PH 103, Fall 2008

Sixth and 7
th
Weeks (13-29 October 2008)
Figures in these notes have been scanned from Fundamental of Physics, 8
th

Extended Edition by J. Walker
Work and Energy
Work is normally associated with the act of displacing an object against external
force acting on it, such as displacing a box on a rough floor or lifting it against the
force of gravity. Holding a heavy object stationary in air is not work under this
definition although doing so may be very tiring. In this case the object doesnt
undergo any displacement. To displace an object against external force acting on
it we need to apply another force that opposes it and is at least equal to it. Such
a force could be provided through some kind of a push or a pull, gravity or
banging moving objects against it. As we shall see all these situations involve
transfer of energy. Thus work and energy are closely related to each other.
If a force
F
gives a small displacement
dr
to an object of mass
m
, then the
work done dW is given by the dot product of
F
and
dr
:
dz F dy F dx F dW
z y x dr F
+ +
(6.1)
Thus work done is zero if
F
=0,
dr
=0 or if
F
is perpendicular to
dr
.
The work done is positive if
F
and
dr
point in the same direction and it is
negative if they point in the opposite direction.
If the applied force
F
acts only along x-axis then the displacement dx is also
along x-axis and the above equation gives,
Fdx dW
But from our earlier discussions we know that;
dt
dv
m ma F
, and vdt dx , so that,
mvdv vdt
dt
dv
m Fdx dW
(6.2)
If
B
A
W is the total work done to displace the object from point A, where its velocity
is
A
v , to point B, where its velocity is
B
v , then,
( )
A B A B
v
v
v
v
B
A
B
A
K K v v m mv vdv m dW W
B
A
B
A


2 2 2
2
1
2
1
(6.3)
A B
Here
A
K is the kinetic energy, or energy associated with the motion, of the
object at A and
B
K
is its kinetic energy at B. Therefore, work is energy transferred
to an, or from an object by means of a force acting on the object. Energy transferred to
the object is positive work and energy transferred from the object is negative work.
Equation (6.3) is the one dimensional version of the Work Energy Theorem. It
states that the total work done in displacing an object from point A to point B
equals the change in its kinetic energy. If the applied force
F
equals the
external force acting on the body then the net force acting on it is zero. The total
work done is used to overcome that force and there is no change in its kinetic
energy. If
F
is greater than the external force then in addition to overcoming
the external force it will also change its kinetic energy. If there is no external force
acting on the body then the entire work done is used to change the kinetic energy
of the body. The following examples should clarify these points. Lets start with
the last point.
In general the other components of the force and those of the infinitesimal
displacement may not be zero. Following line of argument similar to that leading
to Eq (6.3) we may write,
( ) ( )
A B A B
v
v
z y x
v
v
v
v
v
v
z z y y x x
B
A
B
A
K K v v m v v v m dv v dv v dv v m dW W
B
A
xB
xA
yB
yA
zB
zA
+ +
1
1
]
1

+ +

2 2 2 2 2
2
1
2
1
This gives a more general version of the Work-Energy Theorem.
a) Consider a 20 kg crate initially at rest on a frictionless horizontal surface.
Consider displacing it by 2 m with a horizontal force of 10 Newton. Its
acceleration
a
is,
2
/
2
1
20
10
s m
m
F
a
Using,
2 2
2
i f
v v as
, with
2
/
2
1
s m a
, m s 2 and
0
i
v
, we get
2 2 2
/ 2 2
2
1
2 s m v
f

Therefore its final kinetic energy f
K
will be,
J mv K
f f
20 2 20
2
1
2
1
2

This is consistent with Eq (6.3), since,
J Fs W 20 20 10
b) Work done by gravitational field. Now we consider moving a block of mass
m
, initially at rest at the bottom of a frictionless inclined plane, up a distance
s
.
Let be the inclination of the plane. The force acting on the plane is
mg
acting
vertically downward. Its component
( ) cos mg
acting normal to the plane is
cancelled by the normal reaction R of the plane on the block. It component
( ) sin mg
acting downwards along the plane has to be cancelled by an external
constant force F pulling, or pushing, the block up the plane. The block can be
moved up the plane by very slightly increasing the force F . Since F is acting
up the plane and the block is also displaced up the plane, work done by it is
given by,
Fs W
s F
F

