) Non-circular holes, d
0
2.5 in. (64 mm) and b 4.5 in. (114 mm)
(7) Circular hole diameters 6 in. (152 mm)
(8) d
0
>9/ 16 in. (14 mm)
(a) Strength Determination
When d
0
/ h <0.38, the effective widths, b
1
and b
2
, shall be determined
by Section B2.3(a) by assuming no hole exists in the web.
When d
0
/ h 0.38, the effective width shall be determined by Section
B3.1(a) assuming the compression portion of the web consists of an
unstiffened element adjacent to the hole with f =f
1
as shown in Figure
B2.3-1.
b
o
h
o
b
o
h
o

Figure B2.3 Figure B2.3 Figure B2.3 Figure B2.3- -- -2 Out 2 Out 2 Out 2 Out- -- -to to to to- -- -Out Dimensions of Webs an Out Dimensions of Webs an Out Dimensions of Webs an Out Dimensions of Webs and Stiffened Elements under Stress Gradient d Stiffened Elements under Stress Gradient d Stiffened Elements under Stress Gradient d Stiffened Elements under Stress Gradient
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Chapter B, Elements
54 November 9, 2001
(b) Serviceability Determination
The effective widths shall be determined by Section B2.3(b) by
assuming no hole exists in the web.

where
d
0
= Depth of web hole
b = Length of web hole
b
1
, b
2
= Effective widths defined by Figure B2.3-1
h = Depth of flat portion of the web measured along the plane of
the web
Other variables are defined in B2.3.
B3 Effective Widths of Unstiffened Elements
B3.1 Uniformly Compressed Unstiffened Elements
(a) Strength Determination
The effective width, b, shall be determined in accordance with Section
B2.1(a), except that k shall be taken as 0.43 and w as defined in Figure
B3.1-1.
(b) Serviceability Determination
The effective width, b
d
, used in determining serviceability shall be
calculated in accordance with Procedure I of Section B2.1(b), except that
f
d
is substituted for f and k =0.43.

B3.2 Unstiffened Elements and Edge Stiffeners with Stress Gradient
(a) Strength Determination
The effective width, b, shall be determined in accordance with Section
B2.1(a) with f =f
3
as in Figure B4-2 in the element and k =0.43.
(b) Serviceability Determination
The effective width, b
d
, used in determining serviceability shall be
calculated in accordance with Procedure I of Section B2.1(b), except that
f
d3
is substituted for f and k =0.43, where f
d3
=computed stress f
3
as
shown in Figure B4-2. Calculations are based on the effective section at
w
Actual Element
b
Effective Element and Stress
on Effective Elements
Stress f

Figure B3.1 Figure B3.1 Figure B3.1 Figure B3.1- -- -1 Unstiffened Element with Uniform Compression 1 Unstiffened Element with Uniform Compression 1 Unstiffened Element with Uniform Compression 1 Unstiffened Element with Uniform Compression
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the load for which the serviceability is determined.
B4 Effective Widths of Elements with One Intermediate Stiffener or an Edge
Stiffener
The following notation is used in this section.
S = f / E 28 . 1 (Eq. B4-1)
k = Buckling coefficient
b
o
= Dimension defined in Figure B4-1
d, w, D = Dimensions defined in Figure B4-2
d
s
= Reduced effective width of the stiffener as specified in this section.
d
s
, calculated according to Section B4.2, is to be used in computing
the overall effective section properties (see Figure B4-2)
d
s
= Effective width of the stiffener calculated according to Section B3.1
(see Figure B4-2)
A
s
= Reduced area of the stiffener as specified in this section. A
s
is to
be used in computing the overall effective section properties. The
centroid of the stiffener is to be considered located at the centroid
of the full area of the stiffener.
I
a
= Adequate moment of inertia of the stiffener, so that each
component element will behave as a stiffened element.
I
s
, A
s
= Moment of inertia of the full section of the stiffener about its own
centroidal axis parallel to the element to be stiffened, and the
effective area of the stiffener, respectively. For edge stiffeners, the
round corner between the stiffener and the element to be stiffened
shall not be considered as a part of the stiffener.

For the stiffener shown in Figure B4-2:
I
s
=(d
3
t sin
2
)/ 12 (Eq. B4-2)
A
s
=d
s
t (Eq. B4-3)

B4.1 Uniformly Compressed Elements with One Intermediate Stiffener
(a) Strength Determination
For b
o
/ t S
I
a
= 0 (no intermediate stiffener required)
b = w (Eq. B4.1-1)
A
s
= A
s
(Eq. B4.1-2)
For b
o
/ t >S
A
s
=A
s
(R
I
) (Eq. B4.1-3)
n =
3
1
S 12
t / b
583 . 0
o

1
]
1

(Eq. B4.1-4)
k =3(R
I
)
n
+ 1 (Eq. B4.1-5)
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R
I
=I
s
/ I
a
1 (Eq. B4.1-6)
where
i) For S <b
o
/ t <3S
I
a
=
1
]
1

50
S
t / b
50 t
o 4
(Eq. B4.1-7)
ii) For b
o
/ t 3S
I
a
=
1
]
1

285
S
t / b
128 t
o 4
(Eq. B4.1-8)
The effective width, b, is calculated in accordance with Section B2.1(a).
(b) Serviceability Determination
The effective width, b
d
, used in determining serviceability shall be
calculated as in Section B4.1(a), except that f
d
is substituted for f.

B4.2 Uniformly Compressed Elements with an Edge Stiffener
(a) Strength Determination
For w/ t 0.328S:
I
a
=0 (no edge stiffener needed)
b =w (Eq. B4.2-1)
b
1
=b
2
=w/ 2 (see Fig. B4-2) (Eq. B4.2-2)
d
s
=d
s
for simple lip stiffener (Eq. B4.2-3)
A
s
=A
s
for other stiffener shapes (Eq. B4.2-4)
For w/ t >0.328S
b
1
=b/ 2 (R
I
) (see Fig. B4-2) (Eq. B4.2-5)
b
2
=b b
1
(see Fig. B4-2) (Eq. B4.2-6)
d
s
=d
s
(R
I
) for simple lip stiffener (Eq. B4.2-7)
Stress f
Effective Elements and Stress
on Effective Elements
Stiffener Section
b/2 b/2 b/2 b/2
b
o
Actual Elements
w

Figure B4 Figure B4 Figure B4 Figure B4- -- -1 Elements with One Intermediate Stiffener 1 Elements with One Intermediate Stiffener 1 Elements with One Intermediate Stiffener 1 Elements with One Intermediate Stiffener
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A
s
=A
s
(R
I
) for other stiffener shapes (Eq. B4.2-8)
where
S =Term defined in Eq. B4-1.
(R
I
) =I
s
/ I
a
1 (Eq. B4.2-9)
I
a
=
1
]
1

+
1
]
1

5
S
t / w
115 t 327 . 0
S
t / w
t 399
4
3
4
(Eq. B4.2-10)
n =
3
1
S 4
t / w
582 . 0
1
]
1

(Eq. B4.2-11)

The effective width, b, shall be calculated in accordance with Section
B2.1 with k as given in Table B4.2.

Table B4.2 Determination of Plate Buckling Coefficient k
Simple Lip Edge Stiffener (140 40)
D/ w 0.25 0.25 <D/ w 0.8
Other Edge Stiffener Shapes
4 43 . 0 ) R ( 57 . 3
n
I
+
4 43 . 0 ) R )(
w
D 5
82 . 4 (
n
I
+
4 43 . 0 ) R ( 57 . 3
n
I
+
w

D
d
D, d = Actual stiffener dimensions
=
d
s
d'
s
Stress f for Compression Flange
Centroidal Axis
Stress f for Lip
d'
d
s
Effective width of stiffener
calculated according to
Section B3.1
= Reduced effective width of
stiffener
b
2
b
1
d
3
s

Figure B4 Figure B4 Figure B4 Figure B4- -- -2 Element 2 Element 2 Element 2 Elements ss s with Simple Lip Edge Stiffener with Simple Lip Edge Stiffener with Simple Lip Edge Stiffener with Simple Lip Edge Stiffener
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Chapter B, Elements
58 November 9, 2001
(b) Serviceability Determination
The effective width, b
d
, used in determining serviceability shall be
calculated as in Section B4.2(a), except that f
d
is substituted for f.

B5 Effective Widths of Stiffened Elements with Multiple Intermediate Stiffeners
or Edge Stiffened Elements with Intermediate Stiffeners
B5.1 Effective Widths of Uniformly Compressed Stiffened Elements with
Multiple Intermediate Stiffeners
The following notation is used in this section.
A
g
=Gross area of the element including stiffeners
A
s
=Gross area of a stiffener
b
e
=Effective width of the element, located at the centroid of the
element including stiffeners, see Figure B5.1-2.
b
p
=Largest sub-element flat width, see Figure B5.1-1.
b
o
=Total flat width of the stiffened element, see Figure B5.1-1.
c
i
=Horizontal distance from the edge of the element to centerline(s) of
the stiffener(s), see Figure B5.1-1.
f
1
=Uniform compressive stress acting on the flat element
h =Width of elements adjoining the stiffened element (e.g., the depth of
the web in a hat section with multiple intermediate stiffeners in the
compression flange is equal to h; if adjoining elements have
different widths, use the smallest one.)
I
sp
=Moment of inertia of a stiffener about the centerline of the flat
portion of the element, the radii which connect the stiffener to the
flat may be included.
k =Plate buckling coefficient of the element
k
d
=Plate buckling coefficient for distortional buckling.
k
1oc
=Plate buckling coefficient for local sub-element buckling.
L
br
=Unsupported length between brace point or other restraint which
restricts distortional buckling of the element.
R =Modification factor for the distortional plate buckling coefficient
n =Number of stiffeners in the element
t =Element thickness
i =Index for stiffener i

The effective width shall be determined as follows:

,
_

t
A
b
g
e
(Eq. B5.1-1)
1 when 0.673 (Eq. B5.1-2)
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/ ) / 22 . 0 1 ( when >0.673 (Eq. B5.1-3)
cr
1
F
f
(Eq. B5.1-4)
2
o
2
2
cr
b
t
) 1 ( 12
E
k F

,
_

(Eq. B5.1-5)
The plate buckling coefficient, k, shall be determined from the
minimum of Rk
d
and k
loc
, as determined from section B5.1.1 or
B5.1.2, as appropriate.
k =the minimum of Rk
d
and k
loc
(Eq. B5.1-6)
2 R when b
o
/ h < 1 (Eq. B5.1-6)

5
h b 11
R
2
1 o

when b
o
/ h 1 (Eq. B5.1-8)

B5.1.1 Specific Case: n Identical Stiffeners, Equally Spaced
(a) Strength Determination
k
loc
=
2
) 1 n ( 4 + (Eq. B5.1.1-1)
k
d
=
)) 1 n ( 1 (
) n 1 ( ) 1 (
2
2 2
+ +
+ + +
(Eq. B5.1.1-2)
=
4
1
)) 1 n ( 1 ( + + (Eq. B5.1.1-3)
If L
br
<b
o
then L
br
/ b
o
shall be permitted to be substituted for to
account for increased capacity due to bracing.
3
o
sp
t b
I 92 . 10
(Eq. B5.1.1-4)
t b
A
o
s
(Eq. B5.1.1-5)
(b) Serviceability Determination
The effective width, b
d
, used in determining serviceability shall be
calculated as in Section B5.1.1(a), except that f
d
shall be substituted for
f
1
, where f
d
is the computed compressive stress in the element being
considered based on the effective section at the load for which
serviceability is determined.

B5.1.2 General Case: Arbitrary Stiffener Size, Location and Number
(a) Strength Determination
k
loc
= ( )
2
p o
b b 4 (Eq. B5.1.2-1)
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Chapter B, Elements
60 November 9, 2001
k
d
=

,
_

+
+ +

n
1 i
i i
2
n
1 i
i i
2 2
2 1
2 ) 1 (
(Eq. B5.1.2-2)
=
4
1
1 2
n
1 i
i i

,
_

(Eq. B5.1.2-3)
If L
br
<b
o
then L
br
/ b
o
shall be permitted to be substituted for to
account for increased capacity due to bracing.
3
o
i sp
i
t b
) I ( 92 . 10
(Eq. B5.1.2-4)
)
b
c
( sin
o
i 2
i
(Eq. B5.1.2-5)
t b
) A (
o
i s
i
(Eq. B5.1.2-6)
(b) Serviceability Determination
The effective width, b
d
, used in determining serviceability shall be
calculated as in Section B5.1.2(a), except that f
d
shall be substituted for
f
1
, where f
d
is the computed compressive stress in the element being
considered based on the effective section at the load for which
serviceability is determined.
b
c
1
c
2
b
p
o

Figure B5.1 Figure B5.1 Figure B5.1 Figure B5.1- -- -1 Plate Widths and 1 Plate Widths and 1 Plate Widths and 1 Plate Widths and Stiffener Stiffener Stiffener Stiffener Location Location Location Location

Centroid
t
Centroid
t
0.5b
e
0.5b
e

Figure B5.1 Figure B5.1 Figure B5.1 Figure B5.1- -- -2 Effective Width De 2 Effective Width De 2 Effective Width De 2 Effective Width Determination termination termination termination
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B5.2 Edge Stiffened Elements with Intermediate Stiffeners
(a) Strength Determination
The effective width, b
e
, shall be determined as follows:
If b
o
/ t 0.328S, the element is fully effective and no local buckling
reductions are required.
If b
o
/ t > 0.328S, then the plate buckling coefficient, k, shall be
determined from the provisions of Section B4.2, but with b
o

replacing w in all expressions.
If k calculated from Section B4.2 is less than 4.0 (k <4) then the
intermediate stiffener(s) shall be ignored and the provisions of
Section B4.2 should be followed for calculation of the effective
width.
If k calculated from Section B4.2 is equal to 4.0 (k =4) then the
effective width of the edge stiffened element shall be calculated
from the provisions of Section B5.1, with the following
exception:
R calculated from equations B5.1-7 and B5.1-8 must be less than
or equal to 1.
where
b
o
=Total flat width of the edge stiffened element
Other variables are defined in Section B4 and B5.1.
(b) Serviceability Determination
The effective width, b
d
, used in determining serviceability shall be
calculated as in Section B5.2(a), except that f
d
shall be substituted for f and f
1
,
where f
d
is the computed compressive stress in the element being considered.

