What is the relation between normality and molarity?

molarity = moles solute / liter of solution normality = moles equivalents / liter of solution and an equivalent is an H+ or an OHso... since 1 HCl ---> 1 H+ + 1 Cl1 mole HCl ---> 1 mole equivalents and... moles HCl / L = moles equivalents / L and... molarity HCl = normality HCl since 1 mole H2SO4 ---> 2 H+ + 1 SO4-2 1 mole H2SO4 --> 2 moles equivalents... and.. normality H2SO4 = 2 x molarity H2SO4 likewise... normality H3PO4 = 3 x molarity H2SO4 likewise.. normality NaOH = molarity NaOH... (remember an equivalent is an H+ or an OHlikewise... normality Ca(OH)2 = 2 x molarity Ca(OH)2 etc OR N=Mxn in this case n = 2 ( because there are 2 hydrogen atoms in the molecule) N=1Mx2=2N

Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases

Acids and bases are an important part of chemistry. One of the most applicable theories is the Lewis acid/base motif + that extends the definition of an acid and base beyond H and OH ions as described by Brnsted-Lowry acids and bases. 1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. Introduction 1.1. Lewis Acids 1.2. Lewis Bases 1.3. HOMO & LUMO 1.4. Complex Ion / Coordination Compounds 1.5. Amphoterism

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

2. Outside Links 3. References 4. Concept Problems 5. Concept Problem Solutions 6. Contributors

Introduction
The Brnsted acid-base theory has been used throughout the history of acid and base chemistry. However, this theory is very restrictive and focuses primarily on acids and bases acting as proton donors and acceptors. Sometimes conditions arise where the theory doesn't necessarily fit, such as in solids and gases. In 1923, G.N. Lewis from UC Berkeley proposed an alternate theory to describe acids and bases. His theory gave a generalized explanation of acids and bases based on structure and bonding. Through the use of the Lewis definition of acids and bases, chemists are now able to predict a wider variety of acid-base reactions. Lewis' theory used electrons instead of proton transfer and specifically stated that an acid is a species that accepts an electron pair while a base donates an electron pair.

Figure 1 Above: A Lewis Base (B) donates it electrons to a Lewis Acid (A) resulting in a coordinate covalently bonded compound, also known as an adduct. The reaction of a Lewis acid and a Lewis base will produce a coordinate covalent bond, as shown in Figure 1 above. A coordinate covalent bond is just a type of covalent bond in which one reactant gives it electron pair to another reactant. In this case the lewis base donates its electrons to the lewis acid. When they do react this way the resulting product is called an addition compound, or more commonly an adduct.

Lewis Acid: a species that accepts an electron pair (i.e., an electrophile) and will have vacant orbitals Lewis Base: a species that donates an electron pair (i.e., a nucleophile) and will have lone-pair electrons

Lewis Acids
Lewis acids accept an electron pair. Lewis Acids are Electrophilic meaning that they are electron attracting. When bonding with a base the acid uses its lowest unoccupied molecular orbital or LUMO (see Fig. 2).

Various species can act as Lewis acids. All cations are Lewis acids since they are able to accept electrons. (e.g., Cu , Fe , Fe ) An atom, ion, or molecule with an incomplete octet of electrons can act as an Lewis acid (e.g., BF3, AlF3). Molecules where the central atom can have more than 8 valence shell electrons can be electron acceptors, and thus are classified as Lewis acids (e.g., SiBr4, SiF4). Molecules that have multiple bonds between two atoms of different electronegativities (e.g., CO 2, SO2)
2+ 2+ 3+

Lewis Bases
Lewis Bases donate an electron pair. Lewis Bases are Nucleophilic meaning that they attack a positive charge with their lone pair. They utilize the highest occupied molecular orbital or HOMO (see Fig. 2). An atom, ion, or molecule with a lone-pair of electrons can thus be a Lewis base. Each of the following anions can "give up" their electrons to an acid. Example: OH , CN , CH3COO , :NH3, H2O:, CO:
-

HOMO & LUMO

Lewis base's HOMO (highest occupied molecular orbital) interacts with the Lewis acid's LUMO (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital) to create bonded molecular orbitals. Both Lewis Acids and Bases contain HOMO and LUMOs but only the HOMO is considered for Bases and only the LUMO is considered for Acids. (see fig. 2 below)

Figure 2 Above: Lewis Acids have vacant orbitals so they are in a lower energy level. While lewis bases have lone pair electrons to share and thus occupy a higher energy level.

Complex Ion / Coordination Compounds

Complex ions are polyatomic ions, which are formed from a central metal ion that has other smaller ions joined around it. While Brnsted theory can't explain this reaction Lewis acid-base theory can help. A Lewis Base is often the ligand of a coordination compound with the metal acting as the Lewis Acid (see Oxidation States of Transition Metals). Al3+ + 6 H2O [Al(H2O)6]3+ (see Fig. 3 below )

The Aluminum ion is the metal and is a cation with an unfilled valence shell, and it is a Lewis Acid. Water has lonepair electrons and is an anion, thus it is a Lewis Base.

Figure 3 (Left): Aluminum ion acts as a lewis acid and accepts the electrons from water, which is acting as a lewis base. This helps explain the resulting hexaaquaaluminum(III) ion.

The Lewis Acid accepts the electrons from the Lewis Base which donates the electrons. Another case where Lewis acid-base theory can explain the resulting compound is the reaction of ammonia with Zn . Zn
2+ 2+ 4+

+ 4NH3 [Zn(NH3)4]

Similarly, the Lewis Acid is the zinc Ion and the Lewis Base is NH 3. Note how Brnsted Theory of Acids and Bases + will not be able to explain how this reaction occurs because there are no H or OH ions involved. Thus, Lewis Acid and Base Theory allows us to explain the formation of other species and complex ions which do not ordinarily contain hydronium or hydroxide ions. One is able to expand the definition of an acid and a base via the Lewis Acid and Base Theory. The lack of H+ or OH- ions in many complex ions can make it harder to see which species is an acid and which is a base. Therefore, by defining a species that donates an electron pair and a species that accepts an electron pair, the definition of a acid and base is expanded.