And the work done by gravity is equal and opposite of that done by F :
( ) sin mgs Fs W W
F G

Since,
( ) sin mg F
. Therefore,
( ) mgh mgs W
G
sin
(6.4)
Here
( ) sin s h
is the height of the final location of the block above its initial
location. Thus work done by gravity is the same whether the block is pulled up
along the frictionless plane, or pulled straight vertically up to its final location.
This example show that in the absence of friction or other energy dissipative
force the work done by gravity is independent of the path through the block is
displaced. It depends on its initial and final locations. Pushing or pulling it up an
inclined plane is simply a matter of convenience. Gravity is an example of
conservative force, or a mechanical energy conserving force, which is the sum
of potential and kinetic energies. Elastic or spring force, as we shall illustrate
later, is another example of conservative force. So is the electromagnetic force,
which shall be discussed in the next part of this course.
Friction and drag forces are examples of non-conservative or energy dissipative
forces. In this case the work done in displacing an object on a rough horizontal
surface is used to overcome the force of friction. This work depends on the
length of the path along which the object is moved and all of it is dissipated as
heat.
c) We now consider pulling an object of
m
up a frictionless inclined plane by a
light string, which is passing over a frictionless pulley and tied to another object
of mass
m
that is hanging vertically down as shown in Fig (6.1).
Figure (6.1)
( ) sin mg
N

mg
mg
T
T
( ) cos mg
For 2 / the yellow object accelerates downward and the brown object
accelerates upward with an acceleration
a
. We may write,
ma T mg
(6.5)
( ) ma mg T sin .
(6.6)
Adding the above two equations we get,
( ) ( )mg a sin 1 2 , or
( ) { }
g a
2
sin 1
(6.7)
For 0 ,
2 / g a
and for 2 / , 0 a as expected.
Substitution this value of
a
in Eq (6.5) gives,
( )
( ) { }
mg a g m T
2
sin 1 +
(6.8)
Work done by gravity when yellow object falls through height h is
mgh W
G

(6.9)
Work done by the tension in the string in this process
( ) [ ]
2
sin 1 +
mgh Th W
T
(6.10)
Net work done when the yellow mass falls through height h ,
( ) { } ( ) { }
2
sin 1
2
sin 1
1

1
]
1

+
+ mgh mgh W W W
T G N
(6.11)
The final velocity of the yellow object, assuming that it stared from rest,
( ) { }gh ah v
y
sin 1 2
2

(6.12)
And its corresponding kinetic energy
( ) { }
2
sin 1
2
1
2

mgh mv K
y y
(6.13)
Thus from Eqs (6.11) and (6.13) it is clear that the net work done on the yellow
object is all converted into its kinetic energy.
When the yellow object falls down through height h , the brown object moves up
the plane through the same distance, therefore work done by the tension on the
brown object is given by
( )
2
sin 1
'
+
mgh W W
T T
(6.14)
Since the displacement is in the same direction as the tension.
Work done by gravity on the brown object,
( ) sin
'
mgh W
G

(6.15)
Net work done on the brown object,
( )
N G T N
W mgh W W W

+
2
sin 1
' ' '

(6.16)
Also since the brown object has acceleration
a
and move through a distance h ,
it final velocity and its kinetic energy are the same as the yellow object and these
are respectively given by equation (6.12) and (6.13). By moving up the plane
through a distance h it also gains a height
( ) sin h
and potential energy
( ) sin mgh
. Therefore, the work done by gravity when the yellow object falls
through a height h, G
W
, must equal to the sum of the kinetic energies gained by
the two objects and the gravitational potential energy gained by the brown object:
( ) ( ) ( ) { } ( ) mgh mgh mgh mgh K mgh K K W
y B y G
+ + + + sin sin 1 sin 2 sin

