Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design

O. PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN

O.1. PIPE AND TUBE SIZING
The choice of pipe diameter can significantly affect the operating cost and capital investment
requirement in the operation of an industrial plant. Piping including installation could go up
to 17% of the Fixed Capital Investment of a chemical processing plant (Peters et al, 2004).
The choice of tube diameter would dictate the tube fluid velocity of cooling water in heat
exchangers. At high cooling water velocity, convective heat transfer coefficient increases
which would eventually result to smaller heat transfer area requirement hence lower
equipment cost. However, at high fluid velocity, pumping cost would also be higher, hence
higher operating cost. Therefore a good compromise has to be arrived in the selection of an
appropriate pipe and tube diameters.
Kent (1980) derived typical pipe diameter based on typical fluid velocity. Minimum pipe
diameter was also derived based on maximum velocity. In this scheme, fluids (liquids and
gases) are classified into clean and erosive/corrosive fluids.
O.1.1. Typical Pipe Diameter
Typical diameter based on typical fluid velocity
for liquids
0.434
2.607
W
D

,
(O 1)
for gases
0.408
0.343
1.065
W
D

(O 2)
Minimum diameter based on maximum fluid velocity
Clean Fluids
for liquids
3
1
2
1
03 . 1

W
D (O 3)
O - 1
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
O - 2
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
for gases
1
1
2
4
0.585
W m
D
KZT
_
_

,
,
(O 4)
Erosive or Corrosive Fluids
For liquids
1
2
1
3
1.457
W
D

(O 5)
for gases
1
1
2
4
0.827
W m
D
KZT
_
_

,
,
(O 6)
where: D = Pipe inside diameter, inch
W = Flow rate in 1000
hr
lb
= Density, 3
ft
lb
m = Molecular weight
K = Piping Cost,
ft
in
S
Z = Compressibility factor
T = Rankine temperature
O.1.2. Economic Pipe Diameter
Peters et al (2004), presented an estimation of economic pipe diameter considering pipe,
installation, fittings and maintenance costs. The applicable estimations have been categorized
according to the type of flow regime. Under each flow regime, a subcategory has been
established according to the size range of the pipe diameters.
Turbulent Flow in Steel Pipes
for D
i
` opt
1 inch
( )
( )
0.158
0.448 0.025 0.132
1
0.88 1
1
y
f c opt
F
K J H
D q
F XEK

1 +

1
+
]
(O 7)
O - 3
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
for D
i
` opt
< 1 inch
( )
( )
0.171
0.487 0.027 0.144
1.32 1
1
y
i f c opt
F
K J H
D q
F XEK

1 +

1
+
]
(O 8)
For viscosity range of 0.02 to 20 centipoises,
027 . 0
c
and
0.025
maybe taken as unity.
Viscous Flow in Steel Pipes
D
i
` opt
1 inch
( )
( )
0.182
0.364 0.182
0.064 1
1
y
i f c opt
F
K J H
D q
F XEK

1 +

1
+
]
(O 9)
D
i
` opt

< 1 inch
( )
( )
0.20
0.40 0.20
0.096 1
1
y
i f c opt
F
K J H
D q
F XEK

1 +

1
+
]
(O 10)
Note: Diopt is in meter if constants inside the bracket of Equations O 7 to O 10 are replace with 1.63 x 10
-6
,
1.53 x 10
-5
, 4.39 x 10
-4
, and 4.14 x 10
-3
respectively and units inside the parenthesis are used.
where D
i
` opt

= optimum pipe diameter, in. (m)
q
f
= Volumetric flowrate,
sec
3
ft
(m
3
/s)
c

= Fluid viscosity, centipoises

K = Cost of electrical energy,
kwh
$
J = Frictional loss due to fittings and bends, expressed as equivalent
frictional loss in a straight pipe
H
y
= Hours of operation per year
F = Ratio of Total Cost for fittings and installation to purchase cost for new
Pipe
E = Efficiency of motor and pump expressed as a fraction
K
F
= Annual fixed charges including maintenance, expressed as a fraction of
initial cost for completely installed pipe
X = Purchase cost of new pipe per foot of pipe length if pipe diameter is
one inch (0.0254 m),
ft
$
Other alternative equation in determining optimum economic pipe diameter has been
presented as:
O - 4
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Incorporating pump power Kent (1980), recommends the equation below:
0.171
0.486
0.0274
0.342
0.627
i opt
W C
D
K

,
(O 11)
where C = Pump Cost per Actual horsepower,
hp
$
For D
i
` opt
, incorporating cost of Capital or Return on Investment, cost of pump, taxes and
time value of money, use eqn. 49 (page 366) or 9-80 (405) of Peters and Timmerhaus (1991)
or (2004) as the case maybe.
O.1.3. Pipe and Tube Diameters Based on Velocity
Pipe and Tube diameters may be also computed using acceptable velocity at a known
volumetric flow rate. With this approach, the continuity equation provides for the
computation of pipe or tube diameters. Typical fluid velocity resulting from the design and
operational specifications will give a typical pipe diameter. While economic velocities
resulting from the consideration of design and operational economics may be also used to
estimate optimum economic pipe diameter.
Backhurst and Harker (1973) presented reasonable liquid and gas velocities through the tubes
to be 3 5 ft/s and 50 100 ft/s respectively. Another estimation (Perry and Green, 1997) of
typical economic optimum velocities for low viscosity liquids in schedule 40 steel pipe have
been provided to be 5.9 7.9 ft/s and 30 to 131 ft/s for gases with density ranging 0.013 to
1.25 lb/ft
3
.
In general, an optimum liquid velocity ranges from 5 10 ft/sec (Baasel, 1974).
Thermodynamic considerations favor small tube diameters for a compact heat exchanger.
However, tube cleaning practices limit the tube diameter to a minimum of approximately 20
mm outer diameter (Hewitt, et. al., 1994) and 1 OD are the most common sizes while 5/8
to 1 inch are also found in industrial applications (Peters and Timmerhaus, 1991).

On the other hand, allowable maximum fluid velocity may be varied depending on the tube
material resistance to corrosion or vibration damage. A power plant condenser with sea water
flowing is limited to 2 m/s with Cu-Ni tubes, but could operate at up to 4 m/s with titanium
tubes. Higher cost of tubing (titanium) is hereby offset by high overall heat transfer
coefficient value (resulting to a smaller unit), and virtual absence to corrosion and hence no
need for retubing (Hewitt et. al, 1994).
O - 5
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
More detailed typical velocities have been provided in Tables O 1 to O 3 to estimate
economic pipe diameter (Kent, 1974). While similar detailed economic velocities have been
provided in Table O 4 to estimate the same (Peters and Timmerhaus, 1991).
Table O-1. Typical Liquid Velocities in Steel Pipelines.
Nominal Pipe Sizes, In. 2 or less 3 to 10 10 to 20
Liquid and line Velocity, Ft/s Velocity, Ft/s Velocity, Ft/s
Water
Pump Suction 1 to 2 2 to 4 3 to 6
Pump discharge (long) 2 to 3 3 to 5 4 to 7
Discharge leads (short) 4 to 9 5 to 12 8 to 14
Boiler feed 4 to 9 5 to 12 8 to 14
Drains 3 to 4 3 to 5 ---
Sloped sewer --- 3 to 5 4 to 7
Hydrocarbon liquids
(Normal viscosities)
Pump suction 1.5 to 2.5 2 to 4 3 to 6
Discharge header (long) 2.5 to 3.5 3 to 5 4 to 7
Discharge leads (short) 4 to 9 5 to 12 8 to 15
Drains 3 to 4 3 to 5 ---
Viscous oils
Pump suction
Medium viscosity --- 1.5 to 3 2.5 to 5
Tar and fuel oils --- 0.4 to 0.75 0.5 to 1
Discharge (short) --- 3 to 5 4 to 6
Drains 1 1.5 to 3 ---
Adapted from Table 4 p 89. Process Piping Systems. (Deutsch 1980)
Table O 2. Typical Velocities in Gas and Vapor Lines.
Nominal Pipe
Size, In.
Saturated Steam or
Saturated Vapor
Superheated Steam,
Superheated Vapor or Gas
Low Pressure Medium Pressure High Pressure
Velocity, Ft/s Velocity, Ft/s Velocity, Ft/s
2 or less 45 to 100 40 to 80 30 to 60
3 to 4 50 to 110 45 to 90 35 to 70
6 60 to 120 50 to 120 45 to 90
8 to 10 65 to 125 80 to 160 65 to 125
12 to 14 70 to 130 100 to 190 80 to 145
16 to 18 75 to 135 110 to 210 90 to 160
20 80 to 140 120 to 220 100 to 170
Adapted from Table 3 p 89. Process Piping Systems. (Deutsch 1980)
Note: Within the above velocities and line-size ranges, (a) larges lines can have higher velocities than smaller ones, and (b) short lines, and
leads from headers, can have higher velocities than long lines and headers.
Table O 3. Typical Velocities in Equipment Lines.
Equipment Lines Velocity, Ft/s
Reboiler, downcomer (liquid) 3 to 7
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Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Reboiler, riser (liquid and vapor) 35 to 45
Overhead condenser 25 to 100
Adapted from Table 4 p 89. Process Piping Systems. (Deutsch 1980)
Table O 4. Rule-of-Thumb Economic Velocities for Sizing Steel Pipelines.
Turbulent flow
Type of Fluid Reasonable velocity, ft/s
Water or fluid similar to water 3-10
Low-pressure steam (25psig) 50-100
High-pressure steam (100psig and up) 100-200
Air at ordinary pressures (25-50 psig) 50-100
The preceding values apply for motor drives. Multiply indicated velocities by 0.6 to give reasonable velocities when steam turbine drives are
used.
Viscous Flow (liquids)
Nominal pipe
diameter, in.
Reasonable velocity, ft/s