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Chapter C, Members
62 November 5, 2001
C. MEMBERS
C1 Properties of Sections
Properties of sections (cross-sectional area, moment of inertia, section
modulus, radius of gyration, etc.) shall be determined in accordance with
conventional methods of structural design. Properties shall be based on the full
cross section of the members (or net sections where the use of net section is
applicable) except where the use of a reduced cross section, or effective design
width, is required.

C2 Tension Members
The provisions of this section are given in Section C2 of the Appendices.

C3 Flexural Members
C3.1 Strength [Resistance] for Bending Only
The nominal flexural strength [moment resistance], M
n
, shall be the
smallest of the values calculated according to Sections C3.1.1, C3.1.2, and
C3.1.3, as well as sections provided under C3.1 of Appendix A, B, or C where
applicable.
The provisions of this Section do not consider torsional effects, such as
those resulting from loads that do not pass through the shear center of the
cross section. See Section D3 for the design of lateral bracing required to
restrain lateral bending or twisting.

C3.1.1 Nominal Section Strength [Resistance]
The nominal flexural strength [moment resistance], M
n
, shall be
calculated either on the basis of initiation of yielding in the effective section
(Procedure I) or on the basis of the inelastic reserve capacity (Procedure II)
as applicable.
For sections with stiffened or partially stiffened compression
flanges:
USA and Mexico Canada

b
(ASD)
b
(LRFD)
b
(LSD)
1.67 0.95 0.90
For sections with unstiffened compression flanges:
USA and Mexico Canada

b
(ASD)
b
(LRFD)
b
(LSD)
1.67 0.90 0.90
(a) ProcedureI - Based on Initiation of Yielding
Effective yield moment based on section strength [resistance], M
n
,
shall be determined as follows:
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M
n
=S
e
F
y
(Eq. C3.1.1-1)
where
F
y
=Design yield stress as determined in Section A7.1
S
e
=Elastic section modulus of the effective section calculated
with the extreme compression or tension fiber at F
y
(b) ProcedureII - Based on Inelastic Reserve Capacity
The inelastic flexural reserve capacity is permitted to be used when
the following conditions are met:
(1) The member is not subject to twisting or to lateral, torsional, or
torsional-flexural buckling.
(2) The effect of cold forming is not included in determining the yield
point F
y
.
(3) The ratio of the depth of the compressed portion of the web to its
thickness does not exceed
1
.
(4) The shear force does not exceed 0.35F
y
times the web area, ht, for
ASD, and 0.6F
y
ht for LRFD and LSD.
(5) The angle between any web and the vertical does not exceed 30
degrees.
The nominal flexural strength [moment resistance], M
n
, shall not
exceed either 1.25 S
e
F
y
determined according to Procedure I or that
causing a maximum compression strain of C
y
e
y
(no limit is placed on
the maximum tensile strain).
where
e
y
=Yield strain =F
y
/ E
E =Modulus of elasticity
C
y
=Compression strain factor determined as follows:
(a) Stiffened compression elements without intermediate
stiffeners
C
y
=3 for w/ t
1
C
y
=
2 1
1 2
1
t
w
for
t / w
2 3 < <

,
_

C
y
=1 for w/ t >
2
where

E / F
11 . 1
y
1
(Eq. C3.1.1-2)

E / F
28 . 1
y
2
(Eq. C3.1.1-3)
(b) Unstiffened compression elements
C
y
=1
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Chapter C, Members
64 November 5, 2001
(c) Multiple-stiffened compression elements and compression
elements with edge stiffeners
C
y
=1
When applicable, effective design widths shall be used in
calculating section properties. M
n
shall be calculated considering
equilibrium of stresses, assuming an ideally elastic-plastic stress-strain
curve which is the same in tension as in compression, assuming small
deformation and assuming that plane sections remain plane during
bending. Combined bending and web crippling shall be checked by
provisions of Section C3.5.

C3.1.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling Strength [Resistance]
C3.1.2.1 Lateral-Torsional Buckling Strength [Resistance] of Open Cross
Section Members
The provisions of this Section apply to I-, Z-, C- and other singly-
symmetric section flexural members (not including multiple-web deck,
U- and closed box-type members, and curved or arch members). The
provisions of this Section do not apply to laterally unbraced
compression flanges of otherwise laterally stable sections. Refer to
C3.1.3 for C- and Z-purlins in which the tension flange is attached to
sheathing.
For laterally unbraced segments of singly-, doubly-, and point-
symmetric sections subject to lateral-torsional buckling, the nominal
flexural strength [moment resistance], M
n
, shall be calculated as follows:
M
n

c c
F S (Eq. C3.1.2.1-1)
USA and Mexico Canada

b
(ASD)
b
(LRFD)
b
(LSD)
1.67 0.90 0.90
where
S
c
=Elastic section modulus of effective section calculated at a stress F
c

relative to the extreme compression fiber
F
c
is determined as follows:
For F
e
2.78F
y
F
c
=F
y
(Eq. C3.1.2.1-2)
For 2.78F
y
>F
e
>0.56F
y

F
c
=

,
_

e
y
y
F 36
F 10
1 F
9
10
(Eq. C3.1.2.1-3)
For F
e
0.56F
y

F
c
=F
e
(Eq. C3.1.2.1-4)
where
F
e
=Elastic critical lateral-torsional buckling stress calculated
according to (a) or (b) below:
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(a) For singly-, doubly-, and point-symmetric sections:
F
e
=
t ey
S
A
o
r
b
C
f
for bending about the symmetry axis. (Eq. C3.1.2.1-5)
For singly-symmetric sections, x-axis is the axis of symmetry oriented
such that the shear center has a negative x-coordinate.
For point-symmetric sections, use 0.5 F
e
. X-axis of Z-sections is the
centroidal axis perpendicular to the web.
Alternatively, F
e
can be calculated using the equation given in (b) for
doubly-symmetric I-sections, singly-symmetric C-sections, or point-
symmetric Z-sections.
For singly-symmetric sections bending about the centroidal axis
perpendicular to the axis of symmetry:
F
e
= ( )
1
]
1

ex t
2
o
2
s
f TF
ex s
/ r + j C + j
S C
A C
(Eq. C3.1.2.1-6)
C
s
=+1 for moment causing compression on the shear center
side of the centroid
C
s
=-1 for moment causing tension on the shear center side of
the centroid

ex

=
( )
2
x x x
2
/ r L K
E
(Eq. C3.1.2.1-7)

ey
=
( )
2
y y y
2
/ r L K
E
(Eq. C3.1.2.1-8)

t
=
( ) 1
1
]
1

2
t t
w
2
2
o
L K
EC
+ GJ
Ar
1
(Eq. C3.1.2.1-9)
A =Full unreduced cross-sectional area
S
f
=Elastic section modulus of full unreduced section relative
to the extreme compression fiber
C
b
=
C B A max
max
3M + 4M + 3M + 2.5M
12.5M
(Eq. C3.1.2.1-10)
where:
M
max
=Absolute value of maximum moment in unbraced segment
M
A
=Absolute value of moment at quarter point of unbraced segment
M
B
=Absolute value of moment at centerline of unbraced segment
M
C
=Absolute value of moment at three-quarter point of unbraced segment
C
b
is permitted to be conservatively taken as unity for all cases. For cantilevers or
overhangs where the free end is unbraced, C
b
shall be taken as unity.
E =Modulus of elasticity
C
TF
=0.6 - 0.4 (M
1
/ M
2
) (Eq. C3.1.2.1-11)
where
M
1
is the smaller and M
2
the larger bending moment at the ends of the
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Chapter C, Members
66 November 5, 2001
unbraced length in the plane of bending, and where M
1
/ M
2
, the ratio
of end moments, is positive when M
1
and M
2
have the same sign
(reverse curvature bending) and negative when they are of opposite
sign (single curvature bending). When the bending moment at any
point within an unbraced length is larger than that at both ends of this
length, C
TF
shall be taken as unity.
r
o
=Polar radius of gyration of the cross section about the
shear center
=
2
o
2
y
2
x
x + r + r (Eq. C3.1.2.1-12)
r
x
, r
y
=Radii of gyration of the cross section about the centroidal
principal axes
G =Shear modulus
K
x
, K
y
, K
t
=Effective length factors for bending about the x- and y-
axes, and for twisting
L
x
, L
y
, L
t
=Unbraced length of the member for bending about the x-
and y-axes, and for twisting
x
o
=Distance from the shear center to the centroid along the
principal x-axis, taken as negative
J =Saint-Venant torsion constant of the cross section
C
w
=Torsional warping constant of the cross section
j =
o
2
A
3
A
y
x - dA xy + dA x
2I
1
1
]
1

(Eq. C3.1.2.1-13)
(b) For I-sections, singly-symmetric C-sections, or Z-sections bent about the
centroidal axis perpendicular to the web (x-axis), the following equations are
permitted to be used in lieu of (a) to calculate F
e
:
F
e
=
2
y y f
yc
2
b
) L (K S
EdI C
(Eq. C3.1.2.1-14)
=
2
y y f
yc
2
b
) L (K 2S
EdI C
for point-symmetric Z-sections (Eq. C3.1.2.1-15)
where
d =Depth of section
I
yc
=Moment of inertia of the compression portion of a section
about the centroidal axis of the entire section parallel to
the web, using the full unreduced section
Other terms are defined in (a).

C3.1.2.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling Strength [Resistance] of Closed
Box Members
For closed box members, the nominal flexural strength [moment
resistance], M
n
, shall be determined as follows:
for doubly-symmetric I-sections
and singly-symmetric C-sections
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If the laterally unbraced length of the member is less than or equal to
L
u
, the nominal flexural strength [moment resistance] shall be
determined by using Section C3.1.1.
where
L
u
=
y
f y
b
EGJI
S F
0.36C
(Eq. C3.1.2.2-1)
If the laterally unbraced length of a member is larger than L
u
, the
nominal flexural strength [moment resistance] shall be determined in
accordance with C3.1.2.1, where the critical lateral buckling stress, F
e
, is
calculated as follows:
F
e
=
y
EGJI
f
S L K
b
C
y y

(Eq. C3.1.2.2-2)
where
I
y
=Moment of inertia of full unreduced section about its centroidal axis
parallel to web
J =Torsional constant of box section
Other variables are defined in Section C3.1.2.1.

C3.1.3 Beams Having One Flange Through-Fastened to Deck or Sheathing
This section does not apply to a continuous beam for the region
between inflection points adjacent to a support, or to a cantilever beam.
The nominal flexural strength [moment resistance], M
n
, of a C- or
Z-section loaded in a plane parallel to the web, with the tension flange
attached to deck or sheathing and with the compression flange laterally
unbraced shall be calculated as follows:
M
n
=RS
e
F
y
(Eq. C3.1.3-1)
USA and Mexico Canada

b
(ASD)
b
(LRFD)
b
(LSD)
1.67 0.90 0.80
where R is obtained from Table C3.1.3-1 for simple span C- or Z-
sections, and
R =0.60 for continuous span C-sections
=0.70 for continuous span Z-sections
S
e
and F
y
are defined in Section C3.1.1.
The reduction factor, R, shall be limited to roof and wall systems
meeting the following conditions:
(1) Member depth less than 11.5 in. (292 mm)
(2) Member flanges shall have edge stiffeners
(3) 60 depth/ thickness 170
(4) 2.8 depth/ flange width 4.5
(5) 16 flat width/ thickness of flange 43
(6) For continuous span systems, the lap length at each interior support
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Chapter C, Members
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in each direction (distance from center of support to end of lap) shall
not be less than 1.5d
(7) Member span length shall be no greater than 33 feet (10 m)
(8) For continuous span systems, the longest member span length shall
not be more than 20% greater than the shortest span length
(9) Both flanges shall be prevented from moving laterally at the
supports
(10)Roof or wall panels shall be steel sheets with 50 ksi (340 MPa or 3520
kg/ cm
2
) minimum yield strength, and a minimum of 0.018 in. (0.46
mm) base metal thickness, having a minimum rib depth of 1-1/ 4 in.
(32 mm), spaced a maximum of 12 in. (305 mm) on centers and
attached in a manner to effectively inhibit relative movement
between the panel and purlin flange
(11) Insulation shall be glass fiber blanket 0 to 6 in. (152 mm) thick
compressed between the member and panel in a manner consistent
with the fastener being used
(12) Fastener type: minimum No. 12 self-drilling or self-tapping sheet
metal screws or 3/ 16 in. (4.76 mm) rivets, having washers 1/ 2 in.
(12.7 mm) diameter
(13) Fasteners shall not be standoff type screws
(14) Fasteners shall be spaced not greater than 12 in. (305 mm) on centers
and placed near the center of the beam flange, and adjacent to the
panel high rib
(15) The design yield strength of the member shall not exceed 60 ksi (410
MPa or 4220 kg/ cm
2
)
If variables fall outside any of the above stated limits, the user must
perform full scale tests in accordance with Section F1 of the Specification, or
apply a rational analysis procedure. In any case, the user is permitted to
perform tests, in accordance with Section F1, as an alternate to the
procedure described in this section.

TABLE C3.1.3-1
Simple Span C- or Z-Section R Values
Depth Range, in. (mm) Profile R
d 6.5 (165) C or Z 0.70
6.5 (165) <d 8.5 (216) C or Z 0.65
8.5 (216) <d 11.5 (292) Z 0.50
8.5 (216) <d 11.5 (292) C 0.40

For simple span members, R shall be reduced for the effects of
compressed insulation between the sheeting and the member. The
reduction shall be calculated by multiplying R from Table C3.1.3-1 by the
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following correction factor, r:
r =1.00 - 0.01 t
i
when t
i
is in inches (Eq. C3.1.3-2)
r =1.00 - 0.0004 t
i
when t
i
is in millimeters (Eq. C3.1.3-3)
t
i
=Thickness of uncompressed glass fiber blanket insulation

C3.1.4 Beams Having One Flange Fastened to a Standing Seam Roof System
The provisions of this section are given in Section C3.1.4 of the
Appendices.

