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Topology Lecture Notes
Thomas Ward, UEA
June 4, 2001
 Contents

Chapter 1. Topological Spaces 3

1. The subspace topology 5
2. The product topology 6
3. The product topology on Rn 7
4. The quotient topology 9
5. Three important examples of quotient topologies 9

Chapter 2. Properties of Topological Spaces 12

1. Examples 12
2. Hausdorff Spaces 13
3. Examples 14
4. Connectedness 18
5. Path connectedness 18

Chapter 3. Homotopy equivalence 20

Chapter 4. The Fundamental Group 26

1. Based Maps 27
2. Moving the base point 28

Chapter 5. Covering spaces 31

1. Lifting maps 33
2. The action on the fibre 35

Chapter 6. Classification of surfaces 39

1. Orientation 42
2. Polygonal representation 44
3. Transformation to standard form 45
4. Juxtaposition of symbols 49
5. Euler characteristic 51
6. Invariance of the characteristic 52

Chapter 7. Simplicial complexes and Homology groups 54

1. Chains, cycles and boundaries 55
2. The equation ∂ 2 = 0 58

Chapter 8. More homology calculations 59

1. Geometrical interpretation of homology 60
2. Euler characteristic 65
1
 CONTENTS 2

Chapter 9. Simplicial approximation and an application 66

Chapter 10. Homological algebra and the exact sequence of a pair 69
1. Chain complexes and mappings 69
2. Relative homology 70
3. The exact homology sequence of a pair 72
Appendix A. Finitely generated abelian groups 77
1. The Fundamental Theorem 78
2. Exact sequences 79
Appendix B. Review problems 81
Index 85
 CHAPTER 1

Topological Spaces

A metric space is a pair (X, d) where X is a set, and d is a metric

on X, that is a function from X × X to R that satisfies the following
properties for all x, y, z ∈ X
1. d(x, y) ≥ 0, and d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y,
2. d(x, y) = d(y, x) (symmetry), and
3. d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) (triangle inequality).
Example 1.1. The following are all metric spaces (check this).
1. R with the metric d(x, y) = |x − y|.
2. Rd with the metric d(x, y) = ((x1 − y1 )p + · · · + (xd − yd )p )1/p =
|x − y|p for any p ≥ 1.
3. C with the metric d(z, w) = |x − w|.
4. S1 = {z ∈ C | |z| = 1} with the metric d(z, w) = | arg(z) −
arg(w)|, where arg is chosen to lie in [0, 2π).
5. S1 = {z ∈ C | |z| = 1} with the metric d(z, w) = |z − w|.
6. Any set X with the metric d(x, y) = 1 if x 6= y and 0 if x = y.
Such a space is called a discrete space.
7. Let L be the set of lines through the origin in R2 . Then each
line ` determines a unique point `∗ on the y ≥ 0 semicircle of
the unit circle centered at the origin (except for the special line
y = 0; for this line choose the point (1, 0)). Define a metric on
L by setting d(`1 , `2 ) = |`∗1 − `∗2 |2 .
8. Let C[a, b] denote the set of all continuous functions from [a, b] to
R. Define a metric on C[a, b] by d(f, g) = supt∈[a,b] |f (t) − g(t)|.
A function f : X → Y from the metric space (X, dX ) to the metric
space (Y, dY ) is continuous at the point x0 ∈ X if for any  > 0 there
is a δ > 0 such that
dX (x, x0 ) < δ =⇒ dY (f (x), f (x0 )) < .
The function is continuous if it is continuous at every point.
Definition 1.2. A set U ⊂ X in a metric space is open if and only
if ∀ x ∈ U ∃ x > 0 such that if y ∈ X has d(x, y) <  then y ∈ U . A
set C ⊂ X is closed if and only if its complement C c = X\C is open.
A useful shorthand is the symbol for a metric open ball,
B(x; ) = {y ∈ X | d(x, y) < }.
As an exercise, prove the following basic result.
3
 1. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 4

Lemma 1.3. Let X and Y be metric spaces, and f : X → Y a

function. The following are equivalent:
1. f is continuous;
2. for every open set U in Y , f −1 (U ) is open in X;
3. for every closed set C in Y , f −1 (C) is closed in X.
Try to understand what this lemma is telling you about functions
mapping from a discrete space as in Example 1.1(6) above.
Also as an exercise, prove the following.
Lemma 1.4. Let X be a metric space. Then
1. The empty set ∅ and the whole space X are open sets.
2. If U and V are open sets, then U ∩ V is an open Sset.
3. If {Uα }α∈A is any collection of open sets, then α∈A Uα is an
open set.
Notice that the index set A in Lemma 1.4 does not need to be
countable.
Lemma 1.4 suggests the following generalization of a metric space:
think of Lemma 1.4 as defining certain properties of open sets. By
Lemma 1.3 we know that the open sets tell us all about continuity of
functions, so this will give us a language for talking about continuity
and so on without involving metrics. This turns out to be convenient
and more general – by simply dealing with open sets, we are able
to define topological spaces, which turns out to be a strictly bigger
collection of spaces than the collection of all metric spaces.
Definition 1.5. If X is a set, a topology on X is a collection T
of subsets of X satisfying:
1. ∅, X ∈ T ,
2. U, V ∈ T =⇒ U ∩ V ∈ T , S
3. if Uα ∈ T for all α ∈ A, then α∈A Uα ∈ T .
The pair (X, T ) is called a topological space, and the members of T
are called the open sets. If the space is also a metric space, then the
open sets will be called metric open sets if the distinction matters. We
now have a new definition of continuity – make sure you understand
why this is now a definition and not a theorem.
Definition 1.6. A function f : X → Y between topological spaces
(X, TX ) and (Y, TY ) is continuous if and only if U ∈ TY =⇒ f −1 (U ) ∈
TX .
Lemma 1.7. Let (X, TX ), (Y, TY ) and (Z, TZ ) be topological spaces.
If functions f : X → Y and g : Y → Z are continuous, so is the
composition gf : X → Z.
Proof. If U ∈ TZ , then g −1 (U ) ∈ TY since g is continuous. It fol-
lows that f −1 (g −1 (U )) ∈ TX since f is continuous. Therefore (gf )−1 (U ) =
f −1 (g −1 (U )) ∈ TX for all open sets U in Z.
 1. THE SUBSPACE TOPOLOGY 5

Much of what we shall do in this course is to decide when two

topological spaces are essentially the same.
Definition 1.8. Topological spaces (X, TX ) and (Y, TY ) are home-
omorphic if there is a continuous bijection f : X → Y whose inverse is
also continuous. The function f is called a homeomorphism.

Example 1.9. (1) If (X, d) is a metric space, then by Lemma 1.4

the set of all metric open sets forms a topology on X, called the metric
topology.
(2) If X is any set, then T = P(X), the set of all subsets of X, forms a
topology on X called the discrete topology. Check that this is identical
to the metric topology induced by the discrete metric. Notice that any
function from a discrete topological space to another topological space
is automatically continuous.
(3) If X is any set then the concrete topology is defined to be T =
{∅, X}. Notice that any function from a topological space to a concrete
space is automatically continuous. Exercise: is the concrete topology
a metric topology for some metric?
(4) If X has more than one element, D is the discrete topology on X,
and C is the concrete topology on X, then (X, D) is not homeomorphic
to (X, C).

1. The subspace topology

Given a topological space (X, TX ), we may induce a topology on
any set A ⊂ X. Given A ⊂ X, define the subspace topology TA on A
(also called the induced or relative topology) by defining
U ⊂ A =⇒ U ∈ TA if and only if ∃ U 0 ∈ T such that U = U 0 ∩ A.
That is, an open set in A is given by intersecting an open set in X with
A. Exercise: check that this does define a topology.
Lemma 1.10. Let ı : A → X be the identity inclusion map. Then,
if A has the subspace topology,
1. ı is continuous.
2. If (Y, TY ) is another topological space, then f : Y → A is contin-
uous if and only if ıf : Y → X is continuous.
3. If (Y, TY ) is another topological space, and g : X → Y is contin-
uous, then gı : A → Y is continuous.
Proof. (1) If U ∈ TX then ı−1 (U ) = U ∩A ∈ TA , so ı is continuous.
(2) Suppose that if is continuous, and that U ∈ TA . Then there is a
set U 0 ∈ TX such that U = U 0 ∩ A = ı−1 (U 0 ). Since if is continuous,
(if )−1 (U 0 ) ∈ TY , so (if )−1 (U 0 ) = f −1 ı−1 (U 0 ) = f −1 (U ) ∈ TY for any
U ∈ TA , so f is continuous.
Conversely, if f : Y → A is continuous, then ıf is continuous since
ı is.
 2. THE PRODUCT TOPOLOGY 6

(3) This is clear.