c
= 50
c
= 100
c
= 1000
1 1.5-3.0 1.0-2.0 0.3-0.6
2 2.5-3.5 1.5-2.5 0.5-0.8
4 3.5-5.0 2.5-3.5 0.8-1.2
8 4.0-5.0 1.3-1.8
c = viscosity, centipoise
Adapted from Table 2, p 496. Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers 4
th
ed.
O.2. PIPE AND TUBE THICKNESS
In the following paragraphs are the classical presentations reproduced from Hesse and
Rushton (1975). In accordance with ASME Code, the maximum allowable internal working
pressure for Ferrous tubes and pipes is given by:
2.3
30
F
o
ts S
P
D

(O 12)
Rearranging, the above equation provides for the wall thickness as:
1
]
1

+
30 3 . 2
F o
S
P
S
D
t
(O 13)
where t = pipe thickness, inch
D = outside pipe diameter, inch
P =working pressure
S
F
= allowable tensile strength for Ferrous Material (Table O - 5)
O - 7
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
For Non-Ferrous tubes and pipes, the following equation is given:
2
NF
tS
P
D
(O 14)
S
NF
= allowable tensile strength for Non-Ferrous Material (Table O - 6)
The above equations are only applicable on the following conditions:
1. Outer diameters should be between 0.5 and 6 inches
2. Wall thickness should not be less than 0.049 inch
Furthermore, an additional wall thickness must be provided when corrosion or wear due to
cleaning is to be anticipated. Tubes that are threaded should provide for a wall allowance of
1
]
1

inch per threads of No.

8 . 0
. Also, if the tubes are rolled into headers, additional wall
allowance to compensate for the thickness reduction due to rolling should be incorporated.
Standard number of Thread per Linear Inch (Hesse & Rushton, 1945)
Nominal
Diameter
1/8 3/8 &
1, 1, 1,
2
2 - 10
No. of Threads
per Inch
27 18 18 14 11 8
For steam piping application, minimum thickness is given by
2
PD
t C
S
+ (O 15)
where corrosion allowance C could have any of the following values:
C = 0.05 for
8
3
inch and smaller threaded pipe and for plain end pipe or tubing 1
inch nominal size and smaller
C = 1
]
1

inch per threads of No.

8 . 0
for inch and larger threaded pipe
C = 0.065 for plain end pipe over 1 inch nominal size
The above equation for steam piping is applicable for steel or wrought iron pipe whose
nominal size is 4 inches or less. For nominal pipe diameter larger than 4 inches, the applicable
equation is:
O - 8
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
1
2
D S P
t C
S P
_

+


+
,
(O 16)
It should be noted that for steam pressures greater than 250 psi and for water pressure and
temperature greater than 100 psi and 200F, seamless pipe of quality equivalent to S-17 or S-
18 and of a weight equivalent to schedule 80 is the minimum requirement.
Working equations used for steam piping may be extended for oil piping use, provided the
allowable stress should be multiplied by 1.25, since all allowable stresses for petroleum
liquids and gases are based on apparent factor of safety of 4 (API-ASME), instead of 5 as
recommended in ASME-PB and ASME-UPV Codes.
O.2.1. Cast Iron Pipe
Cast iron pipes with flanged ends can be used for gas and oil service for underground
application where the metal temperature of the pipeline is less then 300F. Aboveground, it
may be used for pressures not greater than 150 psi, where metal temperatures do not exceed
300F. The working equations used for steam piping are also applicable for cast iron wall
thickness calculation. However, an allowance to internal pressure is added to incorporate
water hammering effect as follows:
Nominal Pipe Size Added Pressure (psi)
4 10 120
12 14 110
16 18 100
42 60 70
Also, the allowable stress (S) and allowance (C) may be taken as:
S = 4,000 psi for pipe cast vertically in dry sand mold
S = 6,000 psi for pipe cast centrifugally or horizontally
C = 0.18 for vertical or pit cast pipe
C = 0.14 for centrifugally cast pipe
O - 9
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Table O - 5. Allowable Stresses, psi, for Ferrous Materials for Pipes and Tubes.
(ASME-UPV Code)
Spec. ASTM
For Temperature not Exceeding Degrees F
No. Grade Spec. Weld 650 700 750 800 850 900 950
S-17 Steel
A83-38T Lap 7,300 7,000 6,650
S-17 Steel
A83-38T Seamless 9,400 9,000 8,150 7,150 5,850 4,400 2,600
S-17 Wrought Iron
A83 Lap 5,600 5,300 4,800
S-18 Steel
A53-36 Lap 7,300 7,000 6,650
S-18 Steel
A53-36 Butt 5,400 5,300 5,050
S-18 Steel
A53-36 Seamless 9,600 9,100 8,250 7,250 5,850 4,400 2,600
S-19 Wrought Iron
A72-39 Lap 5,600 5,300 4,800
S-19 Wrought Iron
A72-39 Butt 4,800 4,600 4,150
S-32 A, Silicon 0.10%
A178-37 Resistance 8,000 7,650 7,300 6,700 5,800 4,750 3,200
S-32 A
A178-37 Resistance 8,000 7,650 6,950 6,100 4,950 3,750 2,200
S-32 B
A178-37 Resistance 6,800 6,500 5,850
S-32 C, Silicon 0.10%
A178-37 Resistance 10,200 9,700 8,850 7,750 6,300 4,750 3,250
S-32 C
A178-37 Resistance 10,200 9,700 8,450 7,050 5,400 3,750 2,200
S-34 P3a
A158-38T Seamless 12,000 12,000 12,000 11,800 11,200 10,000 8,000
S-40 A
A192-38T Seamless 9,400 9,000 8,600 7,900 6,800 5,600 3,800
S-45 P1
A206-39T Seamless 11,000 11,000 11,000 10,700 10,500 10,000 8,000
S-49
A210-38T Seamless 12,000 11,400 10,400 9,100 7,400 5,600 3,800
S-48 T1
A209-38T Seamless 11,000 11,000 11,000 10,750 10,500 10,000 8,000
S-48 T1a
A209-38T Seamless 12,000 12,000 12,000 11,500 11,000 10,000 8,000
Table O - 6. Allowable Stresses, psi, for Non-Ferrous Materials for Pipes and Tubes.
(ASME UPV Code)
For Metal Temperature Not Exceeding Degrees F
Spec.
Subzero
Material
No.
to 150 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
S-24
Muntz metal
S-47
10,000 9,000 5,500 2,000 1,500
S-59
Red Brass, high brass
S-24
7,000 6,500 5,750 5,000 3,000 1,000 800
S-24
Admiralty
S-47
7,000 6,500 6,250 6,000 5,500 4,500
Naval brass
*
11,000 10,000 10,000 6,500 3,000
Steam bronze
S-41
7,000 7,000 6,500 6,000 5,500 5,000 4,000 3,000
Steam bronze
S-46
6,000 5,500 5,000 4,500 3,500
O - 10
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Monel metal
S-54
14,000 14,000 14,000 14,000 14,000 14,000 14,000 14,000 14,000
Cupro-nickel 70-30
S-47
11,000 11,000 11,000 11,000 11,000 11,000 10,000 10,000 9,000
Cupro-nickel 80-20
S-47
10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 9,000 9,000 8,000
S-20
S-22
Copper, annealed, all
S-23
6,000 5,000 4,750 4,500 4,000
types
S-47
S-66
Aluminum manganese
S-39
2,800 2,400 2,100 1,800 1,600
alloy, annealed
Aluminum manganese
alloy, quarter-hard or
S-39
3,500 3,000 2,700 2,400 2,200
as rolled
* U.S. Navy Dept. Spec. 46B-6-j
Maximum permissible temperature Monel metal and cupro-nickel 750F
O.2.2. For Other Pipe Materials of Construction
Working equations for pipe wall thickness for different materials may be derived from
different Philippine National Standard (PNS).
Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Pipe for Potable Water Supply (PNS 65,19)
min
min
2
t D
t S
P
m