C3.1.5 Strength [Resistance] of Standing Seam Roof Panel Systems
When results of tests on standing seam roof panel systems
conducted according to ASTM E1592-95 are to be evaluated, the Standard
Procedures for Panel and Anchor Structural Tests of Part VIII of the AISI
Cold-Formed Steel Design Manual shall be followed. Strength [Resistance]
under uplift loading shall be evaluated by this procedure.
When the number of physical test assemblies is 3 or more, factors of
safety and resistance factors shall be determined in accordance with the
procedures of Section F1.1(b) with the following definition for the
variables:

o
=Target reliability index
=2.0 for panel flexural limits
=2.5 for anchor limits
F
m
=Mean value of the fabrication factor
=1.0
M
m
=Mean value of the material factor
=1.1
V
M
=Coefficient of variation of the material factor
=0.08 for anchor failure mode
=0.10 for other failure modes
V
F
=Coefficient of variation of the fabrication factor
=0.05
V
Q
=Coefficient of variation of the load effect
=0.21
V
P
=Actual calculated coefficient of variation of the test results,
without limit
n =Number of anchors in the test assembly with same tributary area
(for anchor failure), or number of panels with identical spans
and loading to the failed span (for non-anchor failures)
When the number of physical test assemblies is less than 3, a factor
of safety, , of 2.0 and a resistance factor, , of 0.8 (LRFD) and 0.70 (LSD)
shall be used.

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C3.2 Strength [Resistance] for Shear Only
C3.2.1 Shear Strength [Resistance] of Webs without Holes
The nominal shear strength [resistance], V
n
, shall be calculated as
follows:
V
n
=A
w
F
v
(Eq. C3.2.1-1)
(a) For h/ t
y v
F / Ek
F
v
=0.60F
y
(Eq. C3.2.1-2)
(b) For < t / h F / Ek
y v
1.51
y v
F / Ek
F
v
=
( ) t h
F Ek 60 . 0
y v
(Eq. C3.2.1-3)
(c) For h/ t >1.51
y v
F / Ek
F
v
=
( )
2 2
v
2
t h ) 1 ( 12
Ek

=0.904 Ek
v
/ (h/ t)
2
(Eq. C3.2.1-4)

where
A
w
=Area of web element =ht
E =Modulus of elasticity of steel
F
v
=Nominal shear stress
V
n
=Nominal shear strength [resistance]
t =Web thickness
h =Depth of flat portion of the web measured along plane of web
=Poissons ratio =0.3
k
v
=Shear buckling coefficient determined as follows:
1. For unreinforced webs, k
v
=5.34
2. For webs with transverse stiffeners satisfying the requirements
of Section C3.6
when a/ h 1.0

( )
2
v
h a
34 . 5
00 . 4 k + (Eq. C3.2.1-5)
when a/ h >1.0

( )
2
v
h a
00 . 4
34 . 5 k + (Eq. C3.2.1-6)
where
a =Shear panel length of unreinforced web element
=Clear distance between transverse stiffeners of reinforced
web elements.
For a web consisting of two or more sheets, each sheet shall be
USA and Mexico Canada

v
(ASD)
v
(LRFD)
v
(LSD)
1.60 0.95 0.80
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considered as a separate element carrying its share of the shear force.

C3.2.2 Shear Strength [Resistance] of C-Section Webs with Holes
These provisions shall be applicable within the following limits:
(1) d
0
/ h <0.7
(2) h / t 200
(3) Holes centered at mid-depth of the web
(4) Clear distance between holes 18 in. (457 mm)
(5) Non-circular holes corner radii 2t
(6) Non-circular holes, d
0
2.5 in. (64 mm) and b 4.5 in. (114 mm)
(7) Circular hole diameters 6 in. (152 mm)
(8) d
0
>9/ 16 in. (14 mm)
The nominal shear strength [resistance], V
n
, determined by Section
C3.2.1 shall be multiplied by q
s
:
When c/ t 54
q
s
=1.0 (Eq. C3.2.2-1)
When 5 c/ t <54
q
s
=c/ (54t) (Eq. C3.2.2-2)
where
c =h/ 2 - d
0
/ 2.83 for circular holes (Eq. C3.2.2-3)
=h/ 2 - d
0
/ 2 for non-circular holes (Eq. C3.2.2-4)
d
0
=Depth of web hole
b =Length of web hole
h =Depth of flat portion of the web measured along the plane of the web

C3.3 Strength [Resistance] for Combined Bending and Shear
C3.3.1 ASD Method
For beams subjected to combined bending and shear, the required
allowable flexural strength, M, and required allowable shear strength, V,
shall not exceed M
n
/
b
and V
n
/
v
, respectively.
For beams with unreinforced webs, the required allowable flexural
strength, M, and required allowable shear strength, V, shall also satisfy the
following interaction equation:
0 . 1
V
V
M
M
2
n
v
2
nxo
b

,
_

(Eq. C3.3.1-1)
For beams with transverse web stiffeners, when
b
M/ M
nxo
>0.5
and
v
V/ V
n
>0.7, M and V shall also satisfy the following interaction
equation:
3 . 1
V
V
M
M
6 . 0
n
v
nxo
b

,
_

(Eq. C3.3.1-2)
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Chapter C, Members
72 November 5, 2001
where:

b
=Factor of safety for bending (See Section C3.1.1)

v
=Factor of safety for shear (See Section C3.2)
M
n
=Nominal flexural strength when bending alone is considered
M
nxo
=Nominal flexural strength about the centroidal x-axis determined
in accordance with Section C3.1.1
V
n
=Nominal shear strength when shear alone is considered

C3.3.2 LRFD and LSD Methods
For beams subjected to combined bending and shear, the required
flexural strength [factored moment], M
*
, and the required shear strength
[factored shear], V
*
, shall not exceed
b
M
n
and
v
V
n
, respectively.
For beams with unreinforced webs, the required flexural strength
[factored moment], M
*
, and the required shear strength [factored shear],
V
*
, shall also satisfy the following interaction equation:
0 . 1
V
V
M
M
2
n v
*
2
nxo b
*

,
_

(Eq. C3.3.2-1)
For beams with transverse web stiffeners, when M
*
/ (
b
M
nxo
) >0.5
and V
*
/ (
v
V
n
) >0.7, M
*
and V
*
shall also satisfy the following interaction
equation:
3 . 1
V
V
M
M
6 . 0
n v
*
nxo b
*

,
_

(Eq. C3.3.2-2)
where:

b
=Resistance factor for bending (See Section C3.1.1)

v
=Resistance factor for shear (See Section C3.2)
M
n
=Nominal flexural strength [moment resistance] when bending alone is
considered
M
nxo
=Nominal flexural strength [moment resistance] about the centroidal x-axis
determined in accordance with Section C3.1.1
M
*
=Required flexural strength [factored moment]
M
*
=M
u
(LRFD)
M
*
=M
f
(LSD)
V
n
=Nominal shear strength [resistance] when shear alone is considered
V
*
=Required shear strength [factored shear]
V
*
=V
u
(LRFD)
V
*
=V
f
(LSD)

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C3.4 Web Crippling Strength [Resistance]
C3.4.1 Web Crippling Strength [Resistance] of Webs without Holes
The nominal web crippling strength [resistance], P
n
, shall be
determined as follows:

,
_

t
h
C 1
t
N
C 1
t
R
C 1 sin F Ct P
h N R y
2
n
(Eq. C3.4.1-1)
where:
P
n
=Nominal web crippling strength [resistance]
C =Coefficient from Table C3.4.1-1, C3.4.1-2, C3.4.1-3, C3.4.1-4 or
C3.4.1-5
C
h
=Web slenderness coefficient from Table C3.4.1-1, C3.4.1-2,
C3.4.1-3, C3.4.1-4 or C3.4.1-5
C
N
= Bearing length coefficient from Table C3.4.1-1, C3.4.1-2,
C3.4.1-3, C3.4.1-4 or C3.4.1-5
C
R
=Inside bend radius coefficient from Table C3.4.1-1, C3.4.1-2,
C3.4.1-3, C3.4.1-4 or C3.4.1-5
h =Flat dimension of web measured in plane of web
N =Bearing length [ in. (19 mm) minimum]
R =Inside bend radius
t =Web thickness
=Angle between plane of web and plane of bearing surface, 45
< 90
Webs of members in bending for which h/ t is greater than 200 shall
be provided with adequate means of transmitting concentrated loads or
reactions directly into the web(s).
P
n
represents the nominal strength [resistance] for load or reaction
for one solid web connecting top and bottom flanges. For webs consisting
of two or more such sheets, P
n
, shall be calculated for each individual sheet
and the results added to obtain the nominal strength for the full section.
One-flange loading or reaction occurs when the clear distance
between the bearing edges of adjacent opposite concentrated loads or
reactions is greater than 1.5h.
Two-flange loading or reaction occurs when the clear distance
between the bearing edges of adjacent opposite concentrated loads or
reactions is equal to or less than 1.5h.
End loading or reaction occurs when the distance from the edge of
the bearing to the end of the member is equal to or less than 1.5h.
Interior loading or reaction occurs when the distance from the edge
of the bearing to the end of the member is greater than 1.5h, except that
otherwise noted herein.
The factors of safety and resistance factors are provided in the
Tables C3.4.1-1 to C3.4.1-5.
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Chapter C, Members
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TABLE C3.4.1-1
BUILT-UP SECTIONS
USA and
Mexico
Support and Flange
Conditions
Load Cases
C
C
R
C
N
C
h

ASD

w

LRFD

w

Canada
LSD

w

Limits
End 10 0.14 0.28 0.001 2.00 0.75 0.60 R/ t 5
Fastened to
Support
Stiffened or
Partially
Stiffened
flanges
One-Flange
Loading or
Reaction Interior 20 0.15 0.05 0.003 1.65 0.90 0.80 R/ t 5
End 10 0.14 0.28 0.001 2.00 0.75 0.60 R/ t 5
One-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 20.5 0.17 0.11 0.001 1.75 0.85 0.75 R/ t 3
End 15.5 0.09 0.08 0.04 2.00 0.75 0.65
Stiffened or
Partially
Stiffened
Flanges Two-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 36 0.14 0.08 0.04 2.00 0.75 0.65
R/ t 3
End 10 0.14 0.28 0.001 2.00 0.75 0.60 R/ t 5
Unfastened
Unstiffened
Flanges
One-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 20.5 0.17 0.11 0.001 1.75 0.85 0.75
R/ t 3
Notes:
This Table applies to I-beams made from two channels connected back to back. See
Section C3.4.1 of Commentary for explanation.
The above coefficients apply when h/ t 200, N/ t 210, N/ h 1.0 and =90.

TABLE C3.4.1-2
SINGLE WEB CHANNEL AND C-SECTIONS
USA and
Mexico
Support and Flange
Conditions
Load Cases C
C
R
C
N
C
h

ASD

w

LRFD

w

Canada
LSD

w

Limits
End 4 0.14 0.35 0.02 1.75 0.85 0.75 R/ t 9
One-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 13 0.23 0.14 0.01 1.65 0.90 0.80 R/ t 5
End 7.5 0.08 0.12 0.048 1.75 0.85 0.75 R/ t 12
Fastened to
Support
Stiffened or
Partially
Stiffened
Flanges
Two-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 20 0.10 0.08 0.031 1.75 0.85 0.75 R/ t 12
End 4 0.14 0.35 0.02 1.85 0.80 0.70
One-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 13 0.23 0.14 0.01 1.65 0.90 0.80
R/ t 5
End 13 0.32 0.05 0.04 1.65 0.90 0.80
Stiffened or
Partially
Stiffened
Flanges Two-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 24 0.52 0.15 0.001 1.90 0.80 0.65
R/ t 3
End 4 0.40 0.60 0.03 1.80 0.85 0.70 R/ t 2
One-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 13 0.32 0.10 0.01 1.80 0.85 0.70 R/ t 1
End 2 0.11 0.37 0.01 2.00 0.75 0.65
Unfastened
Unstiffened
Flanges
Two-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 13 0.47 0.25 0.04 1.90 0.80 0.65
R/ t 1
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Note:
(1) The above coefficients apply when h/ t 200, N/ t 210, N/ h 2.0 and =90.
(2) For interior two-flange loading or reaction of members having flanges fastened to the
support, the distance from the edge of bearing to the end of the member shall be
extended at least 2.5h. Otherwise, values for the unfastened condition shall apply.

TABLE C3.4.1-3
SINGLE WEB Z-SECTIONS
USA and
Mexico
Support and Flange
Conditions
Load Cases C
C
R
C
N
C
h

ASD

w

LRFD

w

Canada
LSD

w

Limits
End 4 0.14 0.35 0.02 1.75 0.85 0.75
R/ t 9 One-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interi
or
13 0.23 0.14 0.01 1.65 0.90 0.80 R/ t 5
End 9 0.05 0.16 0.052 1.75 0.85 0.75 R/ t 12
Fastened to
Support
Stiffened or
Partially
Stiffened
Flanges
Two-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 24 0.07 0.07 0.04 1.85 0.80 0.70 R/ t 12
End 5 0.09 0.02 0.001 1.80 0.85 0.75
One-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 13 0.23 0.14 0.01 1.65 0.90 0.80
R/ t 5
End 13 0.32 0.05 0.04 1.65 0.90 0.80
Stiffened or
Partially
Stiffened
Flanges Two-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 24 0.52 0.15 0.001 1.90 0.80 0.65
R/ t 3
End 4 0.40 0.60 0.03
1.80
0.85 0.70 R/ t 2
One-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 13 0.32 0.10 0.01 1.80 0.85 0.70 R/ t 1
End 2 0.11 0.37 0.01 2.00 0.75 0.65
Unfastened
Unstiffened
Flanges
Two-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 13 0.47 0.25 0.04 1.90 0.80 0.65
R/ t 1
Note:
(1) The above coefficients apply when h/ t 200, N/ t 210, N/ h 2.0 and =90.
(2) For interior two-flange loading or reaction of members having flanges fastened to the
support, the distance from the edge of bearing to the end of the member shall be
extended at least 2.5h. Otherwise, values for the unfastened condition shall apply.
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TABLE C3.4.1-4
SINGLE HAT SECTIONS
USA and
Mexico
Support
Conditions
Load Cases C
C
R
C
N
C
h

ASD

w

LRFD

w

Canada
LSD

w

Limits
End 4 0.25 0.68 0.04 2.00 0.75 0.65 R/ t 5
One-Flange
Loading or
Reaction Interior 17 0.13 0.13 0.04 1.90 0.80 0.70 R/ t 10
End 9 0.10 0.07 0.03 1.75 0.85 0.75
Fastened to
Support
Two-Flange
Loading or
Reaction Interior 10 0.14 0.22 0.02 1.80 0.85 0.75
R/ t 10
End 4 0.25 0.68 0.04 2.00 0.75 0.65 R/ t 4
Unfastened One-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 17 0.13 0.13 0.04 1.70 0.90 0.75 R/ t 4
Note:
The above coefficients apply when h/ t 200, N/ t 200, N/ h 2 and =90.

