Sensors and Actuators A 106 (2003) 142–148

Mechanical sensors and actuators

M. Pasquale∗
IEN Galileo Ferraris, Strada delle Cacce 91, 10135 Torino, Italy

Abstract

A review on mechanical sensing techniques based on magnetic methods is presented, with special focus on strain sensing in civil
engineering. Some examples and features of magnetic actuation with giant magnetostrictive and magnetic shape memory alloys will be
shown.
© 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Magnetic sensors; Magnetic actuators; Magnetic shape memory; Magnetostriction

1. Introduction In any case we should be aware that magnetic materials

always have hysteretic characteristics, which may have to
Mechanical sensors are used in countless applications, and be taken into account in the design and operation of the
while attempting a general description it is helpful to define transducers.
a limited number of categories which fall under this name. A
nonexhaustive but rather complete list of mechanical sensors
is given by the IEEE Sensors council, where we find metallic, 2. Issues in magnetic sensing and actuation
thin film, thick film, and bulk strain gages; pressure sensors;
accelerometers; angular rate sensors; displacement transduc- While direct magnetostriction—deformation induced by
ers; force sensors; bulk and surface acoustic wave sensors; field—is used for actuation, typical magnetic sensor appli-
ultrasonic sensors; flow meters; and flow controllers. We can cations rely on the inverse magnetostrictive effect, where
concentrate on sensors and transducers which rely on direct magnetic properties are modified by the application of a
or inverse magnetostrictive and magnetoelastic effects and stress. In either case a detailed description of the mag-
reduce the above list to strain and force sensors, torque sen- netomechanical behavior of a material is far from trivial,
sors, and displacement sensors. Magnetostrictive actuation since magnetostrictive properties, which are related to the
is a more limited subject; a high energy is needed to produce mechanical behavior of a material, are naturally described
large magnetic fields and achieve saturation magnetization by tensor quantities. To further complicate matters, both
and thus strain. Only a limited number of specialized appli- the mechanical and magnetization behavior of materials are
cations are known today, but the number is increasing, and typically hysteretic processes which dissipate energy and
smart design can also decrease the energy input. Recently a where a multiplicity of states is available, depending on past
new class of magnetically activated shape memory materials history. Given the intrinsic high complexity of the physics,
has been recognized, and a completely new set of physical we typically choose a practical approach—where some
phenomena, leading to very large strain at low load, started strong simplifications and assumptions must be made—to
to be investigated. In all these cases, structural analysis, allow an acceptably simple description of the phenomena.
leading to magnetic anisotropy evaluation and control, leads The magnetostrictive process relating the magnetic and
to the successful applications of these magnetic materials. mechanical material states can be roughly described with
A proper control of anisotropy is even more crucial in the the two coupled linear equations. These equations ne-
case of thin magnetic films, due to the interplay between the glect the effect of temperature and have been reduced to
thermal and magnetomechanical characteristics of the film scalar form where the stress/strain and the applied field
and the thermal and mechanical properties of the substrate. are collinear along the z direction. In the magnetostrictive
equations of state several mechanical parameters appear
∗ Tel.: +39-011-391-9820; fax: +39-011-391-9834. (strain ε, stress σ, Young’s modulus at constant field EyH ),
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Pasquale). magnetic parameters (applied magnetic field H, magnetic

0924-4247/$ – see front matter © 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0924-4247(03)00153-5
 M. Pasquale / Sensors and Actuators A 106 (2003) 142–148 143

induction B, permeability at constant stress µσ ), and two

magnetomechanical coefficients (the axial strain coefficient,
∗ = dB/dσ| ).
d33 = dε/dH|σ , and its inverse, d33 H
σ
ε= + d33 H, (1)
EyH
∗
B = d33 σ + µσ H. (2)