Exercise: do the conclusions in Lemma 1.10 define the subspace
topology?

2. The product topology

Given topological spaces (X, TX ) and (Y, TY ), we want to define a nat-
ural topology on the product space X × Y .
Definition 1.11. Give a set X, a basis is a collection B of subsets
of X such that
S
1. X = B∈B B; ∅ ∈ B.
2. B1 , B2 ∈ B =⇒ B1 ∩ B2 ∈ B.

Lemma 1.12. Given a set X and a basis B, let TB be the collection

of subsets of X defined by
[
U ∈ TB if and only if ∃ a family of sets {Bλ }, Bλ ∈ B, with U = Bλ .
λ

Then TB is a topology on X.
Proof. (1) It is clear that ∅ and X are in TB .
(2) If U, V ∈ TB then there are families {Bλ }λ∈Λ and {Cµ }µ∈M with
[ [
U= Bλ , V = Cµ .
λ∈Λ µ∈M
T
It follows that U ∩ V = λ,µ Bλ ∩ Cµ ∈ TB .
(3) Closure under arbitrary unions follows similarly.
That is, there is a topology generated by the basis B, and it com-
prises all sets obtained by taking unions of members of the basis.
Lemma 1.13. If (X, TX ) and (Y, TY ) are topological spaces, then
B = {U × V | U ∈ TX , V ∈ TY } is a basis.
Proof. (1) X × Y, ∅ ∈ B clearly.
(2) Closure under finite intersections is clear: (U1 × V1 ) ∩ (U2 × V2 ) =
(U1 ∩ U2 ) × (V1 × V2 ).
(3) As an exercise, show that the basis of open rectangles is not closed
under unions. (Draw a picture of X × Y and notice that the union of
two open rectangles is not in general an open rectangle.)
The sets of the form U ×V are called rectangles for obvious reasons.
Exercise: show by example that the set of rectangles is not a topology.
Definition 1.14. The product topology on X × Y is the topology
TB where B is the basis of rectangles.
 3. THE PRODUCT TOPOLOGY ON Rn 7

Do not assume that W is open in the product

topology if and only if it is an open rectangle.

The correct statement is: W is open in the product topology if and

only if ∀ (x, y) ∈ W ⊂ X × Y there exist sets U ∈ TX and V ∈ TY such
that (x, y) ∈ U × V and U × V ⊂ W .
Associated with the product space X × Y are canonical projections
p1 : X × Y → X, sending (x, y) to x, and p2 : X × Y → Y , sending
(x, y) to y.
Lemma 1.15. With the product topology:
1. The projections are continuous,
2. If (Z, TZ ) is another topological space, then f : Z → X × Y is
continuous if and only if p1 f : Z → X and p2 f : Z → Y are both
continuous.
Proof. If U ∈ TX , then p−1 1 (U ) = U × Y is open in X × Y , so p1
is continuous. Similarly, p2 is continuous.
(2) If f is continuous, then p1 f and p2 f are compositions of continuous
functions, hence continuous.
Conversely, suppose that p1 f and p2 f are continuous, and U ∈ TX ,
V ∈ TY . Then
f −1 (U × V ) = f −1 ((U × Y ) ∩ (X × V ))
= f −1 (U × Y ) ∩ f −1 (X × V )
= f −1 p−1
1 (U ) ∩ f
−1 −1
p2 (V )
−1 −1
= (p1 f ) (U ) ∩ (p2 f ) (V ) ∈ TZ ,
since p1 f and p2 f are continuous.
Now let W = ∪Uλ × Vλ be any open set in X × Y . Then f −1 (W ) =
−1
∪f (Uλ × Vλ ) is open in Z, so f is continuous.

3. The product topology on Rn

Recall the usual (metric) topology on R:
U ∈ TR ⇐⇒ ∀x ∈ U ∃  > 0 such that (x − , x + ) ⊂ U
⇐⇒ ∀x ∈ U ∃ a, b ∈ R such that x ∈ (a, b) ⊂ U.
It follows that the product topology on R2 , T2 , is given by:
W ∈ T2 ⇐⇒ ∀x ∈ W ∃ U, V ∈ TR such that x ∈ U × V ⊂ W
⇐⇒ ∀x = (x1 , x2 ) ∈ W ∃ a1 , b1 , a2 , b2 such that
(x1 , x2 ) ∈ (a1 , b1 ) × (a2 , b2 ) ⊂ W.
 3. THE PRODUCT TOPOLOGY ON Rn 8

Similarly, the product topology on Rn , Tn , is given by:

W ∈ Tn ⇐⇒ ∀x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ W ∃ a1 , b1 , . . . , an , bn such that
x ∈ (a1 , b1 ) × · · · × (an , bn ) ⊂ W.
On the other hand, we know many metrics on Rn , and usually use
the standard Euclidean metric
n
!1/2
X
d ((x1 , . . . , xn ), (y1 , . . . , yn )) = |xi − yi |2 ,
i=1
which defines a metric topology on Rn . Are the two topologies the
same?
Lemma 1.16. The metric topology Td for the usual Euclidean met-
ric on Rn , and the product topology on Rn , are identical.
Proof. Suppose W ∈ Td , so ∀x ∈ W, ∃  > 0 such that x ∈
B(x; ) ⊂ W . We must find a1 , b1 , . . . , an , bn such that x ∈ (a1 , b1 ) ×
· · · × (an , bn ) ⊂ B(x; ), showing that W ∈ Tn . In two dimensions,
Figure 1.1 shows how to do this.

ε
. b 2- a 2

B(x, ε)

b1- a 1

Figure 1.1. An open ball in R2

It follows (details are an exercise) that Td ⊂ Tn .

Conversely, suppose that W ∈ Tn , so that ∀x ∈ W ∃a1 , b1 , . . . , an , bn
such that x ∈ (a1 , b1 ) × · · · × (an , bn ) ⊂ W . We need to find  positive
such that x ∈ B(x; ) ⊂ (a1 , b1 ) × · · · × (an , bn ). Again, Figure 1.2 in
R2 shows how to do this.

x B(x, ε)

Figure 1.2. An open rectangle in R2

It follows that Tn = Td .
 5. THREE IMPORTANT EXAMPLES OF QUOTIENT TOPOLOGIES 9

4. The quotient topology

Given a topological space (X, TX ) and a surjective function q : X → Y ,
we may define a topology on Y using the topology on X. The quotient
topology on Y induced by q is defined to be
TY = {U ⊂ Y | q −1 (U ) ∈ TX }.

Lemma 1.17. TY is a topology on Y . The map q is continuous with

respect to the quotient topology.
As with the product topology, the quotient topology is the ‘right’
one in the following sense. Lemma 1.17 says that the quotient topology
is not too large (does not have too many open sets); Lemma 1.18 says
that the quotient topology is large enough.
Lemma 1.18. Let (X, TX ) be a topological space, with a surjection
q : X → Y . Let (Z, TZ ) be another topological space, and f : Y → Z a
function. If Y is given the quotient topology, then
1. q is continuous;
2. f : Y → Z is continuous if and only if f q : X → Z is continuous.
Proof. (1) This is Lemma 1.17.
(2) If f is continuous, then f q is continuous since it is the composition
of two continuous maps.
Assume now that f q is continuous, and that U ∈ TZ . Then
f −1 (U ) ∈ TY ⇐⇒ q 1 (f −1 (U )) ∈ TX (by definition)
⇐⇒ (f q)−1 (U ) ∈ TX (which is true since f q is continuous).
It follows that f is continuous.