TABLE C3.4.1-5
MULTI-WEB DECK SECTIONS
USA and
Mexico
Support
Conditions
Load Cases C
C
R
C
N
C
h

ASD

w

LRFD

w

Canada
LSD

w

Limits
End 3 0.08 0.70 0.055 2.25 0.65 0.55 R/ t 7
One-
Flange
Loading
or
Reaction
Interior 8 0.10 0.17 0.004 1.75 0.85 0.75 R/ t 10
End 9 0.12 0.14 0.040 1.80 0.85 0.70
Fastened to
Support
Two-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 10 0.11 0.21 0.020 1.75 0.85 0.75
R/ t 10
End 3 0.08 0.70 0.055 2.25 0.65 0.55
One-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 8 0.10 0.17 0.004 1.75 0.85 0.75
R/ t 7
End 6 0.16 0.15 0.050 1.65 0.90 0.80
Unfastened
Two-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 17 0.10 0.10 0.046 1.65 0.90 0.80
R/ t 5
Notes:
(1) The above coefficients apply when h/ t 200, N/ t 210, N/ h 3.
(2) 45 < 90

C3.4.2 Web Crippling Strength [Resistance] of C-Section Webs with Holes
When a web hole is within the bearing length, a bearing stiffener
shall be used.
For beam webs with holes, the web crippling strength [resistance]
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shall be computed by using Section C3.4.1 multiplied by the reduction
factor, R
c
, given in this section.
These provisions shall be applicable within the following limits:
(1) d
0
/ h 0.7
(2) h / t 200
(3) Hole centered at mid-depth of the web
(4) Clear distance between holes 18 in. (457 mm)
(5) Distance between the end of the member and the edge of the hole d
(6) Non-circular holes, corner radii 2t
(7) Non-circular holes, d
0
2.5 in. (64 mm) and b 4.5 in. (114 mm)
(8) Circular hole diameters 6 in. (152 mm)
(9) d
0
>9/ 16 in. (14 mm)
For end-one flange reaction (Equation C3.4.1-1 with Table C3.4.1-2)
when a web hole is not within the bearing length:
R
c
= 0 . 1 h x 083 . 0 h d 325 . 0 01 . 1
0
+ (Eq. C3.4.2-1)
N 1 in. (25 mm)
For interior-one flange reaction (Equation C3.4.1-1 with Table
C3.4.1-2) when any portion of a web hole is not within the bearing length:
R
c
= 0 . 1 h x 053 . 0 h d 047 . 0 90 . 0
0
+ (Eq. C3.4.2-2)

N 3 in. (76 mm)
where
b =Length of web hole
d =Depth of cross section
d
0
=Depth of web hole
h =Depth of flat portion of the web measured along the plane of
the web
x =Nearest distance between the web hole and the edge of
bearing
N =Bearing length

C3.5 Combined Bending and Web Crippling Strength [Resistance]
C3.5.1 ASD Method
Unreinforced flat webs of shapes subjected to a combination of bending
and concentrated load or reaction shall be designed to meet the following
requirements:
(a) For shapes having single unreinforced webs:
5 . 1
M
M
P
P
2 . 1
nxo
b
n
w

,
_

(Eq. C3.5.1-1)
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Exception: At the interior supports of continuous spans, the above
equation is not applicable to deck or beams with two or more single webs,
provided the compression edges of adjacent webs are laterally supported in
the negative moment region by continuous or intermittently connected flange
elements, rigid cladding, or lateral bracing, and the spacing between adjacent
webs does not exceed 10 in. (254 mm).
(b) For shapes having multiple unreinforced webs such as I-sections made of
two C-sections connected back-to-back, or similar sections which provide
a high degree of restraint against rotation of the web (such as I-sections
made by welding two angles to a C-section);
5 . 1
M
M
P
P
1 . 1
nxo
b
n
w

,
_

(Eq. C3.5.1-2)
Exception: In lieu of equation C3.5.1-2, when h/ t 2.33/ E / F
y
and
0.673, it shall be permitted to determine the allowable concentrated load or
reaction by using
w
n
P

from Section C3.4.

In the above equations:

b
=Factor of safety for bending (See Section C3.1.1)

w
=Factor of safety for web crippling (See Section C3.4)
P =Required allowable strength for the concentrated load or reaction
in the presence of bending moment
P
n
=Nominal strength for concentrated load or reaction in the absence
of bending moment determined in accordance with Section C3.4
M =Required allowable flexural strength at, or immediately adjacent
to, the point of application of the concentrated load or reaction, P
M
nxo
=Nominal flexural strength about the centroidal x-axis determined
in accordance with Section C3.1.1
w =Flat width of the beam flange which contacts the bearing plate
t =Thickness of the web or flange
=Slenderness factor given by Section B2.1
(c) For the support point of two nested Z-shapes:

+
65 . 1
P
P
85 . 0
M
M
n no
(Eq. C3.5.1-3)
In addition, the moment, M, and the concentrated load or reaction, P,
shall satisfy M M
no
/
b
, and P P
n
/
w
.
where
M =Required allowable flexural strength at the section under
consideration
M
no
=Nominal flexural strength for the nested Z-sections, i.e. sum of the
two sections evaluated individually, determined in accordance
with Section C3.1.1
P =Required allowable strength for the concentrated load or reaction
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in the presence of bending moment
P
n
=Nominal web crippling strength assuming single web interior
one-flange loading for the nested Z-sections, i.e., sum of the two
webs evaluated individually
=Factor of safety for combined bending and web crippling
=1.75
The above equation is valid for shapes that meet the following limits:
h/ t 150
N/ t 140
F
y
70 ksi (480 MPa or 4910 kg/ cm
2
)
R/ t 5.5
The following conditions shall also be satisfied:
(1) The ends of each section shall be connected to the other section by a
minimum of two 1/ 2 in. (12.7 mm) diameter A307 bolts through the
web.
(2) The combined section shall be connected to the support by a
minimum of two 1/ 2 in. (12.7 mm) diameter A307 bolts through the
flanges.
(3) The webs of the two sections shall be in contact.
(4) The ratio of the thicker to the thinner part shall not exceed 1.3.

C3.5.2 LRFD and LSD Methods
Unreinforced flat webs of shapes subjected to a combination of bending
and concentrated load or reaction shall be designed to meet the following
requirements:
(a) For shapes having single unreinforced webs:
42 . 1
M
M
P
P
07 . 1
nxo b
*
n w
*

,
_

(Eq. C3.5.2-1)
Exception: At the interior supports of continuous spans, the above
equation is not applicable to deck or beams with two or more single webs,
provided the compression edges of adjacent webs are laterally supported in
the negative moment region by continuous or intermittently connected flange
elements, rigid cladding, or lateral bracing, and the spacing between adjacent
webs does not exceed 10 in. (254 mm).
(b) For shapes having multiple unreinforced webs such as I-sections made of
two C-sections connected back-to-back, or similar sections which provide
a high degree of restraint against rotation of the web (such as I-sections
made by welding two angles to a C-section);
32 . 1
M
M
P
P
82 . 0
nxo b
*
n w
*

,
_

(Eq. C3.5.2-2)
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Exception: In lieu of equation C3.5.2-2, when h/ t 2.33/ E / F
y
and
0.673, it shall be permitted to determine the design strength for a concentrated
load or reaction by using
w
P
n
from Section C3.4.

In the above equations:

b
=Resistance factor for bending (See Section C3.1.1)

w
=Resistance factor for web crippling (See Section C3.4)
P
*
=Required strength for the concentrated load or reaction [factored
concentrated load or reaction] in the presence of bending
moment.
P
*
=P
u
(LRFD)
P
*
=P
f
(LSD)
P
n
=Nominal strength [resistance] for concentrated load or reaction
in the absence of bending moment determined in accordance
with Section C3.4
M
*
=Required flexural strength [factored moment] at, or immediately
adjacent to, the point of application of the concentrated load or
reaction P
*

M
*
=M
u
(LRFD)
M
*
=M
f
(LSD)

M
nxo
=Nominal flexural strength [moment resistance] about the
centroidal x-axis determined in accordance with Section C3.1.1
w =Flat width of the beam flange which contacts the bearing plate
t =Thickness of the web or flange
=Slenderness factor given by Section B2.1
(c) For two nested Z-shapes
+ 65 . 1
P
P
85 . 0
M
M
n
*
no
*
(Eq. C3.5.2-3)
In addition, the moment, M
*
, and the concentrated load or reaction, P
*
,
shall satisfy M
*

b
M
no
, and P
*

w
P
n
.
where
M
*
=Required flexural strength [factored moment] at the section under
consideration.
M
*
=M
u
(LRFD)
M
*
=M
f
(LSD)
M
no
=Nominal flexural strength for the two nested Z-sections, i.e., sum
of the two sections evaluated individually, determined in
accordance with Section C3.1.1
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P
*
=Required strength for the concentrated load or reaction [factored
concentrated load or reaction] in the presence of bending moment.
P
*
=P
u
(LRFD)
P
*
=P
f
(LSD)
P
n
=Nominal web crippling strength [resistance] assuming single web
interior one-flange loading for the nested Z-sections, i.e., sum of
the two webs evaluated individually
=0.90 (LRFD)
=0.80 (LSD)
The above equation is valid for shapes that meet the following limits:
h/ t 150
N/ t 140
F
y
70 ksi (480 MPa or 4910 kg/ cm
2
)
R/ t 5.5
The following conditions shall also be satisfied:
(1) The ends of each section shall be connected to the other section by a
minimum of two 1/ 2 in. (12.7 mm) diameter A307 bolts through the
web.
(2) The combined section shall be connected to the support by a
minimum of two 1/ 2 in. (12.7 mm) diameter A307 bolts through the
flanges.
(3) The webs of the two sections shall be in contact.
(4) The ratio of the thicker to the thinner part shall not exceed 1.3.

C3.6 Stiffeners
C3.6.1 Transverse Stiffeners
Transverse stiffeners attached to beam webs at points of
concentrated loads or reactions, shall be designed as compression
members. Concentrated loads or reactions shall be applied directly into
the stiffeners, or each stiffener shall be fitted accurately to the flat portion
of the flange to provide direct load bearing into the end of the stiffener.
Means for shear transfer between the stiffener and the web shall be
provided according to Chapter E. For concentrated loads or reactions the
nominal strength [resistance] equals P
n
, where P
n
is the smaller value
given by (a) and (b) as follows:
(a) P
n
=F
wy
A
c
(Eq. C3.6.1-1)
(b) P
n
=Nominal axial strength [resistance] evaluated according to Section
C4(a), with A
e
replaced by A
b
USA and Mexico Canada

c
(ASD)
c
(LRFD)
c
(LSD)
2.00 0.85 0.80
where
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A
c
=18t
2
+A
s
, for transverse stiffeners at interior support and under (Eq. C3.6.1-2)
concentrated load
A
c
=10t
2
+A
s
, for transverse stiffeners at end support (Eq. C3.6.1-3)
F
wy
=Lower value of F
y
for the beam web, or F
ys
for the stiffener section
A
b
=b
1
t +A
s
, for transverse stiffeners at interior support and under (Eq. C3.6.1-4)
concentrated load
A
b
=b
2
t +A
s
, for transverse stiffeners at end support (Eq. C3.6.1-5)
A
s
=Cross sectional area of transverse stiffeners
b
1
=25t [0.0024(L
st
/ t) +0.72] 25t (Eq. C3.6.1-6)
b
2
=12t [0.0044(L
st
/ t) +0.83] 12t (Eq. C3.6.1-7)
L
st
=Length of transverse stiffener
t =Base thickness of beam web
The w/ t
s
ratio for the stiffened and unstiffened elements of cold-
formed steel transverse stiffeners shall not exceed 1.28
ys
F / E and
0.42
ys
F / E , respectively, where F
ys
is the yield stress, and t
s
is the
thickness of the stiffener steel.

C3.6.2 Shear Stiffeners
Where shear stiffeners are required, the spacing shall be based on
the nominal shear strength [resistance],V
n
, permitted by Section C3.2, and
the ratio a/ h shall not exceed [260/ (h/ t)]
2
nor 3.0.
The actual moment of inertia, I
s
, of a pair of attached shear
stiffeners, or of a single shear stiffener, with reference to an axis in the
plane of the web, shall have a minimum value of
I
smin
=5ht
3
[h/ a - 0.7(a/ h)] (h/ 50)
4
(Eq. C3.6.2-1)
The gross area of shear stiffeners shall be not less than
YDht
) h / a ( 1 ) h / a (
) h / a (
h
a
2
C 1
A
2
2
v
st
1
1
1
]
1

+ +

(Eq. C3.6.2-2)
where
C
v
=
2
y
v
) t / h ( F
Ek 53 . 1
when C
v
0.8 (Eq. C3.6.2-3)
C
v
=
y
v
F
Ek
t / h
11 . 1
when C
v
>0.8 (Eq. C3.6.2-4)
k
v
=
( )
2
h / a
34 . 5
00 . 4 + when a/ h 1.0 (Eq. C3.6.2-5)
k
v
=
( )
2
h / a
00 . 4
34 . 5 + when a/ h >1.0 (Eq. C3.6.2-6)
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a =Distance between transverse stiffeners
Y =
steel stiffener of point Yield
steel web of point Yield

D =1.0 for stiffeners furnished in pairs
D =1.8 for single-angle stiffeners
D =2.4 for single-plate stiffeners
t and h are as defined in Section B1.2

C3.6.3 Non-Conforming Stiffeners
The design strength [factored resistance] of members with
transverse stiffeners that do not meet the requirements of Section C3.6.1 or
C3.6.2, such as stamped or rolled-in transverse stiffeners, shall be
determined by tests in accordance with Chapter F or rational engineering
analysis in accordance with A1.1(b).