(6.17)
The work done by the tension in the string, being positive in one case and
negative in the other case, cancels out. This is an example of the Work- Energy
Theorem. Here one part of the work done by gravity is transferred to the kinetic
energies of the two objects and another part into the gravitational potential
energy of the brown object.
Work Done by Spring Force: In this case the force is proportional and in a
direction opposite to the extension
x
of the spring. If K is the spring constant,
then,
i F
Kx

And
kxdx Fdx dW
Integrating the above equation we get,
( )
2 2 2
2
1
2
1
A B
x
x
x
x
x x K x K xdx K W
B
A
B
A

(6.17)
An applied force stretching the spring from
A
x
to
B
x
will be equal and opposite
to the above mentioned spring force, therefore the work done by it will be minus
W given by Eq (6.17). Thus the work done on the spring is positive and that
done by the spring is negative if the spring is stretched or compresses, A B
x x
.
As mentioned earlier, spring force is another example of conservative force.
The work done by or on it only depends on the initial and final extensions of the
spring and NOT on the path taken from one to the other position of its extension.
Part or all of the work done is stored in the potential energy of the spring.
Potential Energy is the energy associated with the location of an object. It is
denoted byU .
Mechanical Energy and Its Conservation: Mechanical energy is he sum of
kinetic and potential energies; ME K U + . The Law of conservation of energy is
one of the most basic principles of physics. Here we discuss only the
conservation of mechanical energy, which hold only when non-conservative or
energy dissipating forces are absent. When we learn about other forms of
energy, including heat energy and the equivalence of mass and energy, we will
see that energy is always conserved when we take into account all forms of
energy. This means that energy can only be converted from one form into
another. It can not be created or destroyed.
Let us now consider the law of conservation of energy in its restricted form, the
conservation of mechanical energy. As we discussed earlier gravitational and
elastic forces are examples of conservative forces. Work is done is putting
together the set-up shown in Fig (6.1) of example (c). Leaving this set-up to itself
the yellow object accelerates down pulling the brown object up along the inclined
plane. Initially both these objects are at rest and their kinetic energy is zero. If we
let the yellow object fall through a height h then we can take its initial potential
energy to be
mgh
and that of the brown object to be zero. Thus the total initial
mechanical energy of the system of the two object s in earths gravitational field
is,
0 K U mgh mgh + +
This, as is clear from Eq (6.17) and the discussion preceding it, is equal to the
sum of the kinetic energies of these two objects,
'
K
and the potential energy
gained by the brown object in moving through a distance h up along the plane
against the force of gravity,
'
U . Thus we get from Eq (6.17)
' '
K U K U + + (6.18)
The principle of conservation of mechanical energy in he absences of non
conservative forces as stated in Eq (6.18) provides a more direct method in
answering some of the questions we explored in earlier lectures, such as:
Velocity of an object of mass
m
falling from rest through a height h : In this case
0 K ,
U mgh
( )
2
' '
1
2
K m v ,
'
0 U
Therefore from Eq (6.18)
( )
2
'
1
0
2
mgh m v + , giving
( )
2
'
2 v gh ,
'
2 v gh
Maximum velocity
0
v
of the mass of the pendulum as it passes through its
mean position: Work is done on the pendulum by displacing it through a
maximum angle
0

from its equilibrium position. This work is stored in the form of

gravitational potential energy of its mass. When the pendulum is allowed to
oscillate to and fro in the earths gravitational field part of this energy is converted
into the kinetic energy of the mass. As it passes through its mean position all of
this stored energy is in the form of kinetic energy. Let be its angular
displacement and
v
at any time
t
during its vibrations. Let l be the length and
m

the mass of the pendulum. The height of the pendulum above its mean position
is given by
( ) { }
1 cos h l
(6.19)
Its potential and kinetic and potential energies at any time
t
are given by
2
1
2
K mv , ( ) { }
1 cos U mgh mgl
and its mechanical energy at that time is
( ) { }
2
1
1 cos
2
K U mv mgl + + (6.20)
Now for,
0