5. Three important examples of quotient topologies

Example 1.19. [real projective space] Define an equivalence
relation ∼ on (n + 1) dimensional real vector space Rn+1 by
(x1 , . . . , xn+1 ) ∼ (y1 , . . . , yn+1 )
if and only if there exists λ 6= 0 such that x1 = λy1 , . . . , xn+1 = λyn+1 .
Define n-dimensional real projective space to be the space of equiva-
lence classes
RP n = Rn+1 \{0}/ ∼ .
In RP n it is convenient to use homogeneous coordinates, so a point is
given by [x1 , . . . , xn+1 ], where (x1 , . . . , xn+1 ) ∈ Rn+1 \{0}, and
[x1 , . . . , xn+1 ] = [y1 , . . . , yn+1 ]
if and only if (x1 , . . . , xn+1 ) ∼ (y1 , . . . , yn+1 ).
Recall the standard notation for spheres: S n = {x ∈ Rn+1 | |x| =
1} is the n-sphere (| · | is the usual metric). Special cases are S 0 =
 5. THREE IMPORTANT EXAMPLES OF QUOTIENT TOPOLOGIES 10

{±1}, S 1 the circle, and S 2 the usual sphere. Make the n-sphere into
a topological space by inducing the subspace topology from Rn+1 .
There is a natural surjection q : S n → RP n given by q(x1 , . . . , xn+1 ) =
[x1 , . . . , xn+1 ]. (See exercises).
Define the topology on RP n to be the quotient topology defined by
the function q : S n → RP n .

Example 1.20. [the möbius band] Let X = [0, 1] × [0, 1], the
square. Define an equivalence relation ∼ on X by
(x, y) ∼ (x0 , y 0 ) ⇐⇒ (x, y) = (x0 , y 0 ), or
x = 0, x0 = 1, y 0 = 1 − y, or
x = 1, x0 = 0, y 0 = 1 − y.
This equivalence relation is represented pictorially in Figure 1.3 – make
sure you understand how this works.

Figure 1.3. The relation ∼ on the square

The Möbius band is defined to be the quotient space M = X/ ∼,

together with the quotient topology. There is a canonical function
q : X → M , defined by q(x, y) = [(x, y)]∼ .
Notice that f : M → R is continuous if and only if f q = g :
[0, 1] × [0, 1] → R is continuous.
A less rigorous – but more practical – construction of M is the
following. Take a strip of paper, twist one half turn, then glue the ends
together. Check that this gives the same topological space.

Figure 1.4. The Möbius band

 5. THREE IMPORTANT EXAMPLES OF QUOTIENT TOPOLOGIES 11

Figure 1.5. The torus

Example 1.21. [the torus] Let X = [0, 1] × [0, 1], and define an
equivalence relation ∼ using Figure 1.5.
A convenient representation of the quotient function is q(s, t) =
(e2πis , e2πit ), which realizes the 2-torus as the product space S 1 × S 1 .
 CHAPTER 2

Properties of Topological Spaces

Let (X, TX ) be a topological space, and A ⊂ X a subset of X.

The closure of A, denoted Ā, is the intersection of all the closed sets
containing A. It follows that Ā ⊃ A, Ā is closed, and Ā is the smallest
set with these two properties.
The interior of A, denoted A◦ , is the union of all open sets contained
in A. It follows that A◦ ⊂ A, A◦ is open, and A◦ is the largest set with
these two properties.
The boundary or frontier of A, sometimes denoted δA, is Ā\A◦ .
Definition 2.1. Let (X, TX ) be a topological space, and C ⊂ X
a subset. Then C is compact
S if, given any family of open sets {Uλ }
which cover C, C ⊂ λ Uλ , there is a finite number Uλ1 , . . . , Uλn of
these sets that still cover C: C ⊂ Uλ1 ∪ · · · ∪ Uλn .
The whole space X is said to be compact if it is a compact subset of
itself. Notice the terminology: an open cover of C is a collection of
open sets {Uλ } whose union contains C. The cover {Vµ } is a subcover
of the cover {Uλ } if {Vµ } ⊂ {Uλ }. That is, ∀µ ∃ λ such that Vµ = Uλ .

If a set has a finite open cover, it

does not follow that it is compact.

Recall the Heine–Borel theorem.

Theorem 2.2. A subset of Rn is compact if and only if it is closed
and bounded.
It follows that spheres are compact.
Theorem 2.3. Let X and Y be topological spaces, and f : X → Y
a continuous function. If X is compact, then f (X) ⊂ Y is a compact
subset of Y .
1. Examples
[1] Recall that there is a continuous map q : S n → RP n . It follows that
RP n is compact.
[2] Similarly, the Möbius band is compact.
[3] The torus is compact.
12
 2. HAUSDORFF SPACES 13

2. Hausdorff Spaces
The next few results try to generalize the Heine–Borel theorem to
topological spaces. There is one technicality, which we deal with below
by considering Hausdorff spaces. This assumption will prevent the
spaces we consider from being too pathological. In one direction there
is no problem: closed subsets of compact sets are always compact.
Lemma 2.4. If A is a closed subset of a compact topological space,
then A is compact.
Proof. Let {Uλ }λ∈Λ be an open cover of A. Then {X\A, Uλ }λ∈Λ
is an open cover of all of X (since A is closed). By compactness, there
is a finite subcover,
X ⊂ (X\A) ∪ Uλ1 ∪ · · · ∪ Uλn ,
so A ⊂ Uλ1 ∪ · · · ∪ Uλn and A is therefore compact.

Definition 2.5. A topological space X is Hausdorff if given two

points x, y ∈ X, there are open sets U, V ⊂ X with x ∈ U , y ∈ V , and
U ∩ V = ∅.
Hausdorff topological spaces are in some sense not too far from
being metric spaces. You may also see the Hausdorff property called
T2 .

V
.y
.x

Figure 2.1. The Hausdorff property

Example 2.6. (1) The metric topology on a metric space is always

Hausdorff. If x and y are distinct points, then δ = d(x, y) is greater
than 0. It follows that the metric open balls B(x; δ/3) and B(y; δ/3)
are disjoint open sets that separate x and y.
(2) The concrete topology on any space containing at least two points
is never Hausdorff (and therefore cannot be induced by any metric).
(3) Let X = {a, b}. Define a topology by T = {∅, {a}, {a, b}}. Then
the topological space (X, T ) is not Hausdorff. Notice that the set {a}
is compact but is not closed in this topology.

Theorem 2.7. Suppose that X is Hausdorff, and C ⊂ X is com-

pact. Then C is closed.
 3. EXAMPLES 14

Proof. It is enough to show that X\C is open, and this is equiv-

alent to the following statement: for every x ∈ X\C, there is an open
set Wx 3 x with Wx ⊂ X\C.
Fix x ∈ X\C, and let y be any point in C. Since x 6= y and X is
Hausdorff, there are open sets Uy 3 x and Vy 3 y with Uy ∩ Vy = ∅.
Now {Vy }y∈C is an open cover of C, so by compactness, there is a finite
subcover
C ⊂ Vy1 ∪ · · · ∪ Vyn .
Let Wx = Uy1 ∩ · · · ∩ Uyn . Then x ∈ Wx since x ∈ Uyi for each i.
Also, Wx is open since it is a finite intersection of open sets. Finally,
Wx ∩ C = ∅ since z ∈ Wx ∩ C implies that z ∈ Uyi for i = 1, . . . , n and
z ∈ Vyk for some k, so z ∈ Uyk ∩ Vyk = ∅.

Remark 2.8. There are spaces in which every compact set is closed
(such spaces are usually called KC spaces) that are not Hausdorff. The
simplest example of this is the co-countable topology C on R. This is
defined as follows: a set A ⊂ R is open (in C) if and only if A = ∅ or
R\A is countable.
Recall that a homeomorphism is a continuous bijection whose in-
verse is also continuous. Also, a function is continuous if and only if
the pre-image of any closed set is closed. The next result is the basic
technical tool that allows us to make topological spaces by ‘cutting and
pasting’. From now on, we will use this result too often to mention,
but try to understand when it is being used.
Theorem 2.9. Let X and Y be topological spaces, and let f : X →
Y be a continuous bijection. Suppose that X is compact and Y is
Hausdorff. Then f is a homeomorphism.
Proof. Let g = f −1 : this is a well-defined map since f is a bi-
jection. Let A ⊂ X be closed. Since X is compact, A is compact.
Also, g −1 (A) = f (A) is the continuous image of a compact set, and is
therefore a compact subset of Y . Since Y is Hausdorff, g −1 (A) must
therefore be closed – which proves that g is continuous.