C4 Concentrically Loaded Compression Members
This section applies to members in which the resultant of all loads acting on
the member is an axial load passing through the centroid of the effective section
calculated at the stress, F
n
, defined in this section.
(a) The nominal axial strength [compressive resistance], P
n
, shall be calculated as
follows:
P
n
=A
e
F
n
(Eq. C4-1)
USA and Mexico Canada

c
(ASD)
c
(LRFD)
c
(LSD)
1.80 0.85 0.80
where
A
e
= Effective area at the stress F
n
. For sections with circular holes, A
e

shall be determined according to Section B2.2(a), subject to the
limitations of that section. If the number of holes in the effective
length region times the hole diameter divided by the effective
length does not exceed 0.015, A
e
can be determined ignoring the
holes.
F
n
is determined as follows:
For
c
1.5
y n
F 658 . 0 F
2
c

,
_

(Eq. C4-2)
For
c
>1.5
y
2
c
n
F
877 . 0
F
1
1
]
1

(Eq. C4-3)
where

c
=
e
y
F
F
(Eq. C4-4)
F
e
=The least of the elastic flexural, torsional and torsional-flexural
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buckling stress determined according to Sections C4.1 through
C4.4.
(b) Concentrically loaded angle sections shall be designed for an additional
bending moment as specified in the definitions of M
x
, M
y
(ASD) or M
*x
, M
*y

(LRFD or LSD) in Section C5.2.

C4.1 Sections Not Subject to Torsional or Torsional-Flexural Buckling
For doubly-symmetric sections, closed cross sections and any other
sections which can be shown not to be subject to torsional or torsional-flexural
buckling, the elastic flexural buckling stress, F
e
, shall be determined as
follows:

2
2
e
) r / KL (
E
F

(Eq. C4.1-1)
where
E = Modulus of elasticity
K = Effective length factor
L = Laterally unbraced length of member
r = Radius of gyration of the full, unreduced cross section about the axis of buckling
In frames where lateral stability is provided by diagonal bracing, shear
walls, attachment to an adjacent structure having adequate lateral stability, or
floor slabs or roof decks secured horizontally by walls or bracing systems
parallel to the plane of the frame, and in trusses, the effective length factor, K,
for compression members which do not depend upon their own bending
stiffness for lateral stability of the frame or truss, shall be taken as unity,
unless analysis shows that a smaller value may used. In a frame which
depends upon its own bending stiffness for lateral stability, the effective
length, KL, of the compression members shall be determined by a rational
method and shall not be less than the actual unbraced length.

C4.2 Doubly- or Singly-Symmetric Sections Subject to Torsional or Torsional-
Flexural Buckling
For singly-symmetric sections subject to torsional-flexural buckling, F
e

shall be taken as the smaller of F
e
calculated according to Section C4.1 and F
e

calculated as follows:

1
]
1

+ +

t ex
2
t ex t ex e
4 ) ( ) (
2
1
F (Eq. C4.2-1)
Alternatively, a conservative estimate of F
e
can be obtained using the
following equation:

ex t
ex t
e
F
+

(Eq. C4.2-2)
where
t
and
ex
are as defined in Section C3.1.2.1:
=1 - (x
o
/ r
o
)
2
(Eq. C4.2-3)
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For singly-symmetric sections, the x-axis is assumed to be the axis of
symmetry.
For doubly-symmetric sections subject to torsional buckling, F
e
shall be
taken as the smaller of F
e
calculated according to Section C4.1 and F
e
=
t
,
where
t
is defined in Section C3.1.2.1.
For singly-symmetric unstiffened angle sections for which the effective
area (A
e
) at stress F
y
is equal to the full unreduced cross-sectional area (A),
then F
e
shall be computed using Eq C4.1-1 where r is the least radius of
gyration thus ignoring torsional-flexural buckling.

C4.3 Point-Symmetric Sections
For point-symmetric sections, F
e
shall be taken as the lesser of
t
as
defined in Section C3.1.2.1 and F
e
as calculated in Section C4.1 using the
minor principal axis of the section.

C4.4 Nonsymmetric Sections
For shapes whose cross sections do not have any symmetry, either
about an axis or about a point, F
e
shall be determined by rational analysis.
Alternatively, compression members composed of such shapes may be tested
in accordance with Chapter F.

C4.5 Built-Up Members
For compression members composed of two sections in contact, the
nominal axial strength [compressive resistance] shall be determined in
accordance with Section C4(a) subject to the following modification. If the
buckling mode involves relative deformations that produce shear forces in the
connectors between individual shapes, KL/ r is replaced by (KL/ r)
m

determined as follows:
2
i
2
o m
r
a
r
KL
r
KL

,
_

(Eq. C4.5-1)
where:
(KL/ r)
o
=Overall slenderness ratio of entire section about the built-up
member axis
a =Intermediate fastener or spot weld spacing
r
i
=Minimum radius of gyration of full unreduced cross-sectional
area of an individual shape in a built-up member
Other symbols are defined in C4.1.
In addition, the fastener strength [resistance] and spacing shall satisfy
the following:
(1) The intermediate fastener or spot weld spacing, a, shall be limited such
that a/ r
i
does not exceed one half the governing slenderness ratio of the
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Chapter C, Members
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built-up member.
(2) The ends of a built-up compression member shall be connected by a weld
having a length not less than the maximum width of the member or by
connectors spaced longitudinally not more than 4 diameters apart for a
distance equal to 1.5 times the maximum width of the member.
(3) Each discrete connector shall be capable of transmitting a longitudinal
shear force of 2.5% of the total force (unfactored force for ASD and
factored force for LRFD and LSD) in the built-up member.

C4.6 Compression Members Having One Flange Through-Fastened to Deck or
Sheathing
These provisions are applicable to C- or Z-sections concentrically loaded
along their longitudinal axis, with only one flange attached to deck or
sheathing with through fasteners.
The nominal axial strength [resistance] of simple span or continuous C-
or Z-sections shall be calculated as follows:
(a) For weak axis nominal strength [resistance]
P
n
=C
1
C
2
C
3
AE/ 29500 kips (Newtons) (Eq. C4.6-1)
USA and Mexico Canada
(ASD) (LRFD) (LSD)
1.80 0.85 0.80
where:
C
1
=(0.79x +0.54) (Eq. C4.6-2)
C
2
=(1.17t +0.93) (Eq. C4.6-3)
C
3
=(2.5b - 1.63d) +22.8 (Eq. C4.6-4)
For Z-sections:
x =The fastener distance from the outside web edge divided by the
flange width, as shown in Figure C4.6.
For C-sections:
x =the flange width minus the fastener distance from the outside web
edge divided by the flange width, as shown in Figure C4.6.
t =C- or Z-section thickness
b =C- or Z-section flange width
d =C- or Z-section depth
A =The full unreduced cross-sectional area of the C- or Z-section
E =Modulus of elasticity of steel
=29,500 ksi for U.S. customary units
=203,000 MPa for SI units
=2,070,000 kg/ cm
2
for MKS units
=Coefficient for conversion of units
=1 when t, b, and d are in inches
=0.0394 when t, b, and d are in mm
=0.394 when t, b, and d are in cm

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Figure C4.6 Definition of x Figure C4.6 Definition of x Figure C4.6 Definition of x Figure C4.6 Definition of x
Eq. C4.6-1 shall be limited to roof and wall systems meeting the
following conditions:
(1) t not exceeding 0.125 in. (3.22 mm)
(2) 6 in. (152mm) d 12 in. (305 mm)
(3) Flanges are edge stiffened compression elements
(4) 70 d/ t 170
(5) 2.8 d/ b <5
(6) 16 flange flat width / t <50
(7) Both flanges are prevented from moving laterally at the supports
(8) Steel roof or steel wall panels with fasteners spaced 12 in. (305 mm)
on center or less and having a minimum rotational lateral stiffness of
0.0015 k/ in/ in (10,300N/ m/ m) (fastener at mid-flange width) as
determined by the AISI test procedure
!

(9) C- and Z-sections having a minimum yield point of 33 ksi (230 MPa ,
or 2320 kg/ cm
2
)
(10) Span length not exceeding 33 feet (10 m)
(b) For strong axis nominal strength [resistance], the equations contained in
Sections C4 and C4.1 of the Specification shall be used.

Note:

!

Further information on the test procedure should be obtained from "Rotational-
Lateral Stiffness Test Method for Beam-to-Panel Assemblies", AISI Cold-Formed
Steel Design Manual, Part VIII.

C5 Combined Axial Load and Bending
C5.1 Combined Tensile Axial Load and Bending
C5.1.1 ASD Method
The required allowable strengths T, M
x
, and M
y
shall satisfy the
following interaction equations:
For Z-Section x =
b
a
(Eq. C4.6-7)

For C-Section x=
b
a b
(Eq. C4.6-8)
a
b

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0 . 1
T
T
M
M
M
M
n
t
nyt
y b
nxt
x b

(Eq. C5.1.1-1)
and

0 . 1
T
T
M
M
M
M
n
t
ny
y b
nx
x b

(Eq. C5.1.1-2)
where
T = Required allowable tensile axial strength
M
x
, M
y
= Required allowable flexural strengths with respect to
the centroidal axes of the section
T
n
= Nominal tensile axial strength determined in
accordance with Section C2
M
nx
, M
ny
= Nominal flexural strengths about the centroidal axes
determined in accordance with Section C3
M
nxt
, M
nyt
= S
ft
F
y
S
ft
= Section modulus of the full section for the extreme
tension fiber about the appropriate axis

b
= 1.67 for bending strength (Section C3.1.1) or for laterally
unbraced beams (Section C3.1.2)

t
= 1.67

C5.1.2 LRFD and LSD Methods
The required strengths [factored tension and moments] T
*
, M
*x
,
and M
*y
shall satisfy the following interaction equations:
1.0

+

n t
*
nyt b
y *
nxt b
x *
M
(Eq. C5.1.2-1)
1.0

+

n t
*
ny b
y *
nx b
x *
M
(Eq. C5.1.2-2)
where
T
*
= Required tensile axial strength [factored tension]
T
*
=T
u
(LRFD)
T
*
=T
f
(LSD)
M
*x
, M
*y
= Required flexural strengths [factored moments] with
respect to the centroidal axes.
M
*x
=M
ux
, M
*y
=M
uy
(LRFD)
M
*x
=M
fx
, M
*y
=M
fy
(LSD)
T
n
= Nominal axial strength determined in accordance with
Section C2
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M
nx
, M
ny
= Nominal flexural strengths about the centroidal axes
determined in accordance with Section C3.1
M
nxt
, M
nyt
= S
ft
F
y
S
ft
= Section modulus of the full section for the extreme
tension fiber about the appropriate axis

b
= For bending strength [resistance] (Section C3.1.1),
b
=
0.90 or 0.95 (LRFD) and 0.90 (LSD). For laterally
unbraced beams (Section C3.1.2),
b
=0.90 (LRFD and
LSD)

t
= 0.95 (LRFD)
= 0.90 (LSD)

C5.2 Combined Compressive Axial Load and Bending
C5.2.1 ASD Method
The required allowable strengths P, M
x
, and M
y
shall satisfy the
following interaction equations. In addition, each individual ratio in Eqs.
C5.2.1-1 to C5.2.1-3 shall not exceed unity.
0 . 1
M
M C
M
M C
P
P
y ny
y my b
x nx
x mx b
n
c

(Eq. C5.2.1-1)
0 . 1
M
M
M
M
P
P
ny
y b
nx
x b
no
c

(Eq. C5.2.1-2)
When
c
P/ P
n
0.15, the following equation may be used in lieu of the
above two equations:
0 . 1
M
M
M
M
P
P
ny
y b
nx
x b
n
c

(Eq. C5.2.1-3)
where
P = Required allowable compressive axial strength
M
x
, M
y
= Required allowable flexural strengths with respect to
the centroidal axes of the effective section determined
for the required compressive axial strength alone. For
singly-symmetric unstiffened angle sections with un-
reduced effective area, M
y
shall be permitted to be
taken as the required flexural strength only. For other
angle sections or singly-symmetric unstiffened angles
for which the effective area (A
e
) at stress F
y
is less than
the full unreduced cross-sectional area (A), M
y
shall be
taken either as the required flexural strength or the
required flexural strength plus PL/ 1000, whichever
results in a lower permissible value of P.
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P
n
= Nominal axial strength determined in accordance with
Section C4
P
no
= Nominal axial strength determined in accordance with
Section C4, with F
n
=F
y
M
nx
, M
ny
= Nominal flexural strengths about the centroidal axes
determined in accordance with Section C3.1

x
=
Ex
c
P
P
1

(Eq. C5.2.1-4)

y
=
Ey
c
P
P
1

(Eq. C5.2.1-5)
P
Ex
=
2
x x
x
2
) L K (
EI
(Eq. C5.2.1-6)
P
Ey
=
2
y y
y
2
) L K (
EI
(Eq. C5.2.1-7)

b
= 1.67 for bending strength (Section C3.1.1) or for laterally
unbraced beams (Section C3.1.2)

c
= 1.80
I
x
= Moment of inertia of the full, unreduced cross section
about the x-axis
I
y
= Moment of inertia of the full, unreduced cross section
about the y-axis
L
x
= Actual unbraced length for bending about the x-axis
L
y
= Actual unbraced length for bending about the y-axis
K
x
= Effective length factor for buckling about the x-axis
K
y
= Effective length factor for buckling about the y-axis
C
mx
, C
my
= Coefficients whose value shall be taken as follows:
1. For compression members in frames subject to joint
translation (sidesway)
C
m
=0.85
2. For restrained compression members in frames braced
against joint translation and not subject to transverse
loading between their supports in the plane of bending
C
m
=0.6 - 0.4 (M
1
/ M
2
) (Eq. C5.2.1-8)
where
M
1
/ M
2
is the ratio of the smaller to the larger moment
at the ends of that portion of the member under
consideration which is unbraced in the plane of
bending. M
1
/ M
2
is positive when the member is bent
in reverse curvature and negative when it is bent in
single curvature
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3. For compression members in frames braced against
joint translation in the plane of loading and subject to
transverse loading between their supports, the value of
C
m
may be determined by rational analysis. However,
in lieu of such analysis, the following values may be
used:
(a) for members whose ends are restrained, C
m
=0.85
(b) for members whose ends are unrestrained, C
m
=1.0