These equations should be considered just as a first

approximation for analyzing the coupled mechanical and
magnetic behavior of magnetostrictive materials. Eq. (1)
shows that the strain of a magnetostrictive body changes
with stress and applied magnetic field. When a stress σ is
applied to a magnetostrictive sample, it will strain and the Fig. 1. Hysteresis loop of a 1 ␮m thick FeTb amorphous film on a 200 ␮m
effect is inversely proportional to the elastic modulus EyH . Si substrate under tensile and compressive stress. Magnetic permeability
An applied magnetic field H can also change the sample’s changes can be exploited for sensing applications.
length, and the effect of H is scaled by the piezomagnetic
coefficient d33 . The elastic modulus and the piezomagnetic
coefficients vary from one magnetostrictive material to the observe that in-plane anisotropy increases with tensile stress
next. Unfortunately, just as the B = µH law can be used and vanishes with coercivity and remanence when the stress
as a very rough approximation of the magnetic behavior is compressive, an indication of out-of-plane anisotropy be-
of a material, the above equations cannot take into account ing developed. These characteristics may be exploited for
the magnetic and mechanical nonlinearity and hysteresis stress sensing using an excitation field and a pick-up coil,
phenomena; nonetheless they are a good starting point where maximum permeability changes will appear as differ-
to analyze the behavior of a body with magnetostrictive ences in the output peak voltages.
properties. Magnetostrictive materials can be produced with values
of positive or negative magnetostriction for specific applica-
tions by tuning composition, and proper magnetic conditions
3. Mechanical sensing techniques leading to linear magnetic conditions can be achieved by
preparation or post-processing through field/stress anneal-
According to Eqs. (1) and (2) we can use a magnetostric- ing, in order to induce the desired degree of anisotropy. As an
tive material to convert a change in dimensions into an elec- example we can study the behavior under stress of an amor-
tric signal which can be further processed. Magnetostrictive phous CoFeB alloy with a small negative magnetostriction to
sensors can be divided into passive or active sensors de- monitor the deformation of concrete structures under static
pending on the type of transduction used: a passive sensor or dynamic load. Magnetically softer amorphous ribbons
may rely on the inverse magnetostriction to measure most (thickness <30 ␮m), having a small coercive field and van-
mechanical quantities such as load/force/pressure and flow ishing terms of anisotropy, are particularly sensitive to exter-
rates while active sensors may be used to obtain higher nal stress, and they can be excited at a few kilohertz without
sensitivity or a linear behavior, just as in most magnetic the detrimental influence of eddy current shielding. Once
field sensors based on the carrier technique or in the case the ribbon is stress- or field-annealed it is possible to obtain
of transformer-type sensors. a highly linear response of the permeability in a wide range
of applied tensile or compressive stress/deformations, which
in a reinforced concrete structure may reach σ ≈ 500 MPa
4. Magnetoelastic strain gages and force sensors and ε ≈ 2×10−3 . Due to the particularly wide stress and de-
formation range a thin magnetic film on a rigid Si substrate
Many Fe, Ni, or Co based magnetic materials in the form does not couple well mechanically. We can otherwise exploit
of thin/thick films, ribbons, or bulk can be successfully em- the fact that the reinforcement in concrete is made of steel,
ployed as sensing elements for deformation. Many types of and a CoFe-based amorphous ribbon will possess compara-
magnetic strain gages can be constructed and the operating ble mechanical characteristics. After a proper optimization
principle is based on inverse magnetostriction, where the dc with a stress annealing which induces a strong transversal
or ac permeability changes are induced by an applied com- anisotropy (Fig. 2, inset) we can achieve the desired linear
pressive or tensile stress (Fig. 1 and Eqs. (1) and (2)). A magnetic behavior shown in Fig. 2. The possibility of sens-
clarifying example can be considered: an amorphous TbFe ing a wide range of applied stress is due to the combination
thin film shown in Fig. 1 has a large magnetostriction (up of tensile stress and small negative magnetostriction. It
to λs ≈ 4 × 10−4 ) and a rather strong in-plane anisotropy in should be noted that this combination leads to an increase of
the zero applied stress state [1–4]. From the figure we can the transversal anisotropy under tensile stress but does not
144 M. Pasquale / Sensors and Actuators A 106 (2003) 142–148

Fig. 3. Double ring torque transducer from [9]. Each ring is circularly
magnetized in the opposite direction. Applied torque causes a rotation of
the remanent magnetization of the circular direction.