(O 17)
High Density Polyethylene (PE) pipe for Potable Water Supply (PNS 55, 19)
2
1
S
SDR
P
(O 18)
where
o
D
SDR
t
(O 19)
O - 11
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
where
t
D
o
= standard thermoplastic pipe dimension ratio
Polybutylene (PB) pipes for Potable Water Supply (PNS 152, 22)
2
1
S
SDR
P
(O 20)
o
D
SDR
t
(O 21)
Machine Made Filament Wound Fiberglass Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Pipes (PNS
128, 21)
2St
P
D t

(O 22)
where S = hydrostatic design stress, Mpa
P = Pressure rating, MPa
D = average outside diameter, mm
T = minimum wall thickness, mm
O.3. STORAGE TANK DESIGN
Storage tanks have been an integral part of many industrial plants and processes. Design of
tanks under consideration covers tank sizing, shell thickness, stiffers spacing and annular
plate calculations. This section is limited for liquid storage only.
O.3.1. Tank Sizing
Heuristics or Rules of thumb will be used for quick tanks sizing. Tanks may be classified as
Field erected or Shop constructed. Tank capacities greater than 23,700 gallons (90 m
3
)
should be constructed to the dimensions given by the American Petroleum Institute (API)
Standards (Baasel, 1974). Although, these rules will not apply to all tank sizing, they could be
very useful in many circumstances.
For Shop constructed tanks, optimum tank diameter (Mac Cary, 1960) is calculated using:
1
3
0.74 D V
(O 22)
where D = diameter in ft (m)
V = volume in ft
3
(m
3
)
For Field erected

tanks, API typical sizes is given in Table O 5.
O - 12
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Table O 7. Selection of Typical Sizes of API Field Constructed Tanks.
Diameter Approx. Capacity Height Volume
ft m Gal/ft m3/m ft m gal m
3
15 4.6 1320 16.4 18 5.5 23,700 90
20 6.1 2350 28.0 18 5.5 42,500 161
25 7.6 3670 45.6 18 5.5 66,000 250
25 7.6 3670 45.6 24 7.3 88,000 334
30 9.1 5290 65.6 24 7.3 127,000 481
35 10.7 7190 89.3 30 9.1 216,000 819
45 13.7 11900 148.0 36 11.0 429,000 1625
70 21.3 28800 358.0 36 11.0 1040,000 3940
100 30.5 58700 728.0 36 11.0 2110,000 8000
120 36.6 84500 1050.0 48 14.6 4060,000 15400
180 54.9 190000 2380.0 48 14.6 9150,000 34700
SOURCE: Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C. 1973.
The selection of shop constructed fabrication would prove to be less expensive, however,
tanks constructed under this category should not be more than 11.5 ft (3.5 m) in diameter due
to transport limitation (Baasel, 1974).
Furthermore guidelines on allowances, tank orientation and mounting have been given:
1. Vessels below 500 gallons (1:9 m
3
) are never more than 85% filled
2. Vessels above 500 gal (1.9 m
3
) are never more than 90% filled.
3. Liquid in quantities less than 1,000 gal (3.8 m
3
) is stored in vertical tanks mounted on legs.
4. Liquid in quantities between 1,000 and 10,000 gal (3.8 and 38 m
3
) is stored in horizontal
tanks mounted on a concrete foundation.
5. Liquid in quantities exceeding 10,000 gal (3.8 m
3
) is stored in vertical tanks mounted on a
concrete foundation.
O.3.2. Shell Thickness
One of the standards used to design flat bottom tanks is that of American Petroleum
Institute (API). API 650 is used to design welded steel tanks for oil storage. The following
paragraphs have been reproduced from API 650 for flat bottom tanks containing liquids
with little or no surface pressure as cited by Jawad and Farr (1988).
Flat bottom tanks are normally constructed according to one of the following four standards:
I. API 650. American Petroleum Institute Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage.
II. API 620. Recommended Rules for Design and Construction of Large Welded Low
Pressure Storage Tanks.
O - 13
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
III. ANSI B96.1. American National Standard Institute for Welded Aluminum-Alloy Storage
Tanks.
IV. AWWA-D-100. American Water Works Association Standard for Welded Steel Tanks for
Water Storage.
A. API 650 Tanks
The requirements of API 650 are for flat-bottom tanks containing liquids with little or no
surface pressure. The design criteria are based on simplified equations with a minimum
amount of analysis.
1. Roof Design
Flat-bottom tank with large diameter and fixed roof normally are designed with column-
supported roofs. As the diameter gets smaller, self-supporting roofs become more economical.
Dome and cone roofs are the most popular types.
The following equation for designing self-supporting dome roofs incorporates a factor of
safety (FS) of 4.
2
0625 . 0

,
_

t
R
E
P
(O 23)
The required thickness is obtained by assuming the maximum pressure consisting of a live
load of 25 psf, which is the assumed snow load, and a dead load of a maximum roof thickness
of 0.5 inch as allowed by API.
Hence:
P = 25 psf live load + 20.4 psi dead load
P = 0.315 psi
Letting E = 29 x 10
6
psi and expressing R (spherical radius of dome roof) in feet and t in
inches equation (O - 23) becomes
200
R
t
(O 24)
which gives the required thickness of a dome roof.
2. Shell Design
O - 14
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
API 650 includes two methods for the design of shells. The first, called the one-foot method,
consists of calculating the required thickness of shell course A in Figure O - 1 based on the
hydrostatic pressure at 1 ft above point X, which is the circumferential seam between courses
A and B. This method considers that the bottom plate on course B stiffens the next course at
point X and the maximum stress occurs at a location higher than X. This location is
arbitrarily set at one foot.
The required thickness is given as:
CA
S
G H D
t +

) 1 ( 6 . 2
(O
25)
where: CA = Corrosion allowance (in)
D = Tank diameter (ft)
G = Specific gravity of liquid
H = Liquid height (ft)
S = Allowable stress (psi)
t = Required thickness (inches)
Figure O - 1. Stress Along the Shell Tank Height.
The second method, the variable point method, is an extension of the one-foot method in that
it calculates a more exact location of the maximum stress near the junction of the bottom or
shell courses with differing thickness. In this case the bottom course is assumed to be hinged
at its junction with the bottom plate. Hence, the deflection due to internal pressure at the
junction is equal to the deflection due to an applied shearing force (Jawad and Farr, 1988).
The modified equation for the bottom course thickness is given as:
(O 26)
While the thickness of the second course is determined from the equations below:
(O 27)
O - 15
1
1
A
X
B
D/2
H
625 . 2
1
1
2 2
625 . 2
1
1
375 . 1 ...
2 2
375 . 1
1
1
1 2