C5.2.2 LRFD and LSD Methods
The required strengths [factored compressive force and moments] P
*
,
M
*x
, and M
*y
shall satisfy the following interaction equations. In addition,
each individual ratio in Eqs. C5.2.2-1 to C5.2.2-3 shall not exceed unity.
1.0

y ny b
y * my
x nx b
x * mx
n c
*
C
C
P
P
(Eq. C5.2.2-1)
1.0

ny b
y *
nx b
x *
no c
*
P
P
(Eq. C5.2.2-2)
When P
*
/
c
P
n
0.15, the following equation may be used in lieu of the
above two equations:
1.0

+

+

ny b
y *
nx b
x *
n c
*
M
P
P
(Eq. C5.2.2-3)
where
P
*
= Required compressive axial strength [factored
compressive force]
P
*
=P
u
(LRFD)
P
*
=P
f
(LSD)
M
*x
, M
*y
= Required flexural strengths [factored moments] with
respect to the centroidal axes of the effective section
determined for the required compressive axial strength
alone. For singly-symmetric unstiffened angle sections
with un-reduced effective area, M
*y
shall be permitted
to be taken as the required flexural strength [factored
moment ] only. For other angle sections or singly-
symmetric unstiffened angles for which the effective
area (A
e
) at stress F
y
is less than the full unreduced
cross-sectional area (A), M
*y
, shall be taken either as the
required flexural strength [factored moment] or the
required flexural strength [factored moment] plus
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Chapter C, Members
92 November 5, 2001
(P
*
)L/ 1000, whichever results in a lower permissible
value of P
*
.
M
*x
=M
ux
, M
*y
=M
uy
(LRFD)
M
*x
=M
fx
, M
*y
=M
fy
(LSD)
P
n
= Nominal axial strength determined in accordance with
Section C4
P
no
= Nominal axial strength determined in accordance with
Section C4, with F
n
=F
y
M
nx
, M
ny
= Nominal flexural strengths about the centroidal axes
determined in accordance with Section C3

x
=
Ex
u
P
P
1 (Eq. C5.2.2-4)

y
=
Ey
u
P
P
1 (Eq. C5.2.2-5)
P
Ex
=
2
x x
x
2
) L K (
EI
(Eq. C5.2.2-6)
P
Ey
=
2
y y
y
2
) L K (
EI
(Eq. C5.2.2-7)

b
= For bending strength [resistance] (Section C3.1.1),
b
=
0.90 or 0.95 (LRFD) and 0.90 (LSD). For laterally
unbraced beams (Section C3.1.2),
b
=0.90 (LRFD and
LSD)

c
= 0.85 (LRFD)
= 0.80 (LSD)
I
x
= Moment of inertia of the full, unreduced cross section
about the x-axis
I
y
= Moment of inertia of the full, unreduced cross section
about the y-axis
L
x
= Actual unbraced length for bending about the x-axis
L
y
= Actual unbraced length for bending about the y-axis
K
x
= Effective length factor for buckling about the x-axis
K
y
= Effective length factor for buckling about the y-axis
C
mx
, C
my
= Coefficients whose value shall be taken as follows:
1. For compression members in frames subject to joint
translation (sidesway)
C
m
=0.85
2. For restrained compression members in frames braced
against joint translation and not subject to transverse
loading between their supports in the plane of bending
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C
m
=0.6 - 0.4 (M
1
/ M
2
) (Eq. C5.2.2-8)
where
M
1
/ M
2
is the ratio of the smaller to the larger moment
at the ends of that portion of the member under
consideration which is unbraced in the plane of
bending. M
1
/ M
2
is positive when the member is bent
in reverse curvature and negative when it is bent in
single curvature.
3. For compression members in frames braced against
joint translation in the plane of loading and subject to
transverse loading between their supports, the value of
C
m
may be determined by rational analysis. However,
in lieu of such analysis, the following values may be
used:
(a) for members whose ends are restrained, C
m
=0.85,
(b) for members whose ends are unrestrained, C
m
=1.0.

C6 Closed Cylindrical Tubular Members
The requirements of this Section apply to closed cylindrical tubular
members having a ratio of outside diameter to wall thickness, D/ t, not greater
than 0.441 E/ F
y
.

C6.1 Bending
For flexural members, the nominal flexural strength [moment resistance],
M
n
, shall be calculated as follows:
M
n
=F
c
S
f
(Eq. C6.1-1)
USA and Mexico Canada

b
(ASD)
b
(LRFD)
b
(LSD)
1.67 0.95 0.90
For D/ t 0.0714 E/ F
y
F
c
=1.25 F
y
(Eq. C6.1-2)
For 0.0714 E/ F
y
<D/ t 0.318 E/ F
y
F
c
=
y
y
F
t / D
F / E
020 . 0 970 . 0
1
1
]
1

,
_

+ (Eq. C6.1-3)
For 0.318 E/ F
y
<D/ t 0.441 E/ F
y
F
c
=0.328E/ (D/ t) (Eq. C6.1-4)
where
F
c
=Critical flexural stress
S
f
=Elastic section modulus of the full, unreduced cross section

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C6.2 Compression
The requirements of this Section apply to members in which the
resultant of all loads and moments acting on the member is equivalent to a
single force in the direction of the member axis passing through the centroid
of the section.
The nominal axial strength [compressive resistance], P
n
, shall be
calculated as follows:
P
n
=F
n
A
e
(Eq. C6.2-1)
USA and Mexico Canada

c
(ASD)
c
(LRFD)
c
(LSD)
1.80 0.85 0.80
F
n
is determined as follows:
For
c
1.5
F
n
=
y
F 658 . 0
2
c

,
_

(Eq. C6.2-2)
For
c
>1.5
F
n
=
y
2
c
F
877 . 0
1
1
]
1

(Eq. C6.2-3)
where

c
=
e
y
F
F
(Eq. C6.2-4)
In the above equations:
F
e
=The elastic flexural buckling stress determined according to
Section C4.1
A
e
= ) A A ( R A
o o
+ (Eq. C6.25)
R = 0 . 1 F 2 F
e y
(Eq. C6.26)
A
o
=
y y
F
E
441 . 0
t
D
for A A 667 . 0
) tE / ( ) DF (
037 . 0

1
1
]
1

+ (Eq. C6.2-7)
A =Area of the unreduced cross section

C6.3 Combined Bending and Compression
Combined bending and compression shall satisfy the provisions of
Section C5.

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D. STRUCTURAL ASSEMBLIES
D1 Built-Up Sections
D1.1 I-Sections Composed of Two C-Sections
(a) For compression members:
Refer to Section C4.5.
(b) For flexural members:
The maximum permissible longitudinal spacing of welds or other
connectors, s
max
, joining two C-sections to form an I-section shall be:
s
max
=L / 6
mq
gT 2
s
(Eq. D1.1-1)
where
L =Span of beam
T
s
=Design strength [factored resistance] of connection in tension
(Chapter E)
g =Vertical distance between the two rows of connections nearest to
the top and bottom flanges
q =Design load on the beam for spacing of connectors (Use nominal
loads for ASD, factored loads for LRFD and LSD. For methods of
determination, see below)
m =Distance from the shear center of one C-section to the mid-plane
of its web.
The load, q, is obtained by dividing the concentrated loads or reactions
by the length of bearing. For beams designed for a uniformly distributed
load, q shall be taken equal to three times the uniformly distributed load,
based on nominal loads for ASD, factored loads for LRFD and LSD. If the
length of bearing of a concentrated load or reaction is smaller than the weld
spacing, s, the required design strength [factored resistance] of the welds or
connections closest to the load or reaction is
T
s
=P
s
m/ 2g (Eq. D1.1-2)
where P
s
is a concentrated load or reaction based on nominal loads for
ASD, factored loads for LRFD and LSD.
The allowable maximum spacing of connections, s
max
, depends upon
the intensity of the load directly at the connection. Therefore, if uniform
spacing of connections is used over the whole length of the beam, it shall be
determined at the point of maximum local load intensity. In cases where this
procedure would result in uneconomically close spacing, either one of the
following methods may be adopted: (a) the connection spacing may be varied
along the beam according to the variation of the load intensity; or (b)
reinforcing cover plates may be welded to the flanges at points where
concentrated loads occur. The design shear strength of the connections
joining these plates to the flanges shall then be used for T
s
, and g shall be
taken as the depth of the beam.
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D1.2 Spacing of Connections in Compression Elements
The spacing, s, in the line of stress, of welds, rivets, or bolts connecting a
cover plate, sheet, or a non-integral stiffener in compression to another
element shall not exceed
(a) that which is required to transmit the shear between the connected parts
on the basis of the design strength [factored resistance] per connection
specified elsewhere herein; nor
(b) 1.16t
c
f / E , where t is the thickness of the cover plate or sheet, and f
c
is
the stress at service load in the cover plate or sheet; nor
(c) three times the flat width, w, of the narrowest unstiffened compression
element tributary to the connections, but need not be less than
1.11t
y
F / E if w/ t <0.50
y
F / E , or 1.33t
y
F / E if w/ t 0.50
y
F / E ,
unless closer spacing is required by (a) or (b) above.
In the case of intermittent fillet welds parallel to the direction of stress,
the spacing shall be taken as the clear distance between welds, plus one-half
inch (12.7 mm). In all other cases, the spacing shall be taken as the center-to-
center distance between connections.
Exception: The requirements of this Section do not apply to cover
sheets which act only as sheathing material and are not considered as load-
carrying elements.

D2 Mixed Systems
The design of members in mixed systems using cold-formed steel
components in conjunction with other materials shall conform to this Specification
and the applicable specification of the other material.

D3 Lateral Bracing
Braces shall be designed to restrain lateral bending or twisting of a loaded
beam or column, and to avoid local crippling at the points of attachment.

D3.1 Symmetrical Beams and Columns
Braces and bracing systems, including connections, shall be designed
considering strength and stiffness requirements.

D3.2 C-Section and Z-Section Beams
The following provisions for bracing to restrain twisting of C-sections
and Z-sections used as beams loaded in the plane of the web, apply only
when (a) the top flange is connected to deck or sheathing material in such a
manner as to effectively restrain lateral deflection of the connected flange, or
(b) neither flange is so connected. When both flanges are so connected, no
further bracing is required. When the Specification does not provide an explicit
method for design, further information should be obtained from the
Commentary.

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D3.2.1 Anchorage of Bracing for Roof Systems Under Gravity Load With Top
Flange Connected to Sheathing
For C-sections and Z-sections designed according to Section C3.1.1,
and having deck or sheathing fastened to the top flanges (through fastened
or standing seam systems), provisions shall be made to restrain the flanges
so that the maximum top flange lateral displacements with respect to the
purlin reaction points do not exceed the span length divided by 360. If the
top flanges of all purlins face in the same direction, anchorage of the
restraint shall satisfy the requirements of Sections D3.2.1(a) and D3.2.1(b).
If the top flanges of adjacent lines of purlins face in opposite directions, a
restraint system shall be provided to resist the down-slope component of
the total gravity load.
Anchored braces need to be connected to only one line of purlins in
each purlin bay of each roof slope if provision is made to transmit forces
from other purlin lines through the roof deck and its fastening system.
Anchored braces shall be as close as possible to the flange which is
connected to the deck or sheathing. Anchored braces shall be provided for
each purlin bay.
For bracing arrangements other than those covered in Sections
D3.2.1(a) and D3.2.1(b), tests in accordance with Chapter F shall be
performed so that the type and/ or spacing of braces selected are such that
the test strength [resistance] of the purlin assembly is equal to or greater
than its nominal flexural strength [moment resistance], instead of that
required by Chapter F.
(a) C-Sections
For roof systems using C-sections for purlins with all compression
flanges facing in the same direction, a system possessing restraint force,
P
L
, in addition to resisting other loading, shall be provided:
P
L
=(0.05cos - sin)W (Eq. D.3.2.1-1)
where
W =Total vertical load (nominal load for ASD, factored load for LRFD
and LSD) supported by all purlin lines being restrained. Where
more than one brace is used at a purlin line, the restraint force P
L

shall be divided equally between all braces.
=+1 for purlin facing upward direction, and
-1 for purlin facing down slope direction.
=Angle between the vertical and the plane of the web of the C-
section, degrees.
A positive value for the force, P
L
, means that restraint is required to
prevent movement of the purlin flanges in the upward roof slope
direction, and a negative value means that restraint is required to prevent
movement of purlin flanges in the downward slope direction.
(b) Z-Sections
For roof systems having four to twenty Z-purlin lines with all top
flanges facing in the direction of the upward roof slope, and with
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restraint braces at the purlin supports, midspan or one-third points,
each brace shall be designed to resist a force determined as follows:
(1) Single-Span System with Restraints at the Supports:
P
L
= W sin cos
t d n
b 220 . 0
5 . 0
60 . 0 90 . 0 72 . 0
p
50 . 1
1
1
]
1

(Eq. D3.2.1-2)
(2) Single-Span System with Third-Point Restraints:
P
L
= W sin cos
t d n
b 474 . 0
5 . 0
33 . 0 89 . 0 57 . 0
p
22 . 1
1
1
]
1

(Eq. D3.2.1-3)
(3) Single-Span System with Midspan Restraint:
P
L
= W sin cos
t d n
b 224 . 0
50 . 0 83 . 0 65 . 0
p
32 . 1
1
1
]
1

(Eq. D3.2.1-4)
(4) Multiple-Span System with Restraints at the Supports:

P
L
= W sin cos
t d n
L b 053 . 0
C
94 . 0 07 . 1 95 . 0
p
13 . 0 88 . 1
tr
1
1
]
1

(Eq. D.3.2.1-5)
With
C
tr
=0.63 for braces at end supports of multiple-span systems
C
tr
=0.87 for braces at the first interior supports
C
tr
=0.81 for all other braces
(5) Multiple-Span System with Third-Point Restraints:
P
L
= W sin cos
t d n
L b 181 . 0
C
29 . 0 11 . 1 54 . 0
p
25 . 0 15 . 1
th
1
1
]
1

(Eq. D3.2.1-6)
With
C
th
=0.57 for outer braces in exterior spans
C
th
=0.48 for all other braces
(6) Multiple-Span System with Midspan Restraints:
P
L
= W sin cos
dt n
L b 116 . 0
C
50 . 0 70 . 0
p
18 . 0 32 . 1
ms
1
1
]
1

(Eq. D3.2.1-7)
with
C
ms
=1.05 for braces in exterior spans
C
ms
=0.90 for all other braces
where
b =Flange width
d =Depth of section
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t =Thickness
L =Span length
=Angle between the vertical and the plane of the web of the
Z-section, degrees
n
p
=Number of parallel purlin lines
W =Total vertical load supported by the purlin lines between
adjacent supports (Use nominal loads for ASD, factored
loads for LRFD and LSD)
The force, P
L
, is positive when restraint is required to prevent
movement of the purlin flanges in the upward roof slope direction.
For systems having less than four purlin lines, the brace force shall
be determined by taking 1.1 times the force found from Equations D3.2.1-2
through D3.2.1-7, with n
p
= 4. For systems having more than twenty
purlin lines, the brace force shall be determined from Equations D3.2.1-2
through D3.2.1-7, with n
p
=20 and W based on the total number of purlins.