Fig. 2. Linear hysteresis loops measured at increasing levels of applied magnetization change induced in our sensor by a torsional
tensile stress on a stress annealed amorphous CoFe ribbon. Maximum
tensile stress: 350 MPa. Inset shows the transversal domain structure.
stress. Torque measurements are useful in a great variety of
Longitudinal sample direction, up–down; photo dimensions, 0.9×1.7 mm2 . applications such as rotating machines, high power engines,
Courtesy of F. Fendrich L. Kraus (CAS Prague). and also in the automotive field, where low torque measure-
ments can be used for power steering. Several possible con-
lead to saturation of the sensor at practical levels of applied figurations can be used: the magnetization of the sensor can
stress. be measured directly (as a passive sensor), or after an exci-
Both force sensors and strain gages based on mag- tation as a change in permeability or inductance in a coupled
netostrictive ribbons or films can employ the change in circuit [6]. In the case of slightly ferromagnetic shafts the
electrical impedance of a coil wound around the magne- magnetostrictive material can be bonded with several tech-
tostrictive element to detect the mechanical load [5]. Several niques (glueing, bonding, brazing, plasma spraying, etc.),
circuit configurations are possible with one or two coils. or if the shaft is reasonably ferromagnetic it can itself be
In a one-coil circuit the force/strain may be detected as an employed for the measurement, after a proper magnetiza-
inductance change of the RLC circuit containing the mag- tion. A possible configuration relies on one or two circularly
netostrictive element, measuring for instance the change in magnetized rings. As a torque is applied to the shaft a mag-
resonant frequency. In the case of a two-coil circuit we can netic field is generated in the vicinity of the rings, directly
keep the primary coil current constant and detect changes proportional to the applied torsional stress. Two rings mag-
in the output voltage from the secondary coil or better we netized in opposite directions increase the output magnetic
can use a constant-flux operating mode, which is more sen- field signal (see Fig. 3 ) [9], which can be detected by Hall
sitive to structural changes of the magnetostrictive material. probes or other field sensors. An interesting example [7] is
In this type of measurement we modify the excitation cur- the torque measurement on a drill bit: a coil surrounds a
rent to maintain a constant detection coil output voltage. part of the drill including the shank and the flutes. Two se-
Comparing with conventional force transducers employing ries opposition coils, one positioned over the flutes and one
strain gages, these force sensors are simpler, and produce over the shank, allow the measurement of the permeability.
output voltage signals three orders of magnitude higher. An- The permeability of the shank is less sensitive to changes in
other possible configuration for force sensors relies on the torque than the flutes’ and the difference in the output volt-
changes of peak magnetization at a constant applied field. ages of the two coils is proportional to the applied torque.
In ref. [8] a set of hysteresis loops is obtained by applying Another possible configuration for torque measurements on
a sinusoidal magnetizing current to an amorphous magnetic a shaft relies on the difference in saturation magnetization
core, and each loop is obtained with an increasing applied of two regions of amorphous magnetic material, which are
force. The method has a good linearity for low levels of designed with a chevron geometry (see Fig. 4 and ref. [10]).
applied stress (>1% deviation up to 2.5 MPa). It should be In the specific case a Co-based, negative magnetostrictive
especially noted that in the case of magnetization close to (λs ≈ −6 × 10−6 ) ribbon was used, cut in the shape of a
technical saturation the hysteresis properties of the material chevron. Two patterns of magnetic chevrons are attached to
have no direct influence on the measured quantity as the the nonmagnetic shaft, with mirror symmetry. Due to the
property studied is not influenced by the loop area. different geometry, the patterns, which are magnetized along
the axis of the shaft by a solenoid with an applied constant
current, are subject to a different reorientation of the mag-
5. Torque sensors netic anisotropy with the application of a variable torsional
stress. In one pattern the material will be subjected to a pre-
Just as in the case of force measurements we can use the dominantly compressive stress while in the other pattern it
inverse magnetostrictive effect to detect torque through the will be subjected to a tensile stress. This difference leads to
 M. Pasquale / Sensors and Actuators A 106 (2003) 142–148 145

amorphous ribbon, which will change its permeability upon

the arrival of the torsional wave, and a pick-up coil. In some
cases a piezoelectric material can also be used. Several
position sensors of this type can be found on the market,
with different spatial resolutions and for different maximum
distances, up to 50 m with millimeter resolution (see Fig. 5).
Other types of displacement sensors are based on mag-
netostrictive delay lines, where a current pulse in a wire
orthogonal to the magnetostrictive line generates a pulsed
magnetic field and a coupled elastic wave in the line. Again
Fig. 4. Torque sensor on a nonmagnetic shaft from [10]. Negative mag- the acoustic wave is propagated through the magnetostric-
netostrictive chevrons are attached with mirror symmetry and magnetized tive delay line and detected by a receiving unit. In this case
along the axis by a solenoid with a constant field. Differences in the
magnetization of the chevrons due to torsional stress are measured by the
it is possible to detect the distance between the wire and the
pick-up coils. receiver. Several variations of this configuration are possible
as discussed in [11,12].