< < +

rt
h
if
a
t t
rt
h
if
a
t t
rt
h
if t t
( )
1
1
]
1

'

+
1
25 . 1
1
1 . 2
2
2 1 2
1
2
rt
h
a
t
a
t t
a
t
t
t
CA
S
HDG
S
HG
H
D
t +
,
_

,
_

6 . 2 463 . 0
06 . 1
1
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
where t
1
= thickness of first course (inches)
t
2
= thickness of second course (inches)
t
2a
= thickness of second course calculated from the equation for upper course
(inches)
h
1
= height of first course (inches)
r = radius of shell (inches)
Design of the upper courses is based on the equation:
CA
S
G
x
H D
t +

,
_

12
6 . 2
(O 28)
where: X is a variable design point that is a function of the thickness of layers, tank radius,
and liquid height. It is the minimum value of X
1
, X
2
and X
3
obtained from the following
equations:
u
rt X
u
Ch X
u
Ch
u
rt X
22 . 1
3
2
32 . 0 61 . 0
1

+
where
( )
K K
K K
C
+

1
1
u
L
t
t
K
h
u
= height of upper shell (inches)
t
L
= thickness of lower shell (inches)
t
u
= thickness of upper shell (inches)
After establishing the shell thickness due to hydrostatic pressure, stability under wind loads
must be checked. The applied wind pressure is normally expressed as:
P = 0.00256 V
2
(O 29)
where P = wind pressure (psf)
O - 16
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
V = Wind velocity (mph)
API uses a 100 mph wind velocity for design purposes unless higher value is specified.
Hence,
P = 25.6 psf
Because the pressure distribution may cause a vacuum on any part of the shell, the shell is
designed to withstand a vacuum pressure of 25.6 psf. A simplified expression for length
between stiffeners for the buckling of long cylindrical shells with E = 30 x 10
6
and Poissons
ratio of 0.3 and FS = 1.5 is
( )
3
100
100 6
,
_

D
t
t H (O 30)
where H = length between stiffeners (feet)
t = thickness of shell (inches)
D = tank diameter (feet)
NOTE: Most cylindrical shells are subjected to various (both external and internal)
compressive forces such as dead weight, wind loads, earthquakes and vacuum. The behavior
of cylindrical shells under these compressive forces is different from those under internal
pressure. Cylindrical shells are weaker in compression that in tension.
For maximum strength of cylindrical shells under external pressure, ends of shells are simply
supported. For this to be true, stiffening rings, flanges and so on are needed as lines of
supports. The supports are assumed to carry all the load that the shell carries due to external
pressure.
Table O - 8. Various Standards Requirements for Flat-Bottom Tanks.
API 650 API 620
Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix ANSI
Basic A F Basic R Q B96.1 AWWA
Maximum internal P atm. atm 2.5 psi 15 psi 15 psi 15 psi atm atm.
Minimum temperature NS -20F NS -50F -60F -270F -20F -55F
Maximum temperature 200F
a
200F 200F
a
200F -40F 200F 400F RT
Maximum shell thickness 1.75 in 0.50 in. 1.75 NS NS NS NS 2 in
e
Minimum shell thickness
D < 50 ft 0.1875 in 0.1875 0.1875 in
b
0.1875 in
50 ft < D < 120 ft 0.25 in. 0.25 in 0.25 in
c
0.25 in
120 ft < D < 200 ft 0.3125 in. 0.3125 in 0.3125 in 0.3125 in
D > 200 ft 0.375 in 0.375 in. 0.375 in
Minimum roof thickness 0.1875 in. NS 0.1875 in 0.1875 in
f
Minimum bottom-plate
thickness 0.25 in. + CA NS
d
0.25 in. NS
d
Min. top angle
D < 35 ft 2 in. x 2 in. x 3/16 in NS 2 in. x 2 in. x in. NS
35 ft < D < 60 ft 2 in. x 2 in x in. NS 2 in x 2 in. x 5/16 in. NS
D > 60 ft 3 in. x 3 in. x 3/8 in. NS 3 in. x 3 in. x 4/8 in. NS
Adapted from Structural Analysis and Design of Process Equipment (Jawad and Farr,1988).
NS = not specified, CA = corrosion allowance, RT = room temperature
a
This temperature can be extended as high as 500F when certain additional material and design requirements are met
b
This thickness applies to tanks with a diameter less than 20 ft.
O - 17
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
c
This thickness applies to tanks between 20 and 120 ft. in diameter
d
Minimum thickness of any plate is 0.1875 in. plus CA
e
For thicknesses over 2 in., additional requirements must be met
f
For cone roofs, the plate thickness may be 7 gauge steel
3. Annular Plates
The required thickness of the bottom plate in an API 650 tank is given in Table O - 8. At the
shell to bottom plate junction, the API standard requires a butt-welded annular plate whose
thickness varies between 0.25 and 0.75 inch and is a function of the stress and thickness of the
first shell course. The width of the annular plate must be adequate to support the column of
water on top of it in case of a foundation settlement.
Using a FS of two the length of the annular plate is thus expressed as:
) 24 (
390
inches than less not but
H G
b
t
L
(O 31)
where L = length of annular plate (inches)
t
b
= thickness of annular plate (inches)
H = height of liquid (feet)
G = specific gravity of liquid
O.4. WELDED PRESSURED VESSEL (UNFIRED)
Unfired Pressured Vessels (UPV) in consideration may include reactors, storage tanks,
fractionating column, heat exchangers and so on.
In a classical chemical engineering equipment design class, Process Equipment Design
authored by Hesse and Rushton (1975), has been in used as the course textbook. In the
succeeding paragraphs, calculation methods, conditions and data were reproduced from the
said textbook.
O.4.1. Shell Design
Although in general shell thickness of 3/8 in is used for shell diameter between 12 and 24
(Peters and Timmerhaus, (1991), shell thickness of welded pressured vessel may be calculated
using the given equation (Hesse and Rushton (1975).
C
P Se
PD
t
p
+

2
(O 38)
O - 18
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
where t
p
= shell thickness (inch)
P = Max allowable working pressure (psi)
D = Inside diameter (inch)
S = Max allowable tensile stress (psi) (Table O - 9)
e = Efficiency of welded joint (Table O - 10)
C = Corrosion allowance
The above equation is applicable as long as the following conditions are met:
1. t
p
< 0.10D
2. t
p
> t
min
where
1000
100
min
+