3. Examples
Example 2.10. [the circle] We can now be a little more rigorous
about the circle. As an application of Theorem 2.9, let’s prove that the
additive circle
T = [0, 1]/ ∼
where ∼ is defined by
x ∼ y ⇐⇒ x=y
x = 0, y = 1, or
x = 1, y = 0,
 3. EXAMPLES 15

is homeomorphic to the usual circle

S 1 = {z ∈ C | |z| = 1}.
The map q : [0, 1] → T defined by q(x) = [x] is onto, so T may be given
the quotient topology defined by q.
Define a map f : [0, 1] → S 1 by f (t) = e2πit . Then f is clearly
continuous; also f (x) = f (y) if and only if x ∼ y. It follows that f
defines a function g : T → S 1 . Since f (x) = f (y) ⇐⇒ x ∼ y, g is
bijective. By Lemma 1.18, the map g is continuous if and only if the
composition gq = f is continuous. So g is a continuous bijection from
the compact space T (this is compact since it is the continuous image
of the compact set [0, 1]) to the Hausdorff space S 1 . By Theorem 2.9,
we deduce that g is a homeomorphism.

Example 2.11. [the torus] We have already sketched this con-

struction – fill in the details as above to show that the square X =
[0, 1] × [0, 1] with edges glued together as shown in Figure 2.2, is home-
omorphic to the torus S 1 × S 1 .

Figure 2.2. The torus obtained from the square by two glueings

Example 2.12. [the klein bottle] Introducing one half-twist

in the construction of the torus gives a topological space known as the
Klein bottle K, shown in Figure 2.3.
There is no subspace of R3 that is homeomorphic to the Klein bot-
tle, but there is a subspace of R4 homeomorphic to the Klein bottle.

Example 2.13. [the projective plane again] There is one re-

maining way to glue the edges of a square together to make a topological
space: let P be the space defined by the glueing in Figure 2.4.
Let’s first show that P is homeomorphic to the Möbius band with
a disc glued onto the edge. Look closely at the Möbius band, and
 3. EXAMPLES 16

Figure 2.3. The Klein bottle

Figure 2.4. The surface P

notice that the edge is a circle. This means we can attach to it any
other topological space whose edge is a circle, by simply glueing the
two circles together. (A simple example of this is to glue two discs
along their circular edges and obtain a sphere.)
First, cut a disc out of P and chop the resulting figure in half
(Figure 2.5).

c
b
b

a
cut

Figure 2.5. The surface P with a disc cut out

Notice that letters and arrows are used to keep track of how the
pieces must be glued together. Now do a flip, some straightening out
(all of which is simply applying certain homeomorphisms) to obtain
 3. EXAMPLES 17

the Möbius band. Try to convince yourself that the surgery performed
in Figures 2.5, 2.6, and 2.7 may be made rigorous.

d c d
b a

a b a
c d c

Figure 2.6. The Möbius band again

Figure 2.7. P is the projective plane RP 2

Remember the map q : S 2 → RP 2 , given by q(x) = q(y) if and only

if x = ±y, giving a homeomorphism between RP 2 and S 2 after x is
 5. PATH CONNECTEDNESS 18

glued to −x around the equator. It follows that the surgery shown in

Figure 2.7 proves that P is homeomorphic to RP 2 .

4. Connectedness
Definition 2.14. A topological space X is connected if, given two
open sets U and V with X = U ∪ V , U ∩ V = ∅, either X = U or
X =V.

Lemma 2.15. The following are equivalent:

1. X is connected.
2. The only subsets of X that are both open and closed are the empty
set and X itself.
3. Every continuous function f : X → {0, 1} is constant.
A subset B of a topological space X is a connected subspace if B
is a connected space in the subspace topology.
We know from second year courses that a subset of R is connected
if and only if it is an interval.
Lemma 2.16. Let X be a connected space, and f : X → Y a con-
tinuous functions.
1. f (X) is a connected subspace of Y .
2. If Y = R, then f satsfies the Intermediate Value Theorem: if
f (x) ≤ f (y), and c ∈ [f (x), f (y)], then there is a z ∈ X such
that f (z) = c.

5. Path connectedness
Definition 2.17. (1) A path in a topological space X is a contin-
uous function γ : [0, 1] → X; the starting point is γ(0), the end point
is γ(1). The path γ joins the starting point to the end point.
(2) A space X is path-connected if for any points x, y ∈ X there is a
path joining x to y.

Lemma 2.18. A path-connected space is connected.

Example 2.19. There is a connected space that is not path-connected.

Notice that connectedness and path-connectedness are topological
properties: if X and Y are homoemorphic spaces, then
   
connected connected
X is ⇐⇒ Y is
path-connected path-connected
This gives us another genuine topological theorem: we know there
are space-filling curves (continuous surjective functions from an inter-
val to a square), but are now able to prove that R and R2 are not
homeomorphic.
 5. PATH CONNECTEDNESS 19

Theorem 2.20. R is not homeomorphic to R2 .

Proof. Suppose that f : R → R2 is a homeomorphism. Now it is
clear that f : R\{0} → R2 \{f (0)} is a homeomorphism for the induced
topologies. But R2 \{f (0)} is clearly connected, while R\{0} is not.
 CHAPTER 3

Homotopy equivalence

We have seen how to use paths in a topological space to see how

well-connected a space is. The next step is to use analogues of paths
in the space of maps to study the ‘shape’ of topological spaces.
Definition 3.1. Maps f, g : X → Y are homotopic if there exists
a map
F :X ×I →Y
F
so that F0 = f , F1 = g, where Ft : → X → X × I →−→ Y .
x 7→ (x, t)

Example 3.2. Any two maps f, g : X → Rn are homotopic. To

see this, notice that Rn is convex: if x and y are points in Rn , then for
any t ∈ I, the point (1 − t)x + ty is in Rn also. Define a homotopy F
by F (x, t) = (1 − t)f (x) + tg(x).

Lemma 3.3. Homotopy is an equivalence relation.

Notice that in proving Lemma 3.3 we need the Glueing Lemma (which
is on Exercise Sheet 2).
Lemma 3.4. [the glueing lemma] Let Z = A ∪ B, where A and
B are closed subsets of Z. Suppose that f : Z → Y is any function for
which f |A and f |B are maps. Then f is a map.

Definition 3.5. Maps f, g : X → Y are homotopic rel A, where

A is a subset of X, if Ft (a) = F0 (a) for all t ∈ I and a ∈ A. Write
f →∼ g rel A for this relation.
F

Example 3.6. (1) Let X = I, and let Y be the annulus {x ∈ R2 |

1 ≤ |x| ≤ 3}. Let f and g be the indicated paths, both beginning at
(−2, 0) and ending at (2, 0).
Then f and g are homotopic (check this). However, if A = {0, 1},
then f and g are not homotopic rel A. This means that the ‘hole’ in the
annulus can be detected by considering properties of homotopy classes
of paths relative to their endpoints.
(2) This example shows that homotopy of paths relative to end points
is not so good at detecting the presence of higher-dimensional ‘holes’.
Any two paths f and g in the 2-sphere with the same end points are
homotopic rel {0, 1}.
20
 3. HOMOTOPY EQUIVALENCE 21

Since homotopy is an equivalence relation, we may speak of the

homotopy class of f , denoted [f ]. To combine homotopy classes of
maps, we need to know that the obvious definition is well-defined.
f g
Lemma 3.7. If there are maps X →→ Y →→ Z, then the rule
[f ] ◦ [g] = [f ◦ g] gives a well-defined composition of homotopy classes.
The point being that if f ∼ f1 and g ∼ g1 , then f ◦ g ∼ f1 ◦ g1 .
Definition 3.8. A map f : X → Y is a homotopy equivalence if
there is a map g : Y → X such that f g ∼ 1Y and gf ∼ 1X . We write
X ∼ Y , and say that X and Y have the same homotopy type.
As an exercise, show that this defines an equivalence relation on
the set of all topological spaces, and that this equivalence is strictly
weaker than that of being homeomorphic.
In order to work with Definition 3.8, we need to prove a result that
allows pictorial arguments (pushing pieces of spaces around, cutting
and glueing and so on) to be used.
Definition 3.9. Let A be a subset of X. A map r : X → A is a
retraction if r|A = 1A . The set A is a strong deformation retract of X if
there is a homotopy Ft : X → X rel A such that F0 = 1X , F1 (X) = A
(and of course Ft (a) = a for all a ∈ A since the homotopy is rel A).
That is, X may be slid over itself into A while keeping A fixed through-
out.
Example 3.10. Let D2 = {x ∈ R2 | |x| ≤ 1}, the disc. Then
S 1 × D2 is a solid torus, with a center circle S 1 × {0}.
The homotopy Ft (x, y) = (x, (1−t)y) shows that the solid torus can
be deformed onto the center circle, so S 1 × {0} ∼ = S 1 is a deformation
1 2
retract of S × D .
The next lemma shows that deformation preserves the homotopy type
of a space.
Lemma 3.11. If A is a strong deformation retract of X, then the
identity map ı : A ,→ X is a homotopy equivalence.