an unbalanced magnetization which can be detected by the

two pick-up coils connected in series opposition [10]. 7. Actuation with giant magnetostrictive and magnetic
shape memory alloys

6. Displacement sensors Magnetostrictive actuation is generally based on the Joule

effect, describing the shape change of a sphere that becomes
Many position sensors are constructed using a magne- an ellipsoid upon application of a magnetic field, this ef-
tostrictive wire (i.e. an Ni wire) and position sensing is fect is typically used in highly anisotropic geometry, i.e. to
obtained through the Wiedemann effect. The Wiedemann produce a length change in a rod or radial vibrations of a
effect is a localized mechanical twisting due to the superpo- ring composed by connected rods. Materials conventionally
sition of a circular field and a longitudinal field generated used for actuation are magnetostrictive elements like nickel,
by two sources, respectively: (a) a current pulse propagating cobalt, iron, their alloys, and also some Co-based ferrites.
through the wire and (b) a longitudinal magnetic field pro- These materials possess a magnetostriction typically lower
duced by a permanent magnet at a certain position along the than 1 × 10−4 . In recent years (1970–1980), after the dis-
wire. The sensor can be built in this way: an electric pulse covery and development of Terfenol-D (bulk, laminations,
propagates from the source end toward the other wire end. powders) and other rare-earth-based materials with giant
As the pulse and the connected circular field reaches the magnetostriction (up to 2.4 × 10−3 ) there has been an in-
position of the permanent magnet a localized mechanical creasing number of applications based on magnetostrictive
twisting occurs (the Wiedemann effect), and the mechanical actuators. Magnetostrictive actuation with conventional ma-
wave starts propagating toward both wire ends at the proper terials competes directly with piezoelectric materials like
speed of sound (in the range of 5000 m/s). Since the electric
√ barium titanate and lead zirconate titanate (PZT), while
signal propagates at a much higher speed, given by 1/ µε, in the case of high power applications we can only use
the magnet position can be computed as the delay between Terfenol-D.
the pulse emission time and the mechanical wave arrival In very recent times there has been the discovery of mag-
at the source end. At the other wire end there is usually a netic shape memory materials (Ni2 MnGa and FePd) which
damper to absorb the mechanical wave and avoid echoes. can reach a strain up to 6% due to a rearrangement of the
The mechanical wave detector can be constructed with an martensite structure induced by a magnetic field. In spite of

Fig. 5. Example of a position sensor based on the magnetostrictive properties of an Ni wire, excited by a current pulse producing a circular magnetizing
field and a localized axial field produced by the permanent magnet at a certain position. The sum of the two excitations produces a mechanical twisting
which propagates in the wire at the speed of sound, allowing for the detection of the position of the magnet.
146 M. Pasquale / Sensors and Actuators A 106 (2003) 142–148