, 0 K , and ( ) { }
0
1 cos U mgl
And for, 0 ,
' 2
0
1
2
K mv , and
'
0 U
Therefore from Eq (6.18) we get
( ) { }
2
0 0
1
1 cos
2
U mgl mv , or Using the trigonometric identity,
( )
2
1
cos cos 2 1 2sin
2 2

_ _


, ,
, we get,
( ) { }
0
0
2 1 cos sin
2
o
v gl gl

_


,
(6.21)
Maximum velocity
0
v
of mass
m
attached to a spring of spring constant K as it passes
through its mean position: As in the case of the pendulum, work is done to displace the
mass by stretching or compressing the spring by
0
x
. This work is stored in the form of the
potential energy of the spring.. As the spring is allowed to oscillate part of this energy is
converted into the kinetic energy of the mass. All of this stored energy is converted into
the kinetic energy as the mass passes through it mean position. Therefore,
2
0
1
0,
2
K U Kx , and
' 2 '
0
1
, 0
2
K mv U
From Eq (6.18) we get,
2 2
0 0
1 1
0
2 2
Kx mv + , giving,
0 0
K
v x
m
(6.22)
Center of Gravity and Center of Mass: The center of gravity (CG) is the point of an
object or system of particles through which the force of gravity on it seems to act. The
center of gravity of a cylindrical rod is at the mid point of its axis, point on its axis just
above the point where it can be balanced on the finger. The moments of gravitational
force acting on different parts of the rod about this point balance each other. If
m
is the
mass of the rod and l is its length then its center then its center of gravity is located at a
distance of / 2 l from one of its ends. The CG of each half of the rod will again be located
at the mid points of their axis, each a distance of / 4 l from the CG of the rod. Thus the
moment of each half of the rod about its CG is
/ 4
2
mg
l , acting in the clockwise direction for the right half and counter-clockwise
direction for the left half of the rod., canceling each other.
In general lets consider an extended object or a system of particles of arbitrary shape,
which is made up of N mass points. Let the mass of the
th
i point be
i
m
and let its
position vector be
i r
with respect to some origin. If
cg R
is the position vector of its CG
with respect to the same origin then the algebraic sum of the moments of gravitational
forces on all mass points about CG must add up to zero:
( )
1

0
N
i
i
i
m gj
cg
r
R

,
Acceleration due to gravity, being constant can be taken out of the summation sign and
cancelled. Taking terms containing
i r
to the left side of the equal sign, we get
1 1

N N
i i
i
cg cg
i i
m M j m
j R j R r



(6.23)
Here
1
N
i
i
M m

is the total mass of the object. Equation (6.23) defines the location of
CG of a body consisting discrete parts. For continuous mass distribution the summation
in the above equation is replaced by integration.
Center of Mass (CM) is defined as point of an extended object or a system of particles
where its total mass seems to be concentrated. If the line of action of force acting on the
body passes through its CM the object act as if it was a point mass. In other situations, in
addition to linear motion, the forces also imparts it rotational motion. This can be
demonstrated by imputing an impulse, or force acing for very short duration, through its
CM. In this case the object with begin to move in a straight line without rotation. An
impulse applied off CM will impart the object more complicated motion.
For relatively small object nears the Earth CG coincides with the CM. In general these
two points are not the same. The location of CM of two point masses
1
m
and
2
m
from
mass
1
m
separated by distance d is given by
2 2
1 2
cm
m m
x d d
m m M

+
, M being the mass
of the two particle system. For
1 2
m m
,
2
cm
d
x and for
1
0, m

cm
x d
, as expected.
In general, and following the notation of the previous section, the position vector of the
CM
cm R
of an object of arbitrary shape or a system of particles is given by,