Example 3.12. (1) Let X = [0, 1], and A = {0}. Then Ft (x) =
(1 − t)x shows that A is a strong deformation retract of X.
(2) Let X be the triangle in R2 whose vertices are the points P, Q, R,
and let A be a union of two sides.
The triangle may be written X = {pP + qQ + rR | p + q + r =
1, p, q, r ≥ 0}. Let w = pP + qQ + rR be a point in the triangle, and
define F0 (w) = w, and F1 (w) = w+s(P − 21 (Q+R)) where s is uniquely
defined by requiring that F1 (w) lie on the line joining P and R or the
line joining P and Q depending on which side of the line joining P and
1
2
(Q + R) the point w lay.
 3. HOMOTOPY EQUIVALENCE 22

Then the deformation Ft may be ‘filled in’ in an obvious fashion:

the result is the following map.
(
w + 2qt(P − 12 (Q + R)) if r ≥ q
Ft (w) =
w + 2rt(P − 12 (Q + R)) if r, q.
This shows that A is a deformation retract of X.
(3) Using (1) and (2) we can understand the homotopy type of simple
figures:
(4) Finite connected graphs may be collapsed in a systematic way:

Theorem 3.13. Any finite connected graph has the homotopy type
of a wedge of circles.
3. HOMOTOPY EQUIVALENCE 23
 3. HOMOTOPY EQUIVALENCE 24

X Y
f
t=0

Ft
t

t=1
g

Figure 3.1. Maps f and g are homotopic via the homo-

topy F
f

0 1

Figure 3.2. Homotopic paths that are not homotopic

rel {0, 1}

center circle

Figure 3.3. A deformation retract of the solid torus

 3. HOMOTOPY EQUIVALENCE 25

(Q+R)/2

w
R
P F(w)
1

Figure 3.4. Deforming a triangle onto the union of two sides

Figure 3.5. Homotopy equivalences

Figure 3.6. Homotopy type of finite connected graphs

 CHAPTER 4

The Fundamental Group

In this section we define an invariant of topological spaces (that is,

something preserved by homeomorphism). The invariant we describe
is a certain group, and in principle it may be used in certain cases to
show that two topological spaces are not homeomorphic. In practice
we shall use it for other purposes mostly – in particular for understand-
ing covering spaces, lifting theorems, and some interesting fixed-point
theorems. This will all be made clear in Chapter 5.
Definition 4.1. Let (X, x0 ) be a based topological space. Let
π1 (X, x0 ) denote the set of homotopy classes of maps ω : I → X rel
{0, 1} such that ω(0) = ω(1) = x0 . That is, π1 (X, x0 ) is the set of loops
based at x0 . Elements of π1 (X, x0 ) will be denoted
hωi = {τ | τ ∼ ω rel {0, 1}}.
We now claim that there is a natural multiplication on π1 (X, x0 )
that makes it into a group.
multiplication: Define hωihσi to be hωσi, where the loop ωσ is
defined by (
ω(2s), for 0 ≤ s 12
ωσ(s) =
σ(2s − 1), for 12 < s ≤ 1.
In order to be sure that this is well-defined, we must check two things:
first that ωσ is a loop (the point being that we need to check it is
continuous: this is an easy application of the Glueing Lemma). Sec-
ondly, we must check that the multiplication is well-defined on classes:
if hωi = hωi0 and hσi = hσi0 , then hωσi = hω 0 σ 0 i.
associativity: Given three loops ω, σ and τ , we need to check that
(ωσ)τ ∼ ω(στ ) rel {0, 1}.
The motivation for the proof is given by the following diagram – make
sure you understand this, as similar diagrams will be used fairly often.
If you think that there is nothing to prove here, then you should go
over the definitions in this section very carefully. The following map

4s
0 ≤ s ≤ t+1


ω t+1 ,

 4
,
4s−t−1 t+1 t+2
Ft (s) = σ 1
, 4
≤s≤ 4 ,
τ 4s−t−2
, t+2 ≤ s ≤ 1,

2−t 4

defines a homotopy rel {0, 1} between (ωσ)τ and ω(στ ).

26
 1. BASED MAPS 27

ω(στ)
ω σ τ
1

Ft
t X

0
0 ω σ τ 1 (ωσ)τ
s

Figure 4.1. Associativity of loop multiplication

identity: Define the trivial loop e(s) = x0 for s ∈ I. Then check that
heσi = hσei = hσi for all loops σ.
inverses: For any loop σ, define σ −1 by
σ −1 (s) = σ(1 − s).
Then check that hσ −1 σi = hσσ −1 i = hei.

1. Based Maps
A based map f : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) is a map X → Y with the
property that f (x0 ) = y0 . Given such a map, we may define a trans-
formation
f∗ : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (Y, y0 )
by setting f∗ hωi = hf ◦ ωi.

f
ω

0 1 x
0 y
0

X Y

Figure 4.2. Image of a loop under a based map

Notice that the map f∗ is well-defined by Lemma 3.7. Also, the map
f∗ only depends on the homotopy class of f rel {x0 } (see exercises).
Lemma 4.2. The map f∗ is a group homomorphism.
 2. MOVING THE BASE POINT 28

We shall sometimes write π1 (f ) for f∗ .

Recall (or discover) that a functor is a certain kind of map between
categories. Don’t worry if this does not mean anything to you: take the
following discussion as an example of something we have not defined.
Consider the collection T of all based topological spaces together with
all based maps (continuous functions between them). Let G denote
the collection of all groups together with all homomorphisms between
them. Both T and G are examples of categories, and we may think of
them as containing two kinds of things: objects (topological spaces X,
Y and so on or groups G, H and so on) and arrows (continuous maps
or group homomorphisms).
A functor from the category T to the category G is a mapping
F : T → G with the following properties:
(1) Each topological space X is assigned to a unique group F (X).
(2) Each map f : X → Y (an arrow) is assigned to a group homomor-
phism F (f ) : F (X) → F (Y ) (that is, F sends arrows to arrows).
(3) The assignment in (2) is functorial:
(F1) F (1X ) = 1F (X) ,
(F2) F (f ◦ g) = F (f ) ◦ F (g).
Property (F2) may be described as follows: commutative diagrams in
T are sent to commutative diagrams in G.
Theorem 4.3. π1 is a functor from T to G.

2. Moving the base point

So far we have been multiplying loops, with the multiplication rule
being ‘follow the first path then follow the second path’. It is clear
that we may also multiply in this way two paths as long as the first
one ends where the second one begins. The result will be a path from
the initial point of the first path to the final point of the second path.
Let ω, σ be paths in X with the property that ω(1) = σ(0). Then
ωσ is a path from ω(0) to σ(1), and the homotopy class of ωσ rel {0, 1}
depends only on the homotopy class rel {0, 1} of ω and of σ.
One may check that this multiplication of paths is associative:
hωi(hσihτ i) = (hωihσi)hτ i
whenever either side is defined.
There are also left and right identities for any path:
heσ(0) ihσi = hσi left identity,
hσiheσ(1) i = hσi right identity.
Finally (recall that a path can always be deformed back to the
initial point), if we write σ −1 (s) = σ(1 − s), then
hσihσ −1 i = heσ(0) i,
hσ −1 ihσi = heσ(1) i.
 2. MOVING THE BASE POINT 29

Proposition 4.4. If α is a path in X from x0 to x1 , then the map

α\ : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (X, x1 ) defined by α\ : hσi 7→ hα−1 ihσihαi is a
group isomorphism.
Proof. Make sure you understand why points in the image of α\
are elements of π1 (X, x1 ). Once you understand that, it is a simple
matter to see that α\ is a homomorphism, and to compute the map
(α−1 )\ (α\ ):
(α−1 )\ (α\ )hσi = (α−1 )\ hα−1 ihσihαi
= h(α−1 )−1 ihα−1 ihσihαihα−1 i
= hαihα−1 ihσihαihα−1 i
= hex0 ihσihex1 i
= hσi
since σ is a loop based at x0 . Similarly, one checks that α\ (α−1 )\ is the
identity on π1 (X, x1 ).