D
t
(O 39)
O - 19
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Table O 9. Materials and Allowable Working Stresses for Unfired Pressure Vessels,
Adapted from ASME-UPV Code.
Specified
ASME Minimum Allowable Unit Tensile Stress, Thousands psi
Code Tensile at Various Temperatures, F
Spec. Material Data Strength - 20
No. and Description Grad
e
1000 psi to
650
700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
S-2 Steel plates - flange and A 45 9.0 8.8 8.4 6.9 5.7 4.4 2.6
firebox quality B 50 10.0 9.6 9.0 7.5 6.0 4.4 2.6
S-1 Carbon steel for boilers 11.0 10.4 9.5 8.0 6.3 4.4 2.5
Carbon-silicon steel, A 55 11.0 10.4 9.5 8.5 7.2 5.6 3.8 2.0
S-42 ordinary strength range B 60 12.0 11.4 10.4 9.1 7.4 5.6 3.8 2.0
S-44 Molybdenum steel A 13.0 13.0 13.0 12.5 11.5 10.0 8.0 5.0
S-43 Low-carbon nickel steel A
S-55 Carbon-silicon steel, high 65
strength range, 4-1/2 A 13.0 12.3 11.1 9.4 7.6 5.6 3.8 2.0
plates and under
S-44 B 14.0 14.0 14.0 13.5 12.0 10.2 8.0 5.0
S-43 B 70 14.0 13.3 11.9 10.0 7.8 5.6 3.8 2.0
S-55 B 14.0 13.3 11.9 10.0 7.8 5.6 3.8 2.0
S-44 C 15.0 15.0 15.0 14.4 12.7 10.4 8.0 5.0
S-43 C 75
S-28 Chrome-manganese-
silicon
A 15.0 14.1 12.4 10.1 7.8 5.6 3.8 2.0
alloy steel B 85
Adapted from Hesse, H.E. and J.H. Rushton, Process Equipment Design
Design stress, S maybe estimated using the given equation:
S = S
u
x F
m
x F
s
x F
r
x F
a
(O 40)
where S
u
= Minimum Specified Tensile Strength
F
m
= Material Factor
F
m
= 1 for Grade A material
F
m
= 0.97 for Grade B material
F
m
= 0.92 for Grade C material
F
s
= Temperature Factor (Use Table O - 11)
F
r
= Stress Relief (SR) Factor
F
r
= 1.06 When SR is applied
F
a
= Radiographing Factor
F
a
= 1.12 when Radiographing is applied and subsequent repair of
defects
O - 20
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Note: Both Stress Relief and Radiographing factors are equal to unity when not applied on
welded joints.
Arc gas welding may induce internal strain and stress on welded joints. In this case, stress
relieving such as by annealing or hammering may be employed to release localized stresses.
A 6% increase in the allowable design stress is allowed in some cases.
Radiographing, on the other hand, is an application of X-ray on welded joints to examine
defective fusion and other defects that may affect the integrity of the pressure vessel. If
subsequent repair of a detected defect is done, a 12% increase in the allowable design stress
may also be allowed.
Stress relieving is mandatory for:
1. t
p
> 1
2.
120
50 +
>
D
t
p
(For thinner plates)
where D has a minimum value of 20 inches
3. ASTM A 150
4. ASTM A 149 (under certain conditions)
Whereas, Radiographing is mandatory for
1. ASTM A 150
2. ASTM A 149 (under certain conditions)
3. Lethal gases application
4. Nuclear Reactor applications
Table O 10. Types of Welded Joint and Corresponding Efficiencies.
EFFICIENCY CRITERIA
LAP WELD (For circumferential Joint)
Single Lap
Single Lap with plug weld
Double Lap
BUTT WELD (For circumferential and
longitudinal joints)
Single Butt
Single Butt with Back-up Strip
Double Butt
Double Butt with reinforce at center
55%
65%
65%
70%
80%
80%
90%
t
p
<
t
p
<
t
p
>
t
p
<
t
p
< 1
t
p
> 1
t
p
> 1
O - 21
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Table O 11. Material Factor
Metal Temperature, Plate and Forged
F Steel, % Cast Steel, %
Up to 650 25.0 16.7
700 23.7 16.4
750 21.0 14.7
800 18.0 12.9
850 15.0 11.1
900 12.0 9.3
950 9.0 7.5
1000 6.2 5.7
Adapted from Hesse, H.E. and J.H. Rushton, Process Equipment Design (1975)
In the recent American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Code (VIII-I), the working
equation for the determination of shell thickness of cylinder subjected to internal pressure
based on inside diameter is given as:
0.6
p
PR
t C
SE P
+

(O 41)
where t
p
= shell thickness required (inch) [m]
P = Internal pressure (psi) [kN/m
2
]
R = Inside Radius (inch) [m]
S = Allowable stress (psi) [kN/m
2
]
E = Joint efficiency factor (Table O - 12)
C = Corrosion allowance (inch) [m]
Provided that
1. tp less than or equal to
2
R
and
2. Pressure is less than or equal to 0.385 SE (Jawad and Farr, 1988)
Corrosion allowances vary with fluid characteristics handled. For corrosive fluids, an
allowance of inch and for non-corrosive, an allowance of to
16
3
inch are used
(Backhurst and Harker, 1973).
O - 22
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Figure O 3. Welded Joint Categories.
Table O 12. Maximum Allowable Joint Efficiencies
1
for Arc and Gas Welded Joints.
Type
No.
Joint Description Limitations Joint
Category
Degree of
Radiographic
Examination
a b c
Full Spot None
(1)
Butt joints as attained
by double-welding or
by other means which
will obtain the same
quality of deposited
weld metal on the
inside and outside weld
surfaces to agree with
the requirements of
UW-35; welds using
metal backing strips
which remain in place
are excluded.
None A, B, C
& D
1.0 0.85 0.70
(2)
Single welded butt joint
with backing strip other
than those included in
(1)
(a) None except as
shown in (b) below
A, B, C
& D
0,90 0.80 0.65
(b) Circumferential butt
joints with one plate
offset, see UW-13(c)
and Fig. UW-13.1 (k).
A, B & C 0.90 0.80 0.65
(3) Single-welded butt
joint without use of
backing strip
Circumferential butt
joints only. Not over
5/8in. thick and not
over 24in outside
diameter
A, B & C NA NA 0.60
4)
Double full fillet lap
joint
longitudinal joints not
over 3/8in. thick
A NA NA 0.55
O - 23
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Double full fillet lap
joint
circumferential joints
not over 5/8in. thick
B & C NA NA 0.55
(5)
Single full fillet lap
joints with plug welds
confirming to UW-17
Single full fillet lap
joints with plug welds
confirming to UW-17
(a) Circumferential
joints
2
for attachment
of heads not over 24in.
outside diameter to
shells not over 1/2in.
thick.
B NA NA 0.50
(b) Circumferential
joint for the attachment
to shells of jackets not
over 5/8in. in nominal
thickness where the
distance from the
center of the plug weld
to the edge of the plate
is not less than 1-1/2
times the diameter of
the hole for the plug.
C NA NA 0.50
(6) Single full fillet lap
joints without plug
welds
(a) For the attachment
of heads convex to
pressure to shells not
over 5/8in. required
thickness. only with
use of fillet weld on
inside of shells, or
(b) For attachment of
heads having pressure
on either side. To shells
not over 24in. inside
diameter and not over
1/4in. required
thickness with fillet
weld on outside of head
flange only.
A & B NA NA 0.50
1 E = 1.0 for butt joints in compression.
2 joints attaching hemispherical heads to shells are excluded.
Adapted from Jawad, Maan H., and James R. Farr, 1988, Structural Analysis and Design of Process Equipment, 2ed. John Wiley and Sons
1988.
Alternative ASME equation based on outside diameter of a cylindrical shell is given as:
0.4
p
PR
t C
SE P
+
+
(O 42)
Shell Wall thickness for vacuum vessels may be calculated (Kalis, 1986) with this equation
O - 24
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
2
0.5
2.6
0.45
e
m
o
c
e e
o o
T
E
D
P
T T
D D
_

,

_ _

, ,
(O 43)
where P
c
= Collapsing pressure (psi)
T
e
= Thickness to withstand external pressure (inch)
D
o
= Outside diameter (inch)
E
m
= Materials modulus of elasticity
T
e
must be high enough so that Pc is five times greater than the difference between
atmospheric pressure and design vacuum pressure
For Spherical Shell ,ASME code as cited by Kohan (1987) provide for equation to calculate
the shell thickness:
2
0.2
p
p
SEt
P
R t

+
(O 44)
where P = Max allowable internal working pressure (psi)
R = Inside Radius (inch)
t
p
= Minimum required thickness (inch)
E = Lowest joint efficiency
S = Max allowable stress (psi)
O.5. HEAT EXCHANGER
Figure
O 4. Shell-
and- Tube
Heat
Exchanger.
O.5.1. Layout and Pitch Arrangement
O - 25
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Tubes are usually arranged in a triangular or square pitch arrangement. Pitch is the center-to-
center distance between tubes. Rotated square pitch, a variation of square pitch is the third
commonly used tube arrangement as presented in Figure O 5. While a triangular pitch
arrangement offers more heat transfer area per unit volume of a heat exchanger, the square
pitch arrangement offers ease in cleaning and maintenance operations. A minimum of 1.25
pitch to diameter ratio and/ or a minimum webb thickness between tubes of approximately 3.2
mm could ensure sufficient strength for tube rolling. Whereas a 6.4 mm clearance is
suggested for mechanical cleaning requirement (Hewitt, et. al., 1994). In most design, the
pitch to diameter ratio range from 1.25 to 1.5 (Peters et. al, 2004).
Figure O - 5. Tube Layout Patterns: (a) Square Pitch; (b) Triangular Pitch; (c) Square Pitch
Rotated; (d) Triangular Pitch with Cleaning Lanes.
Tube layout normally follows symmetrical arrangement having the largest number of tubes at
the center. With an appropriate pitch to diameter ratio and optimum pipe diameter chosen,
known total heat transfer area, would lead to the shell diameter specification. Minimum shell
diameter is calculated by:
Shell Diameter
Min
= N
c
D
o
+ (N
c
+ 1) C (O 45)
where N
c
= Number of tubes at the Center
C = Clearance
Clearance = Pitch Diameter (O 46)