D3.2.2 Neither Flange Connected to Sheathing
Each intermediate brace, at the top and bottom flange, shall be
designed to resist a required lateral force, P
L
, determined as follows:
(a) For uniform loads, P
L
=1.5K times the design load (nominal loads for
ASD, factored loads for LRFD and LSD) within a distance 0.5a each
side of the brace.
(b) For concentrated loads, P
L
=1.0K times each design concentrated load
within a distance 0.3a each side of the brace, plus 1.4K (1-x/ a) times
each design concentrated load located farther than 0.3a but not farther
than 1.0a from the brace. The design concentrated load is the nominal
load for ASD or the factored load for LRFD and LSD.
In the above equations:
For C-sections:
K =m/ d (Eq. D3.2.2-1)
where
m =Distance from the shear center to the mid-plane of the web
d =Depth of C-section
Brace force P
L
, shall be applied to both flanges in opposite directions
in order to resist the twist caused by the load.
For Z-sections:
K =I
xy
/ (2I
x
)

(Eq. D3.2.2-2)
where
I
xy
=Product of inertia of the full section about centroidal axes parallel
and perpendicular to the web
I
x
=Moment of inertia of the full section about the centroidal axis
perpendicular to the web
Brace force, P
L
, shall be applied to both flanges in the same direction
in order to constrain bending of the section about the axis
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100 November 5, 2001
perpendicular to its web.

For C-sections and Z-sections:
x =Distance from the concentrated load to the brace
a =Distance between center line of braces

When braces are provided, they shall be attached in such a manner
to effectively restrain the section against lateral deflection of both flanges at
the ends and at any intermediate brace points.
When all loads and reactions on a beam are transmitted through
members which frame into the section in such a manner as to effectively
restrain the section against torsional rotation and lateral displacement, no
additional braces shall be required except those required for strength
according to Section C3.1.2.
D4 Wall Studs and Wall Stud Assemblies
Wall studs shall be designed either on the basis of an all steel system in
accordance with Chapter C or on the basis of sheathing in accordance with
Section D4.1 through D4.3. Both solid and perforated webs shall be permitted.
Both ends of the stud shall be connected to restrain rotation about the
longitudinal stud axis and horizontal displacement perpendicular to the stud
axis.
(a) All Steel Design
Wall stud assemblies using an all steel design shall be designed neglecting
the structural contribution of the attached sheathings and shall comply with the
requirements of Chapter C. For compression members with circular web
perforations, see Section B2.2, and for non-circular web perforations, the effective
area shall be determined as follows:
The effective area, A
e
at a stress F
n
, shall be determined in accordance with
Chapter B, assuming the web to consist of two unstiffened elements, one on each
side of the perforation, or the effective area, A
e
, shall be determined from stub-
column tests.
When A
e
is determined in accordance with Chapter B, the following
limitations related to the size and spacing of perforations and the depth of the
stud shall apply:
(1) The center-to-center spacing of web perforations shall not be less than 24
in. (610 mm).
(2) The maximum width of web perforations shall be the lesser of 0.5 times
the depth, d, of the section or 2-1/ 2 in. (63.5 mm).
(3) The length of web perforations shall not exceed 4-1/ 2 in. (114 mm).
(4) The section depth-to-thickness ratio, d/ t, shall not be less than 20.
(5) The distance between the end of the stud and the near edge of a
perforation shall not be less than 10 in. (254 mm).
(b) Sheathing Braced Design
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Wall stud assemblies using a sheathing braced design shall be designed in
accordance with Sections D4.1 through D4.3 and in addition shall comply with
the following requirements:
In the case of perforated webs, the effective area, A
e
, shall be determined as
in (a) above.
Sheathing shall be attached to both sides of the stud and connected to the
bottom and top horizontal members of the wall to provide lateral and torsional
support to the stud in the plane of the wall.
Sheathing shall conform to the limitations specified under Table D4.
Additional bracing shall be provided during construction, if required.

D4.1 Wall Studs in Compression
For studs having identical sheathing attached to both flanges, and
neglecting any rotational restraint provided by the sheathing, the nominal
axial strength [compressive resistance], P
n
, shall be calculated as follows:
P
n
=A
e
F
n
(Eq. D4.1-1)
USA and Mexico Canada

c
(ASD)
c
(LRFD)
c
(LSD)
1.80 0.85 0.80
where
A
e
=Effective area determined at F
n
F
n
=The lowest value determined by three conditions (a), (b), and (c)
given below. The equations provided in these three conditions are
applicable within the following limits:
Yield strength, F
y
50 ksi (340 MPa or 3520 kg/ cm
2
)
Section depth, d 6.0 in. (152 mm)
Section thickness, t 0.075 in. (1.91 mm)
Overall length, L 16 ft. (4.88 m)
Stud spacing, 12 in. (305 mm) minimum; 24 in. (610 mm)
maximum
Fastener spacing, 6 in. (152 mm) s 12 in. (305 mm)
(a) To prevent column buckling between fasteners in the plane of the wall, F
n

shall be calculated according to Section C4 with KL equal to two times the
distance between fasteners.
(b) To prevent flexural and/ or torsional overall column buckling, F
n
shall be
calculated in accordance with Section C4 with F
e
taken as the smaller of
the two
CR
values specified for the following section types, where
CR

is the theoretical elastic buckling stress under concentric loading.
(1) Singly-symmetric C-Sections

CR
=
ey
+
a
Q (Eq. D4.1-2)

CR
= ( ) ( )
1
]
1

+ +

tQ ex
2
tQ ex tQ ex
4
2
1
(Eq. D4.1-3)
(2) Z-Sections
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Chapter D, Structural Assemblies

102 November 5, 2001

CR
=
t
+
t
Q

(Eq. D4.1-4)

CR
=

+ + + + + )] Q ( 4 ) Q [( ) Q (
2
1
2
exy a ex ey ex
2
a ey ex a ey ex

(Eq. D4.1-5)
(3) I-Sections (doubly-symmetric)

CR
=
ey
+
a
Q

(Eq. D4.1-6)

CR
=
ex
(Eq. D4.1-7)
In the above equations:

ex
=
( )
2
x
2
r / L
E
(Eq. D4.1-8)

exy
=(
2
EI
xy
) / (AL
2
) (Eq. D4.1-9)

ey
=
2
y
2
) r / L (
E
(Eq. D4.1-10)

t
=
1
1
]
1

+
2
w
2
2
o
L
EC
GJ
Ar
1
(Eq. D4.1-11)

tQ
=
t
+
t
Q

(Eq. D4.1-12)
Q =
o
Q (2 - s/ s) (Eq. D4.1-13)
where:
s =fastener spacing, in. (mm)
s =12 in. (305 mm)

o
Q =See Table D4
a
Q =Q/ A (Eq. D4.1-14)
A =Area of full unreduced cross section
L =Length of stud
t
Q = ) Ar 4 / ( ) d Q (
2
o
2
(Eq. D4.1-15)
d =Depth of section
I
xy
=Product of inertia
(c) To prevent shear failure of the sheathing, a value of F
n
shall be used in
the following equations so that the shear strain of the sheathing, , does
not exceed the permissible shear strain, . The shear strain, , shall be
determined as follows:
=( / L) [C
1
+(E
1
d/ 2)] (Eq. D4.1-16)
where
C
1
and E
1
are the absolute values of C
1
and E
1
specified below for each
section type:
(1) Singly-Symmetric C-sections
C
1
=(F
n
C
o
)/ (
ey
- F
n
+
a
Q ) (Eq. D4.1-17)
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Draft North American Cold-Formed Steel Specification

November 5, 2001 103
E
1
=
2
o n n tQ
2
o n ex
o o o o n o o o
2
o n ex n
) x F ( ) F ( r ) F (
)] E x D ( x F ) D x E r )( F [( F

(Eq. D4.1-18)
(2) Z-Sections
C
1
=
( )
( )( )
2
exy n ex a n ey
exy o n ex o n
F Q F
] D F C [ F
+

(Eq. D4.1-19)
E
1
=(F
n
E
o
) / (
tQ
- F
n
) (Eq. D4.1-20)
(3) I-Sections
C
1
=(F
n
C
o
)/ (
ey
- F
n
+
a
Q ) (Eq. D4.1-21)
E
1
=0
where
x
o
=Distance from shear center to centroid along principal x-axis,
(absolute value)
C
o
, E
o
, and D
o
are initial column imperfections which shall be
assumed to be at least
C
o
=L/ 350 in a direction parallel to the wall (Eq. D4.1-22)
D
o
=L/ 700 in a direction perpendicular to the wall (Eq. D4.1-23)
E
o
=L/ (d 10,000), rad., a measure of the initial twist of the
stud from the initial, ideal, unbuckled shape (Eq. D4.1-24)
If F
n
>0.5 F
y
, then in the definitions for
ey
,
ex
,
exy
and
tQ
, the
parameters E and G shall be replaced by E and G, respectively, as
defined below
E =4EF
n
(F
y
- F
n
)/ F
y
2
(Eq. D4.1-25)
G=G (E/ E) (Eq. D4.1-26)
Sheathing parameters
o
Q and shall be permitted to be determined
from representative full-scale tests, conducted and evaluated as
described by published documented methods (see Commentary), or
from the small scale test values given in Table D4.

TABLE D4
Sheathing Parameters
(1)

Sheathing
(2)

o
Q
kip kN kg

length/ length
3/ 8 in. (9.5 mm) to 5/ 8 in. (15.9 mm) thick gypsum
Lignocellulosic board
Fiberboard (regular or impregnated)
Fiberboard (heavy impregnated)
24.0 107.0 10,900
12.0 53.4 5440
7.2 32.0 3270
14.4 64.1 6530
0.008
0.009
0.007
0.010
(1) The values given are subject to the following limitations:
All values are for sheathing on both sides of the wall assembly.
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104 November 5, 2001
All fasteners are No. 6, type S-12, self-drilling drywall screws with pan or
bugle head, or equivalent.
(2) All sheathing is 1/ 2 in. (12.7 mm) thick except as noted.
For other types of sheathing,
o
Q and shall be permitted to be
determined conservatively from representative small-specimen tests as
described by published documented methods (see Commentary).

D4.2 Wall Studs in Bending
For studs having identical sheathing attached to both flanges, and
neglecting any rotational restraint provided by the sheathing, the nominal
flexural strengths [moment resistances] are M
nxo
and M
nyo
where:
For sections with stiffened or partially stiffened compression flanges:
USA and Mexico Canada

b
(ASD)
b
(LRFD)
b
(LSD)
1.67 0.95 0.90
For sections with unstiffened compression flanges:
USA and Mexico Canada

b
(ASD)
b
(LRFD)
b
(LSD)
1.67 0.90 0.90
M
nxo
and M
nyo
= Nominal flexural strengths [moment resistances]
about the centroidal axes determined in accordance with Section
C3.1, excluding the provisions of Section C3.1.2 (lateral-torsional
buckling).

D4.3 Wall Studs with Combined Axial Load and Bending
The required axial strength [resistance] and flexural strength [moment
resistance] shall satisfy the interaction equations of Section C5 with the
following redefined terms:
P
n
=Nominal axial strength [resistance] determined according to Section
D4.1
M
nx
and M
ny
in Equations C5.2.1-1, C5.2.1-2 and C5.2.1-3 for ASD or
C5.2.2-1, C5.2.2-2 and C5.2.2-3 for LRFD or LSD shall be replaced by
nominal flexural strengths [moment resistances], M
nxo
and M
nyo
,
respectively.

D5 Floor, Roof or Wall Steel Diaphragm Construction
The in-plane diaphragm nominal shear strength [resistance], S
n
shall be
established by calculation or test.

d
=As specified in Table D5 (ASD)
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Draft North American Cold-Formed Steel Specification

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d
=As specified in Table D5 (LRFD and LSD)
TABLE D5
Factors of Safety and Resistance Factors for Diaphragms
USA and Mexico Canada

d
(ASD)

d
(LRFD)

d
(LSD)

Diaphragm Condition
2.65 0.60 0.50 for diaphragms for which the failure mode is that of
buckling, otherwise;
3.0 0.50 0.50 for diaphragms welded to the structure subjected to
earthquake loads, or subjected to load combinations
which include earthquake loads.
2.35 0.55 0.50 for diaphragms welded to the structure subjected to
wind loads, or subjected to load combinations which
include wind loads
2.5 0.60 0.50 for diaphragms mechanically connected to the
structure subjected to earthquake loads, or subjected to
load combinations which include earthquake loads.
2.0 0.65 0.50 for diaphragms mechanically connected to the
structure subjected to wind loads, or subjected to load
combinations which include wind loads.
2.45 0.65 0.50 for diaphragms connected to the structure by either
mechanical fastening or welding subjected to load
combinations not involving wind or earthquake loads.
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November 9, 2001 109
e
min
=
t F
P
u

For ASD (Eq. E2.2.1-6a)

e
min
=
t F
P
u
u

For LRFD (Eq. E2.2.1-6b)

e
min
=
t F
P
u
f

112 November 9, 2001
USA and Mexico Canada
(ASD) (LRFD) (LSD)
2.55 0.60 0.50
where
P
n
= Nominal shear strength [resistance] of an arc seam weld
d = Width of arc seam weld
L = Length of seam weld not including the circular ends
(For computation purposes, L shall not exceed 3d)
d
a
= Average width of seam weld
= (d - t) for a single and a double sheet (Eq. E2.3-3)
d
e
= Effective width of arc seam weld at fused surfaces
d
e
= 0.7d - 1.5t (Eq. E2.3-4)
and F
u
, F
xx
, and t are defined in Section E2.2.1. The minimum edge distance
shall be as determined for the arc spot weld, Section E2.2.1. See Figure E2.3B.