Corollary 4.5. If f : Y → X is a map with f (y0 ) = f (y1 ) = x0 ,

and Y is a path-connected space, then
f∗ (π1 (Y, y0 )); f∗ (π1 (Y, y1 ))
are conjugate subgroups of π1 (X, x0 ).
Proof. The conjugating element is going to be the image under
f of a path joining y0 to y1 (there must be such a path since Y is
path-connected):

y f
0

fα
α x
0
y
1

Y X

Figure 4.3. Image of a path under f is a loop

Let α be such a path, and then check that the following diagram com-
mutes:
f∗
π1 (Y, y0 ) −−−→ π1 (X, x0 )
 
α\ y
 (f α)
y \
f∗
π1 (Y, y1 ) −−−→ π1 (X, x0 )
and then notice that the vertical maps are both isomorphisms.
 2. MOVING THE BASE POINT 30

Finally, this gives us some indication of when two topological spaces

must have the same fundamental group.
Theorem 4.6. If X and Y have the same homotopy type, and X
is path connected, then
π1 (X) ∼
= π1 (Y ).
 CHAPTER 5

Covering spaces

Definition 5.1. A map p : Z → X is a covering map if each

x ∈ X is contained in some open set U ⊂ X such that
1. p−1 (U ) is a disjoint union of open sets in Z – the sheets over U ,
2. each sheet is mapped homeomorphically by p to U .
We shall also say that U is evenly covered by p−1 (U ), and that Z is a
covering space for X.
Lemma 5.2. A covering map is a quotient map.
Proof. (Included because the method and picture will be used
again.) Recall that p is a quotient map if it is a map with the additional
property that p−1 (W ) open implies that W is open. So let W ⊂ X
be a set with p−1 (W ) open in Z. Fix a point x ∈ W and consider the
following picture.

-1
p (W)

U
W x

Figure 5.1. Sheets evenly covering W

Choose an open evenly covered set U ⊂ X with x ∈ U . Let S be a

sheet over U , and find y ∈ S with p(y) = x. (Once you’ve chosen S, y
is unique). Now p−1 (W ) ∩ S is open, and
p|S : S → U
is a homeomorphism, so
p(S ∩ p−1 (W )) = pS ∩ W = U ∩ W
is an open set in W containing x.

31
 5. COVERING SPACES 32

Example 5.3. (a) Let Y be any discrete topological space, and X

any topological space. Then p : X × Y → X, defined by p(x, y) = x is
a covering map1 . Any open set U ⊂ X is evenly covered by the sheets
of the form U × {y} for y ∈ Y . Make sure you see why these are open
sets in the product topology.
(b) Let p : R → S 1 be given by p(t) = e2πit . If R is represented as an
infinite helix, the map is vertical projection:

Figure 5.2. The reals cover the circle

For an open set U ⊂ S 1 , p−1 (U ) is a disjoint union of countably
many open subset of R. An explicit construction is the following: for
x = e2πit ∈ S 1 , let U = {y ∈ S 1 | <(x)<(y) + =(x)=(y) > 0} (here
< and = denote real and imaginary parts respectively) and Sn = {s ∈
R | n + t − 14 < s < n + t + 14 } for n ∈ Z. Then U is open, Sn is open for
all n, and for any n p|Sn : Sn → U is a bijection. Also, p|S̄n : S̄n → Ū
is a continuous bijection from a compact set to a Hausdorff one, so is a
homeomorphism. It follows that p|Sn : Sn → U is a homeomorphism.
Notice that in this case the covering space has trivial fundamental
group: if this is the case, the covering is called universal.
(c) A triple covering. The following diagram describes a triple covering
of a wedge of two circles. Study the picture carefully – the arrows
ensure that pre–images of open sets are open sets.
(d) A countable universal covering of the wedge of two circles. Using
the same notational conventions, the following diagram gives a cover
of the wedge of two circles.
Notice that each point now has countably many pre-images. Also,
the covering space Z is homotopic to a point, so this is a universal
cover.
1
Notice that the converse of this statement is not true. If X = Y is a non-empty
space with the concrete topology, then the projection map is a covering map.
 1. LIFTING MAPS 33

Figure 5.3. A triple cover of the wedge of two circles

Figure 5.4. A countable universal covering

(e) Painting the two sides of a surface gives a double cover:

Remark 5.4. We have not yet defined orientability, but the fol-
lowing seems to be the case. If X is a connected space covered by Z,
and Z is not connected, then X is orientable. For example, painting
the surface of a 2-torus gives a double cover of the Klein bottle, which
suggest that the Klein bottle is not orientable.

1. Lifting maps
We next turn to the following problem: if p : Z → X is a covering
map, and f : Y → X is a map, when can we expect there to be a lift
f 0 of f ; that is a map f 0 : Y → Z such that pf 0 = f .
 1. LIFTING MAPS 34

Z X

Figure 5.5. Painting sides of a surface

It will be convenient to adopt the following convention: a commu-

tative diagram of the form
f0
Y −−−→ Z

p
y
f
Y −−−→ X
should be thought of as a triangle.
Theorem 5.5. Let p : (Z, z0 ) → (X, x0 ) be a based covering map,
and f : Y → X a map from a connected space. Then, if there is a lift
f 0 of (a map making the diagram above commute), it is unique.

Theorem 5.6. lifting squares Given F : (I×I, (0, 0)) → (X, x0 ),

and a covering map p : (Z, z0 ) → (X, x0 ), there is a lift F 0 : (I ×
I, (0, 0)) → (Z, z0 ).
A similar proof gives path-lifting, where I × I is replaced by I.
Corollary 5.7. Let C ⊂ I × I be connected, let I : C ,→ I × I
be the inclusion map, and let f : (C, (0, 0)) → (Z, z0 ) and F : (I ×
I, (0, 0)) → (X, x0 ) be maps with pf = F i, where p is the based cover-
ing. Then there exists a unique F 0 : (I × I, (0, 0)) → (Z, z0 ) such that
f = F 0 i and pF 0 = F . That is, there exists a unique diagonal map F 0
making the following commutative square into two commutative trian-
gles.
f
(C, (0, 0)) −−−→ (Z, z0 )
 
 p
iy y
F
(I × I, (0, 0)) −−−→ (X, x0 )
These lifting results provide the tools we need to understand ho-
motopy classes of loops in topological spaces.
 2. THE ACTION ON THE FIBRE 35

Corollary 5.8. If p : (Z, z0 ) → (X, x0 ) is a based covering, then

p∗ : π1 (Z, z0 ) → π1 (X, x0 ) is a monomorphism.
2. The action on the fibre
The lifting results above now give very easily one of the most im-
portant observations in the course: there is a natural action of π1 (X)
on the fibres of a covering map.
Definition 5.9. A right action of a group G on a set S is a function
S × G → S, written (s, g) 7→ sg, with the properties
(A1) s1 = s for all s ∈ S;
(A2) (sg1 )g2 = s(g1 g2 ).
If p : (Z, z0 ) → (X, x0 ) is a based covering, then the set F = p−1 (x0 )
is called the fibre of p. Define an action
F × π1 (X, x0 ) → F
of π1 (X, x0 ) on F by setting (z, hσi) 7→ zhσi = σ 0 (1) where σ 0 : (I, 0) →
(Z, z) is the lift of the path σ (so in particular, pσ 0 = σ). Now pz = x0
since z is in the fibre of p.

z σ

σ’
z

0 1
x0
σ

Figure 5.6. Action on the fibre

We must check that the action is well-defined, and that it satisfies
(A1) and (A2).
Theorem 5.10. Let p : (Z, z0 ) → (X, x0 ) be a based covering, with
Z path connected and F = p−1 (x0 ). Then the action of π1 (X, x0 ) on F
induces a bijection
δ : p∗ π1 (Z, z0 )\π1 (X, x0 ) −→ F
where p∗ π1 (Z, z0 )\π1 (X, x0 ) is the set of cosets of the form p∗ π1 (Z, z0 )hσi,
and the map is given by
δ ((p∗ π1 (Z, z0 ))hσi) = z0 hσi.
 2. THE ACTION ON THE FIBRE 36

That is, δ[hσi] = σ 0 (1), where pσ 0 = σ and σ 0 (0) = z0 .

Proof. Before going through the proof in your lecture notes, un-
derstand what needs to be checked.
(1) δ is well-defined: if [hσi] = [hτ i] then z0 hσi = z0 hτ i.
(2) δ is onto: for any z ∈ F , there is a path σ 0 joining z0 to z whose
image under p is a loop based at x0 (this is obvious).
(3) δ is injective: if δ[hσi] = δ[hτ i] then hσi = hγihτ i for some hγi ∈
p∗ π1 (Z, z0 ).