O - 26
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Table O 16 . ASME Allowable Stresses for Some Alloyed Steel Material.
Spec. no.
Nominal
composition P no.
Group
no.
Product
form Grade
Specified
min.
yield,
ksi
Specified
min.
tensile,
ksi
-20
to
100
Maximum allowable stress, ksi, for metal temp., F,
not exceeding:
200 300 400 500 600 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200
SA-240 12Cr-1Al 7 1 Plate 405 25.0
60.0 15.0 14.3 13.8 13.3 12.9 12.4 12.1 11.7 11.1 10.4 9.7 8.4 4.0 SA-268 12Cr-1Al 7 1 Smls. Tb. TP405 30.0
SA-479 12Cr-1Al 7 1 Bar 405 25.0
SA-240 13Cr 7 1 Plate 410S
30.0 60.0 15.0 14.3 13.8 13.3 12.9 12.4 12.1 11.7 11.1 10.4 9.7 8.4 6.4 4.4 2.9 1.8 1.0 SA-268 13Cr 6 1 Smls. Tb. TP410
SA-268 12Cr-1Al 7 1 Wld. Tb. TP405 30.0 60.0 12.8 12.2 11.8 11.3 10.9 10.6 10.3 9.9 9.4 8.8 8.2 7.1 3.4
SA-268 13Cr 6 1 Wld. Tb. TP410 30.0 60.0 12.8 12.2 11.8 11.3 10.9 10.6 10.3 9.9 9.4 8.8 8.2 7.1 5.5 3.7 2.4 1.5 0.8
SA-268 15Cr 6 2 Wld. Tb. TP429 35.0 60.0 12.7 12.1 11.7 11.3 10.9 10.5 10.2
SA-268 17Cr 7 2 Wld. Tb. TP430 35.0 60.0 12.8 12.2 11.8 11.3 10.9 10.6 10.3 9.9 9.4 8.8 8.2 7.2 5.5 3.8 2.7 2.0 1.5
SA-268 11Cr-Ti 7 1 Wld. Tb. TP409 30.0 60.0 12.8 12.2 11.8 11.3 10.9 10.5 10.2 9.9 9.4
SA-268 11Cr-Ti 7 1 Smls. Tb. TP409 30.0 60.0 15.0 14.3 13.8 13.3 12.9 12.4 12.1 11.7 11.1
SA-268 18Cr-Ti 7 2 Wld. Tb. TPXM-8 30.0 60.0 12.8 12.2 11.8 11.3 10.9 10.6 10.3 9.9 9.4
SA-268 18Cr-Ti 7 2 Smls. Tb. TPXM-8 30.0 60.0 15.0 14.3 13.8 13.3 12.9 12.4
SA-240 18Cr-Mo 7 2 Plate 18Cr-Mo 45.0 60.0 15.0 14.3 13.8 13.3 12.8 12.4
SA-268 18Cr-Mo 7 2 Wld. Tb. 18Cr-Mo 45.0 60.0 12.8 12.2 11.8 11.3 10.9 10.5
SA-268 18Cr-Mo 7 2 Smls. Tb. 18Cr-Mo 45.0 60.0 15.0 14.3 13.8 13.3 12.8 12.4
SA-240 13Cr 6 1 Plate 410 30.0 65.0 16.3 15.5 15.0 14.4 13.9 13.5 13.1 12.7 12.0 11.3 10.5 8.8 6.4 4.4 2.9 1.8 1.0
SA-240 15Cr 6 1 Plate 429
30.0 65.0 16.3 15.5 15.0 14.4 13.9 13.5 13.1 12.7 12.0 11.3 10.5 9.2 6.5 4.5 3.2 2.4 1.8 SA-240 17Cr 7 2 Plate 430
SA-479 13Cr 6 1 Bar 410
40.0 70.0 16.2 15.4 14.9 14.4 13.9 13.4 13.1 12.6 12.0 11.2 10.4 8.8 6.4 SA-182 13Cr 6 1 Forg. F6aCl.1
SA-182 13Cr 6 3 Forg. Cl.F6aCl.2 55.0 85.0 21.3 20.3 19.6 18.9 18.2 17.6 17.1 16.5 15.7 14.4 12.3 8.8 6.4 4.4 2.9 1.8 1.0
SA-217 13Cr 6 3 Cast. CA15 65.0 90.0 22.5 21.5 20.7 20.0 19.3 18.7 18.1 17.5 16.7 14.9 11.0 7.6 5.0 3.3 2.2 1.5 1.0
SA-193 13Cr Bolt. B6(410) 85.0 110.0 21.2 21.2 21.2 21.2 21.2 21.2 21.2 21.2 19.5 15.6 12.0
SA-268 15Cr 6 2 Smls. Tb. TP429
35.0 60.0 15.0 14.3 13.8 13.3 12.9 12.4 12.1 11.7 11.1 10.4 9.7 8.5 6.5 4.5 3.2 2.4 1.8 SA-268 17Cr 7 2 Smls. Tb. TP430
SA-479 17Cr 7 2 Bar TP430
40.0 70.0 17.5 16.6 16.1 15.5 15.0 14.5 14.1 13.6 12.9 12.1 11.0 9.2 6.5
SA-479 18Cr-Ti 7 2 Bar TPXM-8
SA-268 26Cr-4Ni-Mo 10E 5 Wld. Tb. TP329 70.0 90.0 19.1 19.1 18.4 18.0 18.0
SA-268 26Cr-4Ni-Mo 10E 5 Smls. Tb. TP329 70.0 90.0 22.5 22.5 21.6 21.2 21.2
SA-240 26Cr-4Ni-Mo 10E 5 Plate TP329 70.0 90.0 22.5 21.9 20.5 19.8 19.8
SA-268 27Cr 10E 5 Smls. Tb. TP446 40.0 70.0 17.5 16.6 16.1 15.6 15.0 14.5
SA-412 17Cr-4Ni-6Mn 8 1 Plate 201 45.0 95.0 23.8 20.8 19.1
SA-182 18Cr-8Ni 8 1 Forg. F304L 25.0 65.0 15.5 15.4 14.2 13.6 13.4 13.3 13.1 13.0 12.9
SA-240 18Cr-8Ni 8 1 Plate 304L
25.0 70.0 15.7 15.7 15.3 14.7 14.4 14.0 13.5 13.3 13.0 SA-213 18Cr-8Ni 8 1 Smls. Tb. TP304L
SA-312 18Cr-8Ni 8 1 Smls. Tb. TP304L
SA-479 18Cr-8Ni 8 1 Bar 304L
Adapted: ASME code, Section VIII, Division 1.
O - 27
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
where
G
t
= Mass velocity in the tubes
1
]
1

1
]
1

,
_

s m
kg
hr ft
lb
a
m
t
t
2 2
(O 52)
1
2 2
t
Na
a ft m
n
1 1
] ]
(O 53)
N = Total number of tubes
n = Number of tube side passes
a
1
= Cross-sectional area of flow per tube
2 2
ft m 1 1
] ]
D
t
= Tube diameter [ ] [ ] ft m
= Fluid velocity
ft m
s s
1 1
1 1
] ]
f = Friction Factor
1
]
1

1
]
1

2
2
2
m
m
in
ft
2
0.33
Re 2
0.05
ft
f N or
in

1
]
(O 54)
2
0.33
Re 2
0.72
m
f N
m

1
]
(O 55)
Applicable for N
Re
>1000
B. Shell side
2
s
9 2
4.35 10
s
s
e s
fG D L lb
D S B m
1