E2.4 Fillet Welds
Fillet welds covered by this Specification apply to the welding of joints in
any position, either
d Width
L
t
Figure E2.3A Arc Seam Welds Figure E2.3A Arc Seam Welds Figure E2.3A Arc Seam Welds Figure E2.3A Arc Seam Welds - -- - Sheet to Supporting Member in Flat Position Sheet to Supporting Member in Flat Position Sheet to Supporting Member in Flat Position Sheet to Supporting Member in Flat Position
e
min
e
min C
L
C
L
E
d
g
e
E
d
g
e
d

Figure E2.3B Edge Distances for Arc Seam Welds Figure E2.3B Edge Distances for Arc Seam Welds Figure E2.3B Edge Distances for Arc Seam Welds Figure E2.3B Edge Distances for Arc Seam Welds
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November 9, 2001 113
(a) Sheet to sheet, or
(b) Sheet to thicker steel member.
The nominal shear strength [resistance], P
n
, of a fillet weld shall be
determined as follows:
(a) For longitudinal loading:
For L/ t <25 :
P
n
=
u
tLF
t
L 01 . 0
1

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= 2.5 for structural members and 3.5 for connections for United States and Mexico
= 3.0 for structural members and 4.0 for connections for Canada
V
M
= Coefficient of variation of the material factor listed in Table F1 for
the type of component involved
V
F
= Coefficient of variation of the fabrication factor listed in Table F1
for the type of component involved
C
P
= Correction factor
= (1+1/ n)m/ (m-2) for n 4, and 5.7 for n =3 (Eq. F1.1-3)
V
P
= Coefficient of variation of the test results, but not less than 6.5%
m = Degrees of freedom
= n-1
n = Number of tests
V
Q
= Coefficient of variation of the load effect
= 0.21
e = Natural logarithmic base
= 2.718...
Note:

!
For beams having tension flange through-fastened to deck or sheathing and with
compression flange laterally unbraced, shall be determined with a coefficient, C

,
of 1.6 in lieu of 1.52 for the United States and Mexico,
o
=1.5, and V
Q
=0.43.

The listing in Table F1 does not exclude the use of other documented
statistical data if they are established from sufficient results on material
properties and fabrication.
For steels not listed in Section A2.1, the values of M
m
and V
M
shall be
determined by the statistical analysis for the materials used.
When distortions interfere with the proper functioning of the specimen in
actual use, the load effects based on the critical load combination at the
occurrence of the acceptable distortion shall also satisfy Eq. F1.1-1, except
that the resistance factor is taken as unity and that the load factor for dead
load is taken as 1.0.
(c) If the yield point of the steel from which the tested sections are formed is
larger than the specified value, the test results shall be adjusted down to the
specified minimum yield point of the steel which the manufacturer intends to
use. The test results shall not be adjusted upward if the yield point of the test
specimen is less than the minimum specified yield point. Similar
adjustments shall be made on the basis of tensile strength instead of yield
point where tensile strength is the critical factor.
Consideration must also be given to any variation or differences which may
exist between the design thickness and the thickness of the specimens used in the
tests.

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Chapter F, Tests for Special Cases

126 November 9, 2001

TABLE F1
Statistical Data for the Determination of Resistance Factor

Type of Component

M
m

V
M

F
m

V
F

Transverse Stiffeners
Shear Stiffeners
Tension Members
Flexural Members
Bending Strength
Lateral-Torsional Buckling Strength
One Flange Through-Fastened to Deck or Sheathing
Shear Strength
Combined Bending and Shear
Web Crippling Strength
Combined Bending and Web Crippling
Concentrically Loaded Compression Members
Combined Axial Load and Bending
Cylindrical Tubular Members
Bending Strength
Axial Compression
Wall Studs and Wall Stud Assemblies
Wall Studs in Compression
Wall Studs in Bending
Wall Studs with Combined Axial load and Bending
Structural Members Not Listed Above
1.10
1.00
1.10

1.10
1.00
1.10
1.10
1.10
1.10
1.10
1.10
1.05

1.10
1.10

1.10
1.10
1.05
1.00
0.10
0.06
0.10

0.10
0.06
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10

0.10
0.10

0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
1.00
1.00
1.00

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

1.00
1.00

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.05
0.05
0.05

0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05

0.05
0.05

0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05

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November 9, 2001 127
TABLE F1 (Continued)
Statistical Data for the Determination of Resistance Factor
Type of Component M
m
V
M
F
m
V
F

Welded Connections
Arc Spot Welds
Shear Strength of Welds
Plate Failure
Arc Seam Welds
Shear Strength of Welds
Plate Tearing
Fillet Welds
Shear Strength of Welds
Plate Failure
Flare Groove Welds
Shear Strength of Welds
Plate Failure
Resistance Welds
Bolted Connections
Minimum Spacing and Edge Distance
Tension Strength on Net Section
Bearing Strength
Screw Connections
Minimum Spacing and Edge Distance
Tension Strength on Net Section
Bearing Strength
Connections Not Listed Above

1.10
1.10

1.10
1.10

1.10
1.10

1.10
1.10
1.10

1.10
1.10
1.10

1.10
1.10
1.10
1.10

0.10
0.08

0.10
0.10

0.10
0.08

0.10
0.10
0.10

0.08
0.08
0.08

0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10

1.00
1.00

1.00
1.00

1.00
1.00

1.00
1.00
1.00

1.00
1.00
1.00

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

0.10
0.15

0.10
0.10

0.10
0.15

0.10
0.10
0.10

0.05
0.05
0.05

0.10
0.10
0.10
0.15
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November 9, 2001 A1
PREFACE TO APPENDIX A
Appendix A provides specification provisions that are only applicable to the
United States. Included are items of a broad nature such as provisions for the
design method to be used, ASD or LRFD, and provisions to use ASCE 7 for loads
and load combinations where there is not an applicable building code. Reference
documents that are not used by all three countries are listed here as well.

Also included in Appendix A are technical items where full agreement
between the three countries was not reached. Such items included certain
provisions pertaining to the design of
beams (C and Z sections) for standing seam roofs,
welded connections,
bolted connections, and
tension members.
Efforts will be made to minimize these differences in future editions of the
Specification.
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Appendix A, Provisions Applicable to the United States

A2 November 2, 2001
APPENDIX A: PROVISIONS APPLICABLE TO THE UNITED STATES
This Appendix provides design provisions or supplements to Chapters A
through F that are only applicable to the United States. A section number ending
with a letter indicates that the provisions herein supplement the corresponding
section in Chapters A through F of the Specification. A section number not ending
with a letter indicates that the section gives the entire design provision.

A1.1a Scope and Limits of Applicability
Designs shall be made according to the provisions for Load and
Resistance Factor Design, or to the provisions for Allowable Stress Design.
Where allowed, both methods are equally acceptable although they may or
may not produce identical designs. However, the two methods shall not be
mixed in designing the various cold-formed steel components of a structure.

A3 Loads
A3.1 Nominal Loads
The nominal loads shall be as stipulated by the applicable building code
under which the structure is designed or as dictated by the conditions
involved. In the absence of a building code, the nominal loads shall be those
stipulated in the American Society of Civil Engineers Standard, Minimum
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7.

A4.1.2 Load Combinations for ASD
The structure and its components shall be designed so that
allowable design strengths equal or exceed the effects of the nominal loads
and load combinations as stipulated by the applicable building code under
which the structure is designed or, in the absence of an applicable building
code, as stipulated in the American Society of Civil Engineers Standard,
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7.
The combined effects of two or more loads, excluding dead load,
shall be permitted to be multiplied by 0.75. The combined load used in
design shall not be less than the sum of the effects of dead load and any
single load that produces the largest effect. The above 0.75 load reduction
shall not be used where similar load reductions are permitted by the
applicable building code or ASCE 7.
Exception: When evaluating diaphragms using the provisions of
Section D5, no decrease in forces is permitted for load combinations
including wind or earthquake loads.

A5.1.2 Load Factors and Load Combinations for LRFD
The structure and its components shall be designed so that design
strengths equal or exceed the effects of the factored nominal loads and load
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Draft North American Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members

November 9, 2001 A3
combinations stipulated by the applicable building code under which the
structure is designed or, in the absence of an applicable building code, as
stipulated in the American Society of Civil Engineers Standard, Minimum
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7.

A9a Referenced Documents
The following documents are referenced in Appendix A:
1. American Society of Civil Engineers, ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design
Loads in Buildings and Other Structures, American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE), 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston VA, 20191
2. American Institute of Steel Construction, Specification for Structural
Steel Buildings, Allowable Stress Design and Plastic Design, American
Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), One East Wacker Drive, Suite 3100,
Chicago, Illinois 60601-2001, June 1, 1989
3. American Institute of Steel Construction, Load and Resistance Factor
Design Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, American Institute of
Steel Construction (AISC), One East Wacker Drive, Suite 3100, Chicago,
Illinois 60601-2001, December 27, 1999
4. American Welding Society, AWS D1.3-98, Structural Welding Code -
Sheet Steel, American Welding Society (AWS), 550 N.W. LeJeune Road,
Miami, Florida 33135
5. American Welding Society, AWS C1.1-66, Recommended Practices for
Resistance Welding, American Welding Society (AWS), 550 N.W.
LeJeune Road, Miami, Florida 33135
6. American Welding Society, AWS C1.3-70 (Reaffirmed 1987),
Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding Coated Low Carbon
Steels, American Welding Society (AWS), 550 N.W. LeJeune Road,
Miami, Florida 33135

C2 Tension Members
For axially loaded tension members, the nominal tensile strength
[resistance], T
n
, shall be the smallest value obtained according to the limit states
of (a) yielding in the gross section, (b) fracture in the net section away from
connections, and (c) fracture in the effective net section at the connection:
(a) For yielding:

T
n
=A
g
F
y
(Eq. C2-1)

t =1.67 (ASD)

t
=0.90 (LRFD)
(b) For fracture away from the connection:
T
n
=A
n
F
u
(Eq. C2-2)

t =2.00 (ASD)

t
=0.75 (LRFD)
)
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Appendix A, Provisions Applicable to the United States

A4 November 2, 2001
where
T
n
=Nominal strength [resistance] of member when loaded in tension
A
g
=Gross area of cross section
A
n
=Net area of the cross section
F
y
=Design yield stress as determined in Section A7.1
F
u
=Tensile strength as specified in Section A2.1 or A2.3.2
(c) For fracture at the connection:
The nominal tensile strength [resistance] shall also be limited by Sections
E2.7, E3, and E5 for tension members using welded connections, bolted
connections, and screw connections.

C3.1.4 Beams Having One Flange Fastened to a Standing Seam Roof System
The nominal flexural strength, M
n
, of a C- or Z-section, loaded in a
plane parallel to the web with the top flange supporting a standing seam
roof system shall be determined using discrete point bracing and the
provisions of Section C3.1.2.1 or shall be calculated as follows:
M
n
= RS
e
F
y
(Eq. C3.1.4-1)

A14 November 2, 2001
E4.3.2 Connection Shear as Limited by End Distance
The nominal shear strength [resistance] per screw, P
ns
shall not
exceed that calculated as follows when the distance to an end of the
connected part is parallel to the line of the applied force.
P
ns
=teF
u
(Eq. E4.3.2-1)
=3.00 (ASD)
=0.50 (LRFD)
where
t =Thickness of the part in which the end distance is measured
e =The distance measured in the line of force from the center of a
standard hole to the nearest end of the connected part.
F
u
=Tensile strength of the part in which the end distance is measured.

E5 Rupture
E5.1 Shear Rupture
At beam-end connections, where one or more flanges are coped and
failure might occur along a plane through the fasteners, the nominal shear
strength [resistance], V
n
, shall be calculated as follows:
V
n
=0.6 F
u
A
wn
(Eq. E5.1-1)
=2.00 (ASD)
=0.75 (LRFD)
where
A
wn
= (h
wc
- nd
h
)t (Eq. E5.1-2)
h
wc
= Coped flat web depth
n = Number of holes in the critical plane
d
h
= Hole diameter
F
u
= Tensile strength of the connected part as specified in Section A2.1 or A2.2
t = Thickness of coped web

E5.2 Tension Rupture
The nominal tensile rupture strength [resistance] along a path in the
affected elements of connected members shall be determined by Section E2.7
or E3.2 for welded or bolted connections, respectively.

E5.3 Block Shear Rupture
The nominal block shear rupture strength [resistance], R
n
, shall be
determined as follows:
(a) When F
u
A
nt
0.6F
u
A
nv

R
n
=0.6F
y
A
gv
+F
u
A
nt
(Eq. E5.3-1)
(b) When F
u
A
nt
<0.6F
u
A
nv

R
n
=0.6F
u
A
nv
+F
y
A
gt
(Eq. E5.3-2)
)
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Draft North American Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members

November 9, 2001 A15
For bolted connections:
=2.22 (ASD)
=0.65 (LRFD)
For welded connections:
=2.50 (ASD)
=0.60 (LRFD)
where
A
gv
= Gross area subject to shear
A
gt
= Gross area subject to tension
A
nv
= Net area subject to shear
A
nt
= Net area subject to tension

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