Corollary 5.11. If Z is path connected and a universal cover (i.e.

π1 (Z, z0 ) = 0), then δ defines a bijection between π1 (X, x0 ) and F .

The bijection δ now allows us to define the degree of a loop in the

circle. Let p : (R, 0) → (S 1 , 1) be the covering map t 7→ e2πit . Then R
is path-connected and a universal cover, the fibre is p−1 (1) = Z. So the
above result gives a bijection δ = deg : π1 (S 1 , 1) → Z. This function is
the ‘degree’ function, and it measure how often the path winds around
the circle. Notice that at this point we do not know that δ is a group
homomorphism.

Example 5.12. The map deg : π1 (S 1 , 1) → Z is a group isomor-

phism.

All that remains to be checked is that (στ )0 (1) = σ 0 (1) + τ 0 (1).

Other fundamental groups can now be computed.

Example 5.13. Let f r{a, b} be the free group on generators a and

b, and let Sa1 , Sb2 be two circles. Write Sa1 ∨ Sb1 for the wedge of the
two circles joined at x0 . Then there is an isomorphism from f r{a, b}
to π1 (Sa1 ∨ Sb1 , x0 ).

Example 5.14. Recall that there is a double cover p : S n → RP n ,

and (for n ≥ 2), this cover is universal. The open hemispheres U− =
{y ∈ S n | x · y < 0} and U+ = {y ∈ S n | x · y > 0} are even sheets
over the open neighbourhood of p(x) given by U = pU− = pU+ . The
bijection given by the action on the fibre gives

π1 (RP n ) = Z/2Z.

This is our first example of torsion in a fundamental group, and it

turns out to be very important. An easy application of Example 5.14
is the Borsuk–Ulam Theorem.

Theorem 5.15. There is no map f : S 2 → S 1 with the property

that f (−x) = −f (x) for all x ∈ S 2 .
 2. THE ACTION ON THE FIBRE 37

Proof. Suppose there is such a map. Then f induces a well-

defined map f 0 : RP 2 → RP 1 , giving a commutative diagram
f
S 2 −−−→ S 1
 
p2 y
 p1
y
f0
RP 2 −−−→ RP 1
where f 0 ({x, −x}) = {f (x), f (−x)} = {f (x), −f (x)}. Since the verti-
cals are quotient maps, f 0 is clearly continuous. Now RP 1 = S 1 (via
the homeomorphism {z, z −1 } 7→ z 2 ∈ C), so f∗0 is a homomorphism
f 0 : π1 (RP 2 ) ∼
∗ = Z/2Z −→ π1 (RP 1 ) ∼
= Z.
f∗0
It follows that = 0.
On the other hand, let z0 ∈ S 2 , and choose a path σ 0 in S 2 from z0
to −z0 . Then p2 σ 0 = σ is a loop in RP 2 based at x0 = {z0 , −z0 }.
We have the following diagram:

f(-z)

-z f
σ’
z
f(z)

p2 p1

σ
x
f’

Figure 5.7. Borsuk–Ulam Theorem

Now hσi is not trivial because z0 hσi = σ 0 (1) = −z0 6= z0 . Also,

f∗0 hσi = hf 0 σi is not trivial since
f (z0 )hf 0 (σ)i = (f σ 0 )(1)
= f (−z0 )
= −f (z0 ) 6= f (z0 ).
It follows that f∗0 hσi is not trivial, contradicting the fact that f∗0 is
trivial.

Corollary 5.16. If f : S 2 → R2 has the property that −f (x) =

f (−x), then there exists an x such that f (x) = 0.

Corollary 5.17. If f : S 2 → R2 then there exists x such that

f (−x) = f (x).
 2. THE ACTION ON THE FIBRE 38

Corollary 5.18. If the Earth’s surface is represented by S 2 , and

f (x) = (temp. at x, humidity at x),
then at any moment there are an antipodal pair of points with the same
temperature and humidity.

Corollary 5.19. ham and cheese sandwich theorem (Stone–

Tukey) Let A, B, C be open bounded sets in R3 . Then there exists a
plane P ⊂ R3 dividing each of them exactly in half.
 CHAPTER 6

Classification of surfaces

In this section we aim to classify all the topological spaces that have
the property that each point has a neighbourhood homeomorphic to
an open disc in R2 . Of course R2 is such a space, but we shall restrict
attention to compact spaces.
Definition 6.1. A (compact) surface is a (compact) Hausdorff
topological space X with the property that every point x ∈ X has
an open neighbourhood U 3 x such that U is homeomorphic to an
open disc in R2 .

Example 6.2. (1) The 2-sphere S 2 ⊂ R3 is a compact surface.

(2) The torus T 2 ⊂ R3 is a surface; we know that T 2 may be described
as an identification space of a square – with an obvious notational
device, the identification may be described by the symbol aba−1 b−1 .
a

b b aba-1 b-1

Figure 6.1. The torus as an identification space

(3) Now we have the symbol notation above, we can ask questions like
the following: what surface is represented by the symbol a1 b1 a−1 −1 −1 −1
1 b 1 a2 b 2 a2 b 2 ?
The following cut-and-paste argument shows that this is the surface of
a two-holed torus.
(4) What surface is represented by the symbol abca−1 cb−1 ?
We first approach the problem from the surface end – starting with
a surface, is it possible to give a representation of the surface as an
identification space of a polygon, and thereby as a symbol?
Definition 6.3. A triangulation of a compact surface S is a finite
family of closed subsets {T1 , . . . , Tn } that cover S, and homeomor-
phisms φi : Ti0 → Ti , where each Ti0 is a triangle in R2 , such that the
sets Ti satisfy the following intersection condition:
(IC) Any sets Ti , Tj , i 6= j are either disjoint, or they have a vertex in
common, or they have an entire edge in common.
39
 6. CLASSIFICATION OF SURFACES 40

a1 a1

b2 b1 b2 b1

a2 a1 a2 c c a1

b2 b1 b2 b1

a2 a2

a2 b2 a1 b1

c c

b2 a2 b1 a1

Figure 6.2. The torus with two holes

A result due to Rado in 1925 says that any compact surface has a
triangulation. Moreover, in the triangulation each edge is an edge of
exactly two triangles, and for each vertex v the triangles with v as a
vertex may be arranged in cyclic order T0 , T1 , . . . , Tn such that Ti and
Ti+1 have an edge in common.

Figure 6.3. A triangulation of the 2-sphere

The triangulation of a surface gives a purely combinatorial re-

definition of a surface. Let M be a collection of triangles with (IC).
Call M connected if there is a path along the edges from any vertex to
any other vertex. The edges opposite the vertex v in the triangles of
M having v as a vertex form a graph called the link of v.
Definition 6.4. A (combinatorial) closed compact surface is a col-
lection M of triangles such that
 6. CLASSIFICATION OF SURFACES 41

1. M has (IC),
2. M is connected, and
3. for every vertex v of a triangle in M , the link of v is a simple
closed polygon.
For example, (1) below is a surface while (2) is not.

(1) (2)

Figure 6.4. (1) is a surface while (2) is not

(3) The sphere can be triangulated, and then described as an identifi-
cation space:

a a

b c

b c

Figure 6.5. The combinatorial sphere

(4) Another example is a triangulation of the 2-torus: the link of the
vertex v is drawn in bold.
a b c

d d

e e

f f

a v b c

Figure 6.6. The torus as a combinatorial surface

(5) A triangulation of the Klein bottle.
(6) A triangulation of Projective space.
(7) If t1 and t2 are two triangles of a closed surface M , then it is
possible to construct a sequence of triangles connecting t1 and t2 , with
consecutive triangles having an edge in common. (This is proved via
the condition on links in the triangulation).
(8) The following diagram is not a closed surface: the link of the vertex
v is not a simple closed polygon.
 1. ORIENTATION 42

a b c

d f

e e

f d

a b c

Figure 6.7. The Klein bottle

a b c

d f

e e

f d

c b a

Figure 6.8. A triangulation of projective space

Figure 6.9. The Möbius band is not a closed surface

1. Orientation
In a combinatorial surface, introduce an orientation: a clockwise
or anti-clockwise arrow in each triangle. The orientation is coherent
across an edge joining two triangles if the orientations are the same:

coherently oriented not coherently oriented

Figure 6.10. Coherent and incoherent orientations

Definition 6.5. The surface M is orientable if the triangles can

be given an orientation so that all neighbouring triangles are coherently
oriented.
 1. ORIENTATION 43