this wide variety of available materials it should be noted tense fields in the range of 100 kA/m; the rod, positioned on
that pure Ni is still a material of choice in many applica- the cylinder axis and surrounded by a large solenoid, is pre-
tions, due both to the low cost and to the absence of ag- stressed in compression to achieve a maximum deformation
ing processes which lead to the decay of properties in both at a given field. Additionally a bias field is applied through
Terfenol-D, shape memory, and piezoelectric materials. a permanent magnet to shift the zero current point to the re-
gion of maximum strain-to-field response. The application
of a bias also avoids the typical frequency doubling of the
8. Magnetostrictive actuators mechanical output with respect to the magnetic field, due to
the insensitivity of magnetostrictive strain to the field sign.
Several types of actuators have been developed using Given the complexity of the magnetic circuit of the actuator
Terfenol-D, a giant magnetostrictive alloy of composition we can understand that a detailed analysis of all the compo-
Tb0.3 Dy0.7 Fe1.92 (or its low temperature counterpart Terzi- nents is needed for the design of a working device, where
nol, Tb0.3 Dy0.7 Zn1 with a maximum 0.5% strain), among the strain versus field characteristic of the rod will only give
which are sonar, vibration dampers, fuel injectors, valve ac- us the material properties regardless of all other parameters
tuators, acoustic speakers, etc. Unfortunately Terfenol-D is of the magnetic and mechanical configuration which play a
expensive, especially in the final form of oriented twinned fundamental role in defining the strain versus applied field
single crystal of large dimensions, which is the only struc- characteristics.
ture capable of achieving a maximum strain in the range of
2 × 10−3 or above (up to 2.4 × 10−3 ). Commercial-grade
single crystals typically achieve a strain of 1.6 × 10−3 9. Magnetic shape memory actuators
but due to price issues many applications rely on lower
performance but cheaper crystals, polycrystals, or bonded Ni2 MnGa and Fe70 Pd30 are the only alloys known to
powders. The lower-end materials, polymer-bonded nonori- date to posses shape memory effects which can be excited
ented powders, can still achieve a good 6.5 × 10−4 strain through a magnetic field. In recent years most of the research
[13] at saturation and may be used for dynamic applications has been devoted to the Ni2 MnGa system, which has shown
exceeding 10 kHz. It should be noted that, with respect to a 6% strain in a field of about 300 kA/m, while the demon-
single crystals or polycrystals, this material requires a com- strated output of the FePd system is about 1.2%. It is im-
paratively high applied field to achieve a given induction, portant to clarify that the phenomenology beneath this giant
due to the lower density and to the effect of demagnetizing deformation is completely different from magnetostriction.
fields on the composite powder. Composite powder sam- Shape memory materials have two stable phases and in the
ples are cheaper because they can be produced directly case of Ni2 MnGa, which is the simpler system, the low tem-
from milled polycrystals which are mixed with a polymer perature phase is martensitic, with a tetragonal unit cell. The
binder and compacted under high pressure. They can be tetragonal cell has a shorter c axis which is also the magnetic
magnetically aligned imposing a field during compaction, anisotropy axis [14–17]. A large pseudo-plastic strain (up
a treatment which enhances the maximum achievable to 6%) is obtained when an oriented single-crystal sample
strain. of Ni2 MnGa is subjected to compressive stress (in the range
In the typical actuator the Terfenol-D rod is enclosed in a of 1–10 MPa) in the low temperature martensite phase. As
cylindrical magnetic circuit which is designed to generate in- the sample contracts, the tetragonal cells will preferably

Fig. 6. An oriented single-crystal sample of Ni2 MnGa is subjected to compressive stress in the low temperature martensite phase. As the sample contracts,
the tetragonal cells will preferably orient their c axes along with stress. A magnetic field can partly or fully reorient the c axis which is also the magnetic
anisotropy axis. Regions with different orientations of the c axis are separated by twin boundaries which appear as lines at about 45◦ with respect to
the sample edges (see inset).
 M. Pasquale / Sensors and Actuators A 106 (2003) 142–148 147

Fig. 8. Pseudo-plastic behavior shown in the stress–strain curve of an

Ni2 MnGa single crystal where the mechanical yielding appears at a very
low applied stress value. The yielding point may change depending on
Fig. 7. Vibrating sample magnetometer loop of an oriented Ni2 MnGa the single-crystal composition, structure and also on external stress and
single sample with 3.5% strain in the (1 0 0) direction. The measurement temperature.
starts in the demagnetized state after a thermal sample reset. Upon mag-
netization, a threshold field is reached and the sample strains due to the
on the single-crystal composition, structure and also on
reorientation of the short c axis carrying the anisotropy. Subsequent mag-
netization along the same direction will not produce strain. Magnetization external stress and temperature this threshold level can
after a 90◦ sample rotation will again produce strain. change, and may reach values too high to be achieved with
the simple coupling between magnetic field and magnetic
anisotropy.
orient their c axes in the direction of stress (see Fig. 6). The
peculiarity of these materials is due to the correspondence
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