1

]
(O 56)
2
6 2
2 10
s s
S
e s
fG D L KN
P
D S B m
1

1

]
(O 57)
where G
s
= Mass velocity in the shell

,
_

hr ft
lb
2

,
_

s m
kg
2
D
s
= Shell inner diameter [ft] [m]
S = Specific gravity of the fluid
O - 28
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
s

=
14 . 0

,
_

(O 58)
L = Tube length [ft] [m]
B = Baffle spacing [ft] [m]
f = Friction factor
2 2
2 2
ft m
in m
1 1
1 1
] ]
2
0.2
Re 2
0.013
ft
f N
in

1
]
(O 59)
2
0.2
Re 2
1.87
m
f N
m

1
]
(O 60)
Applicable for N
Re
>500
Peters and Timmerhaus, (1991) provide an alternative equation for pressure drop across the
tube and shell as reproduced in the following paragraph:
For tube side
2
2
i i p
i
c i i
B f G Ln
P
g D
(O 61)
where subscript i refers to inside of tube at bulk temperature
f
i
= Fanning friction factor for isothermal flow based on conditions at the
arithmetic-average temperature of the fluid
n
p
= Number of tube passes
g
c
= Conversion factor in Newtons law of motion,
( )
2
2
32.17 3600
c
ft lbm
g
hr lbf

(O 62)

I
= Correction factor for non-isothermal flow
0.25
1.1
i
i
w

,
(O 63)
O - 29
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
when D
i
/ is less than 2100 and
0.14
1.02
i
i
w

,
(O 64)
when
i
i
G D

is greater than 2100;

i
= Viscosity at arithmetic average (bulk) temperature of fluid

w
= Viscosity of fluid at average temperature of the inside tube wall surface
B
i
= Correction factor to account for friction due to sudden contraction, expansion
and reversal of flow direction
( )
2
2
1
2
e e r
i
i
c i i i
F F F
B
f G L
g D
+ + +

(O 65)
For flow across tubes, the following equation can be used to approximate pressure drop due to
friction:
1 2
2
o r s
o
c o
B f N G
g

(O 66)
where subscript o refers to outside of tube at bulk temperature
f
1
= Special friction for shell-side flow
0.15
1 o s
o
f
D G
f b

,
(O 67)
( )
1.08
0.11
0.23
o
T
b
X I
+

(O 68)
[ ]
1.13
0.43
0.08
0.044
1 L
L
o
X
T
X
b
X
_
+

,
+

(O 69)
T
ratio of pitch transverse to flow
where X
tube diameter

(O 70)
L
ratio of pitch pallalel to flow
X
tube diameter

(O 71)
O - 30
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
N
r
= Number of rows of tubes across which shell fluid flows
B
o
= Correction factor to account for friction due to reversal in directional flow
recrossing of tubes, and variation in cross section

o
B
1 when the flow is across unbaffled tubes or

o
B
Number of tubes crosses as a rough approximation
Variation of Kern method and other estimations by Bell-Delaware method and Wills and
Johnson method are discussed in Process Heat Transfer (Hewitt, et. al., 1994).
O.5.4. Heat Exchanger Temperature Limits
The most common heat exchanger medium used for cooling is water. Aside from its
abundance and cost, water exhibits relatively high heat capacity. In the design of heat
exchanger, it is obvious that either large quantity of cooling will be used or greater water
temperature change should be anticipated to come up with smaller heat exchanger. Large
quantity of cooling water would result to higher water velocity. This high velocity will reduce
fouling but increases water and pumping costs. On the other hand, large water temperature
increase will require less water and pumping costs. However, at high temperatures, water
exerts considerable corrosive action on steel, particularly if water contains dissolved oxygen
(Peters et. al, 2004). Furthermore at high water temperature scaling tends to increase
(Backhurst and Harker, 1973). To minimize scale formation, water temperature should not be
more than 120F (Backhurst and Harker, 1973; Peters et. al, 2004). To protect against fouling
and corrosion, water temperature (outlet) should not be heated above 158F (Baasel, 1974).
Again a good compromise has to be set between large quantity of cooling water and greater
water temperature change.
For the cooling water, on an open circulation systems such as cooling towers and spray ponds,
the temperature of the cooled water is 8-13F above the wet bulb temperature (Baasel, 1974).
However since oxygen is picked-up in every pass, treatment of water is necessary if corrosion
and growth of microorganism is to be controlled (Peters et. al, 2004).
When using cooling water to cool or condense a process stream, assume a water inlet
temperature of 90
o
F (from a cooling tower) and a maximum water outlet temperature of 120
o
F
(Seider et al, 2004).
As to the temperature difference, the rule of thumb is that the greatest temperature difference
in an exchanger should be at least 36F and the minimum temperature difference should be at
least 10
o
F hot (Lord et. al., 1970).
O - 31
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
O.6. CSTR DESIGN
O.6.1. CSTR Sizing
CSTR sizing is dictated by residence time requirement. The longer the residence time, the
bigger the reactor volume at constant volumetric flow rate. This is expressed below:
= V / Q

(O 72)
where: = Space time or Residence time, sec [hr]
V = Volume of Reactor, m [ft
3
]
Q

= Volumetric flowrate, m/sec [ft

3
/s]
Overall chemical kinetics which includes, chemical specie, amount of specie, reaction
temperature, presence of catalyst, agitation etc determines the degree of residence time as
shown in Table O 17.
Table O 17. Residence Time and/or Space Velocities in Industrial Chemical Reactors.
Product
(raw materials)
Reactor
Phase
(CSTR)
Catalyst T, C
P,
atm
Residence
Time or
Space
Velocity
Alkylate (i-C
4
, butanes) L H
2
SO
4
5-10 2-3 5-40 min
Alkylate (i-C
4
, butanes) L HF 25-38 8-11 5-25 min
Butadiene sulfone
(butadiene, SO
2
)
L t-Butyl catechol 34 12 0.2 LHSV
Caprolactam (cyclohexane
oxime)
L Polyphosphoric
acid
80-
110
1 0.25-2 h
Chloral (Cl
2
, acetaldehyde) LG None 20-90 1 140 h
Cumene hydroperoxide
(cumene, air)
L Metal porphyrins 95-
120
2-15 1-3 h
Cyclohexanone
(cyclohexanol)
L N. A. 107 1 0.75 h
Dextrose (starch) L H
2
SO
4
165 1 20 min
Dextrose (starch) L Enzyme 60 1 100 min
Dodecylbenzene (benzene,
propylene tetramer)
L AlCl
3
15-20 1 1-30 min
Ethyl acetate (ethanol, acetic
acid)
L H
2
SO
4
100 1 0.5-0.8
LHSV
Ethylene, propylene
chlorohydrins (Cl
2
, H
2
O)
LG None 30-40 3-10 0.5-5 min
Glycerol (allyl alcohol, L H
2
WO
4
40-60 1 3 h
O - 32
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
H
2
O
2
)
o-Methyl benzoic acid
(xylene, air)
L None 160 14 0.32 h
3.1 LHSV
Nitrobenzene (benzene,
HNO
3
)
L H
2
SO
4
45-95 1 3-40 min
Phenol (cumene
hydroperoxide)
L SO
2
45-65 2-3 15 min
t-Butyl methacrylate
(methacrylic acid, i-butene)
L H
2
SO
4
25 3 0.3 LHSV
Aldehydes (diisobutene,
CO)
LG Co Carbonyl 150 200 1.7 h
LHSV Space velocity (hourly) liquid
N. A. Not Available
Adapted from Table 23 - 1 Section 23 - 7 Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook 7
th
ed.
O.6.2. Standard Stirred Tank Configuration
Trambouze et. al., (1988), provide for the standard stirred tank configuration for a six flat
blade turbine type agitation system. As shown below, the following are standard
configuration:
Figure O 7. Dimensions for CSTR Design.
O - 33
D
d
D
I
m
I
b
Z
I
Z
L
W
H
T
D
T
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
1
L
T
Z
D