( )
1
0
N
i
i
i
m
cm
r
R

, or with the total mass of the object or system of particles,
1
N
i
i
M m

, we get
1
N
i
cm i
i
M m
R r

, or
1
N
i
i
i
cm
m
M
r
R

(6.24)
Q6.1: Calculate the location of the center of mass of three particle system of masses
, m m
and 2m that are located at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side 1m. Take the
location of one of the smaller masses as the origin.
As in the case of CG integration is used instead of the above summation for calculating
the location of CM of objects with continuous mass distribution. For example, in order to
calculate the center of mass of the cylindrical rod mentioned above we take x-axis along
the rod and the origin at its left end. The linear mass density of the rod

is given by,
m
l

The mass of an element of the rod of thickness dx at a distance
x
from the origin is
dm dx
Therefore the distance
cm
x
of its CM from the origin is given by,
2
0
0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2
l l l
l
cm
m l
x xdm x dx xdx x
m m l l l


(6.25)
This is result that was mentioned earlier.
Linear Momentum of Center of Mass and Conservation of Momentum:
Differentiating both sides of Eq (6.24) with respect to time and multiplying the result
with M gives,
1
N
cm i
i
i
d d
M m
dt dt
R r

, or, in terms of the velocity

cm v
of the center of mass and the
velocities
i v
of the individual particle comprising the system,
1
N
i
cm i
i
M m
v v

, giving,
1
N
cm i
i
p p

(6.26)
Here
cm
p is the linear momentum of CM and
i
p are the linear moments of the particles
that comprise the system. Eq (6.1) give the linear momentum of CM in terms of the
algebraic sum of the moment of the particles that comprise the system. Differentiating Eq
(6.26), and equating the time rate of momentum with force gives,
1
N
cm i
i
dt dt
dp dp

, or
1
N
cm i
i
F F

(6.27)
This gives the force acting on the body in terms of the sum of the forces acting on
individual particles. These forces include both internal and external forces. Detailed
analysis shows that all the internal forces cancel out leaving only the sum external forces
that act on the particles comprising the body, hence
cm F
is the net external force acting
on the body. In the absence of any external force the momentum of Cm and, therefore,
the sum of the moments of the individual particle of the object remains constant. This is
the Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum.
Two particles in-elastic Collision: Consider a system comprising of only two particles
of masses
1
m
and
2
m
. Here 2 N . Eq (6.26) gives,
1 2 cm
p p p
+
(6.28)
Now let us consider these two particles collide and get stuck together after their collision.
Usually the collision time is so brief that the effect of any external force such as friction
or air drag can be neglected. In this the momentum of CM is conserved. This means that
cm
p , and therefore
1 2
p p
+
, doesnt change during the collision. If particle 1 is
initially moving with speed v and particle 2 is at rest then before the collision,
1
1 2 cm
m
p p p
v
+
Since
cm
p doesnt change during the collision, and if
'
v is the velocity of the two masses
stuck together after the collision, the
( )
'
1 1 2
cm
mv m m v
p
+
Giving,
' 1
1 2
m
v v
m m

+
(6.29)
Also total the kinetic energy before and after the collision are,
( )
1
2 2
2
' 2 1 2
1
1 2 1 2
1 1
2 2 2
m v
m m v
K K mv
m m m m

+ +
,
( ) ( ) ( )
1
2
2 2
2
' ' 1
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
m v
m
K m m v m m v
m m m m
_
+ +

+ +
,
So that the loss of kinetic energy during the collision is,
( )
1
2 2
2
' 2 1 2
1
1 2 1 2
1 1
2 2 2
m v
m m v
K K K mv
m m m m

+ +
(6.30)
For
2 2
m m m
, half of the total initial kinetic energy is lost during the collision:
2
1
4
K mv
Q 6.2: Consider an inelastic head-on collision between two particles of the same mass
that are moving in the opposite direction with same speed. Show hat the entire initial
kinetic energy is lost during such a collision.
Home Work: Check points and sample problems of chapters 7 & 8 and check points 1, 2,
5, 6, 7 and sample problems 9.1-9.7 of Chapter 9.
Chapter 7: Q 7, P 3,5,10,13,19,27,31,35,4145,49,55,70,73
Chapter 8: P 5,15,20,23,26,31,36,45,49,52,56,61,75,89,99,124,127
Chapter 9: Q 1, P 1, 3,11,15.19,39,49,54,59