Amphoterism
As of now you should know that acids and bases are distinguished as two separate things however some substances can be both an acid and a base. You may have noticed this with water, which can act as both an acid or a base. This ability of water to do this makes it an amphoteric molecule. Water can act as an acid by donating its proton to the base and thus becoming its conjugate acid, OH-. However, water can also act as a base by accepting a proton from an acid to become its conjugate base, H3O . Water acting as an Acid: H2O + NH3 NH4 + OH Water acting as a Base: H2O + HCl Cl + H3O
+ + +

You may have noticed that the degree to which a molecule acts depends on the medium in which the molecule has been placed in. Water does not act as an acid in an acid medium and does not act as a base in a basic medium. Thus, the medium which a molecule is placed in has an effect on the properties of that molecule. Other molecules can also act as either an acid or a base. For example, Al(OH)3 + 3H Al
+ 3+

+ 3H2O where Al(OH)3 is acting as a Lewis Base.

-

Al(OH)3 + OH- Al(OH)4 where Al(OH)3 is acting as an Lewis Acid. Note how the amphoteric properties of the Al(OH)3 depends on what type of environment that molecule has been placed in.

Outside Links

Very Detailed review of Lewis Acids and Bases, covering all topics of this type of chemistry Very Complex and Detailed "Lewis Acid and Base Interaction Matrix" (far beyond the realm of Chem 2C) Online Textbook providing a great review of Lewis Acids and Bases Youtube Video about Lewis Acids/Bases

References
1. 2. Cycloaddition on Ge(100) of the Lewis Acid AlCl3. Soon Jung Jung,, Young-Sang Youn,, Hangil Lee,,, Ki-Jeong Kim,,, Bong Soo Kim, and, Sehun Kim,. Journal of the American Chemical Society 2008 130 (11), 3288-3289 Fluorescence Maxima of 10-Methylacridone?Metal Ion Salt Complexes: A Convenient and Quantitative Measure of Lewis Acidity of Metal Ion Salts. Shunichi Fukuzumi and, Kei Ohkubo. Journal of the American Chemical Society 2002 124 (35), 10270-10271. 3. Harwood, William S., F. G. Herring, Jeffry D. Madura, and Ralph H. Petrucci. General Chemistry Principles and Modern Applications. 9th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2007. 695-96.

Concept Problems
Identify the nature of each of the following as either a Lewis Acid or a Lewis Base: NH3 Ag+ Ni2+ Pt4+ H2O SO2 Explain why SiF4 can act as a Lewis Acid. Identify the nature of each of the following as either a Lewis Acid or a Lewis Base: [Fe(CN)6]3[Ni(NH3)6]2+ CdBr42What is the product of the reaction of CO2 + OH- ? In the reactions below, which is the Lewis Acid and/or which is the Lewis Base? NH3 + H NH4
+ + + +

H2O + H H3O

In the complex ion, [PtCl6]

2-

which is the Lewis Acid and which is the Lewis base?

The reaction of AgCl + NH3 produces what complex ion?

Concept Problem Solutions

Remember, a Lewis acid has an unfilled octet and thus is able to accept a pair of electrons. A Lewis base has a lone pair of electrons to "donate" Lewis base. Nitrogen has a lone pair Lewis acid. Ag+ is a cation. Lewis acid. Ni2+ is a cation. Lewis acid. Pt4+ is a cation. Lewis base. Oxygen has lone pairs Lewis acid. Sulfur can accept the lone pair electrons from another atom.

SiF4 has a central Silicon Atom which can expand its octet to 12 (compared to the typical 8) so that it forms [SiF6]2-. Remember, a Lewis acid has an unfilled octet and thus is able to accept a pair of electrons. A Lewis base has a lone pair of electrons to "donate" Lewis Acid: Fe3+ , Lewis Base: CNLewis Acid: Ni2+ , Lewis Base: NH3 Lewis Acid: Cd2+ , Lewis Base: BrThis reaction forms a Bicarbonate ion. CO2 + OH- --> O--COH=O.
This problem is similar to number 3 & 4 above.

Lewis Acid: H+ , Lewis Base: NH3 Lewis Acid: H+ , Pt

4+

Lewis Base:
+

H2O

is the Lewis acid and Cl is the Lewis base.

[Ag(NH3)2]

AgCl + 2NH3

+ Cl- .

Acids and Bases: Lewis Theory

GOAL(s): Recognize molecular properties that allow molecules and ions to act as Lewis acids and bases In a neutralization reaction, classify molecules and ions as Lewis acids or bases The Lewis Theory of Acids and Bases The Brnsted Theory defines acids and bases as proton donors and acceptors. Around the same time that Johannes N. Brnsted and Thomas M. Lowry came up with their theory of acids and bases, Gilbert N. Lewis proposed his own theory. While the Brnsted-Lowry theory is based on the transfer of protons, Lewis' theory is based on the transfer of electrons.

A Lewis acid is a substance that can accept a pair of electrons to form a new bond. They are sometimes referred to as electrophiles, or seekers of an additional electron pair. A Lewis base is a substance that can donate a pair of electrons to form a new bond. They are sometimes referred to as nucleophiles, or seekers of a positive nucleus. Neutralization is the sharing of an electron pair between an acid and base. The product formed in a neutralization reaction is sometimes called an adduct or complex.