(O 75)
1
3
I
T
D
D

(O 76)
1
10
T
W
D

(O 77)
1
I
I
Z
D

(O 78)
3
4
d
I
D
D

(O 79)
1
4
I
I
D

(O 80)
1
5
I
b
D

(O 81)
1
5
T
m
D

(O- 82)
where:
L
Z = Static liquid depth
T
D = Tank diameter
I
D = Impeller diameter
I
Z = Impeller distance from tank bottom
W = Baffle width
d
D
= Impeller disc diameter
I = Impeller blade length
b = Impeller blade width
T
H = Tank height
m
= Baffle tip distance from tank bottom
O.6.3. Mixing Time
To estimate the mixing time, Norwood and Metzner correlation provides for the equation
applicable for six flat blade turbine:
( ) ( )
2 0.5
1
6
5
I L
m Fr
T T
D Z
N t N
D D
_ _


, ,
(O 83)
where:
m
t
= Mixing time
N = Impeller revolutions per unit time
I
D = Impeller diameter
T
D = Tank diameter
L
Z = Static liquid depth
Fr
N = Froude Number
O - 34
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
2
I
Fr
N D
N
g
(O 84)
where g = acceleration due to gravity
O.6.4. Impeller Selection
Agitation is designed to increase fluid turbulence, and is often employed in the following:
1. homogenization of a fluid phase
2. increased heat transfer between a solid surface and a fluid phase
3. creation of interfacial area between two immiscible fluid phases.
4. maintenance of a divided solid in suspension in a fluid phase
Agitation as used in the process industries is the production of irregular disturbances or
turbulent motion within a fluid by means of mechanical devices acting on that fluid (Brown,
1950). Most of the fluids handled in the process industry are low viscosity Newtonian fluids.
Several references classify impellers according to their form, functions and uses in the mixing
operations (Brown, 1950; Foust et. al, 1980 and McCabe, 2001) as shown in Figure O 8. In the
selection of appropriate impeller type Figure O 9 may be used.
Figure O 8. Types of Impeller
Source: Doran, Pauline M. 1995 Bioprocess Engineering Principles.
A graphical method of impeller selection is presented on Figure 0 - 9.
Figure O 9. Viscosity Ranges for Different Impellers
O - 35
Anchor Propeller 6 flat blade disc-turbine
Paddle Gate anchor Helical screw
Impeller Type
V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y

(
c
e
n
t
i
p
o
i
s
e
)
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
2
10
1
A
n
c
h
o
r
s
P
r
o
p
e
l
l
e
r
s
F
l
a
t
-
b
l
a
d
e

t
u
r
b
i
n
e
s
P
a
d
d
l
e
s
G
a
t
e

a
n
c
h
o
r
s
H
e
l
i
c
a
l

S
c
r
e
w
s
H
e
l
i
c
a
l

R
i
b
b
o
n
s
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Source: F.A Holland and F.S. Chapman, 1966, Liquid Mixing and Processing in Stirred Tanks as cited by Doran, Pauline M. 1995.
Bioprocess Engineering Principles)
O.6.5. Baffles
Baffles are flat vertical strips set radially along the tank inner wall. They are mounted inside
the tank to produce higher mixing and horizontal liquid surface (Perry and Green, 1997). In
the absence of baffles in a stirred tank, vortex are formed because of the centrifugal force
acting on the liquid and could reach deep to the impeller which is undesirable (Mc Cabe,
2001). Due to the motion of the impeller in the fluid and the resultant movement of the liquid
past the baffles and wall, the skin friction and the drop form have to be considered in relation
to the speed of rotation and design of blade and tank.
Figure O 10 provides for baffle inclination and attachment selection guide.
Figure O 10. Baffle Arrangements (a) Baffles are attached to the wall for low-viscosity
liquids. (b) Baffles set away from the wall for moderate-viscosity liquids. (c) Baffles set away
from the wall and at an angle for high-viscosity liquids.
O - 36
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Source: F.A Holland and F.S. Chapman, 1966, Liquid Mixing and Processing in Stirred Tanks as cited by Doran, Pauline M. 1995.
Bioprocess Engineering Principles)
O.6.6. Power Dissipation
Power dissipated by the agitator maybe computed by:
5 3
I P a
D N N P (O 85)
where P
a
= Power dissipated by an agitator
N = RPM of the impeller
= Density of the mixture
D
I
= Impeller diameter
N
P
= Power number
An estimation of typical horsepower for agitators is given below (Parker, 1964; Schlegel,
1972): This maybe used to approximate power requirement due to mixing of CSTR.
Fluid Approximate horsepower
O - 37
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Blending vegetable oil 1.0 hp per 100,000 lb
Blending gasoline 0.019 hp per m
3
Clay dispersion 10 12 hp per 1,000 gal
Fermentation (pharmaceutical) 3 10 hp per 1,000 gal
Suspension polymerization 6 7 hp per 1,000 gal
Emulsion polymerization 3 10 hp per 1,000 gal
Solution polymerization 15 40 hp per 1,000 gal
Radius of Action of an Agitator
Radius of action of an agitator should be checked after reactor, blade and baffle sizes have
been calculated to ensure there is enough intensity of mixing inside the reactor, as this will
affect reaction conversion. Radius of Action
A
R may be calculated as:
2
1
2
10 9

,
_

P
R
A
(O 86)
Horizontal radius of action ( )
H
Ra and vertical radius of action
( )
V
Ra
are 50% and 20%
respectively of the computed radius of action.
where P = Power, watts

= Viscosity, Pa . s
a
R
= Radius of action, m
H
Ra = Half major axis ellipsoidal
V
Ra
= Half minor axis ellipsoidal
To ensure high degree of agitation a linear speed at blade tip should be greater than 4. Where
tip speed is given by:
V
p
= ND
I
(m/s) (O 87)
Another indicator of high degree of agitation is Power dissipated per unit volume of fluid
which should have at least 1,500
3
m
W
value.
O - 38
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
Below is the summary of degree of agitation against tip blade speed and Power per unit
volume (Trambouze et. al, 1988):
Degree of Agitation Tip Speed
( )
s
m

,
_

3
m
watt
Volume
Power
Low 3.25 750
Medium 3.25 to 4 750 to 1500
High 4 up 1500 up
For an initial condition, a 50% on blade tip speed of 4 ( )
s
m
and Power per unit volume of
1500
,
_

3
m
watt
could be a good choice. On the other hand, a good compromise should be
reached, so that just enough mixing is provided for certain required residence time for power
requirement to be justifiable. An acceptable criteria used is:
t
m


O - 39
< 0.1
Chemical Engineering Handbook Process Equipment Design
allowable stress...................................................................................................................10, 27
Annular Plates...........................................................................................................................18
API............................................................................................................................................13
API 650 tanks............................................................................................................................14
ASME........................................................................................................7, 9, 10, 22, 24, 25, 27
AWWA.....................................................................................................................................14
cast iron pipe...............................................................................................................................9
Clean Fluids................................................................................................................................1
Corrosive Fluids..........................................................................................................................3
CSTR design.............................................................................................................................32
baffles....................................................................................................................................36
CSTR sizing..........................................................................................................................32
impeller selection..................................................................................................................35
mixing time...........................................................................................................................34
power dissipation..................................................................................................................37
standard stirred tank configuration........................................................................................33
types of reactor......................................................................................................................32
Erosive Fluids.............................................................................................................................3
heat exchanger...........................................................................................................................25
heat exchanger temperature limits........................................................................................31
layout and pitch arrangement................................................................................................25
joint efficiencies..........................................................................................10, 15, 21, 22, 23, 27
other pipe materials of construction..........................................................................................11
pipe and tube sizing.....................................................................................................................1
pipe and tube thickness...............................................................................................................7
pipe diameter, economic.............................................................................................................3
pipe diameter, typical..................................................................................................................1
Pitch..........................................................................................................................................25
storage tank design....................................................................................................................12
shell thickness.......................................................................................................................13
tank sizing.............................................................................................................................12
welded joint.........................................................................................................................21, 23
welded pressured vessel (unfired).............................................................................................18
welded steel.........................................................................................................................13, 14
O - 40