Example 6.6. (1) The torus is orientable.

a b c

d d

e e

f f

a v b c

Figure 6.11. The torus is orientable

(2) The Klein bottle is non-orientable. The shaded region is a Möbius

band – and the space left after removing this Möbius band is again
a Möbius band. So K is ‘twice’ as non-orientable as the projective
plane: in example (3) below we shall see that the projective plane also
contains a Möbius band, but removing it leaves an orientable surface.

a b c

d f

e e

f d

a b c

Figure 6.12. The Klein bottle is non-orientable

(3) The projective plane is non-orientable.

a b c

d f

e e

f d

c b a

Figure 6.13. The projective plane is non-orientable

The shaded Möbius band, when removed, leaves something that

certainly has no more Möbius bands in it.
 2. POLYGONAL REPRESENTATION 44

f
c
b
a d

Figure 6.14. The projective plane contains only one

Möbius band

2. Polygonal representation
Let M be a closed surface in the sense of Definition 6.4. Orient the
edges e1 , . . . , em of M arbitrarily, and then label the triangles in M as
t1 , . . . , tn . Notice that 3n = 2m, and so n is even. The information
contained in the surface is now n triangles, and for each triangle the
three labelled oriented edges which belong to it.

e1 e2 e2 e5
t1 t2

e3 e4

e1 t3 e5 e6 t4 e4

e6 e3

Figure 6.15. The triangles in the tetrahedron

It will be useful to have a more convenient representation, and this is

done by partially assembling the surface while remaining in the plane.

e5 e5

t3 t2
e6 t1 e4

t4
e6 e4

Figure 6.16. A model of the tetrahedron

The same procedure may be followed for any surface M . The triangles
are assembled one at a time. At each stage, glue an edge of an unused
triangle to an edge of a used triangle. The boundary at each stage
 3. TRANSFORMATION TO STANDARD FORM 45

of the resulting figure is a simple closed polygon. In order to keep

the figure planar, triangles may need to be shrunk and squeezed a bit.
Also, we may assume that the resulting polygon is convex.
However, we need to be sure that until all the triangles are used,
there is an unused triangle with an edge in common with the boundary
polygon of the used triangles.
There certainly exists an unused triangle with a vertex v in common
with some used triangle, since the construction ensures that all vertices
are on the boundary polygon at each stage.
Now each link of v is a simple closed polygon, so there is an unused
triangle with v and another vertex (and hence an edge) in common with
a used triangle. (The triangle you end up adding is not automatically
the one you started with having a vertex in common.)
(Notice how this argument would break down for example (2) after
Definition 6.4).
The resulting figure is a polygonal representation of M . It has n
triangles, and the boundary has n + 2 edges in equally labelled pairs.
The identifications given by the edge labellings form a symbol: read
around the figure, starting anywhere, and use −1 to denote reverse
directions. For the tetrahedron in Figure 6.16, the symbol is
e−1 −1 −1
5 e4 e4 e6 e6 e5 .

Notice that the triangles in a polygonal representation can always be

oriented coherently, but this may not give a coherent orinetation to
M : if the symbol contains . . . a . . . a−1 . . . then the orientation will be
coherent across the edge a; if the symbol contains . . . b . . . b . . . then the
orientation cannot be carried across the edge b coherently.
Lemma 6.7. The surface M is orientable if and only if for every
letter in a symbol for M , the inverse also occurs.

3. Transformation to standard form

In this section, we show how any symbol may be re-written in a
standard way. This list of standard symbols, together with the Euler
characteristic, gives the classification of surfaces.
We shall use ‘word’ to mean a string of letters like abc. Words will
sometimes be denoted by capital letters X, Y and so on.
Along the way, we may need to increase the number of triangles: a
barycentric subdivision of a triangulation replaces every triangle in it
by six triangles:
Rule [1] If a word appears in the symbol consistently (for example,
as abc . . . abc or as abc . . . c−1 b−1 a−1 ), then replace it with a letter. For
example,
. . . abc . . . c−1 b−1 a−1 · · · −→ . . . x . . . x−1 . . .
Rule [2] If a symbol has at least 4 letters, then aa−1 can be cancelled.
 3. TRANSFORMATION TO STANDARD FORM 46

Figure 6.17. Barycentric subdivision

a a
a a a

Figure 6.18. Cancelling aa−1

Rule [3] If a pair appears in the form . . . a . . . a . . . , it may be replaced

by . . . bb . . . as follows.

a a a a a b a
b b

a a b b
b b

Figure 6.19. Pairs of the kind . . . a . . . a . . .

Notice that part of the remainder of the symbol will have been
reversed. Thus, the rule is more accurately represented as XaY aZ −→
XbbY −1 Z.
Rule [4] If a pair appears in the form . . . b . . . b−1 . . . , and without
an interlocking pair of the same kind (that is, without a pair a . . . a−1
appearing in the order b . . . a . . . b−1 . . . a−1 ), then it may be replaced
by . . . b . . . b . . . . By applying previous rules, we may assume that the
pair appears as . . . bXddb−1 . . . where X = d1 d1 . . . dn dn .
The diagram above shows that . . . bXddb−1 · · · −→ . . . bXe−1 be−1 . . . ,
and then by [3], . . . bXe−1 be−1 · · · −→ . . . bbeX −1 e−1 . . . . That is, we
have reduced the original pair separated by
d1 d1 . . . dn dn dd
to a similar pair separated by
d−1 −1 −1 −1
n dn . . . d1 d1 .
 3. TRANSFORMATION TO STANDARD FORM 47

X d d
b b

e b
X
b e
d

Figure 6.20. Pairs of the kind . . . b . . . b−1 . . .

After n such steps, the symbol has the form . . . bddb−1 · · · −→ . . . be−1 be−1 . . .
(by the same cut and paste with X = ∅), and then . . . be−1 be−1 · · · −→
. . . f f . . . by [1], with f = be−1 .
Notice that the existence of such a pair . . . b . . . b−1 . . . means that
the vertices at the start and end of the edge b−1 are not identified,
and our reduction has produced a situation in which the vertices are
identified.
Rule [5] Assume we have carried out [3] and [4] enough to produce
a symbol comprising pairs of the form aa and interlocking pairs of the
form
. . . b . . . c . . . b−1 . . . c−1 . . . .
I claim first that the pairs aa can all be grouped at the start of the
symbol. To see this, notice that the following diagram shows that
aaXbbY −→ aadX −1 dY , which by [3] gives aaddXY.

a X a

a d b a d

Y b Y b

Figure 6.21. Assembling crosscaps

 3. TRANSFORMATION TO STANDARD FORM 48

Rule [6] After applying the above rules, the symbol has the form
a1 a1 . . . ap ap X
and with all vertices identified. The word X (if it is not empty) must
consist of interlocking pairs. Choose the closest interlocking pairs
. . . a . . . b . . . a−1 . . . b−1 . . . , and replace them with . . . cdc−1 d−1 . . . by
the following argument.

a c

b a d d

d
a c
c

a b d d

Figure 6.22. Pairs of the kind . . . a . . . a . . .

Notice that no new pairs of the form a . . . a are produced, because no

section of the figure is turned over before glueing.
By applying the above rules, we may reduce any symbol to one of
the form
a1 a1 . . . ap ap c1 d1 c−1 −1 −1 −1
1 d1 . . . cq dq cq dq ,
in which all vertices are identified. The words of the form cdc−1 d−1 are
called handles (we’ll see why shortly), and the pairs of the form aa are
called crosscaps.
Rule [7] If there is at least one pair aa, then every handle cdc−1 d−1
may be turned into two crosscaps.

a d

a c b

a1
b d

c c b d

d c

a1 a1

c a1 a1 a2 a1 a2 a1

a2 a2 a2
a3

b b b b a3

c a3

Figure 6.23. Turning a handle into two crosscaps

 4. JUXTAPOSITION OF SYMBOLS 49

The above discussion has proved the following theorem.

Theorem 6.8. Every closed surface may be represented by one of
the following:
(1) aa−1 (the sphere; orientable), (2) a1 a1 . . . ak ak (the sphere with
k cross-caps; non-orientable), or (3) c1 d1 c−1 −1 −1 −1
1 d1 . . . cq dq cq dq (the
sphere with q handles; orientable).
The number k or q is called the genus of the surface. Any surface
with standard form aa−1 is a triangulation of the sphere (and so on for
the other types).

4. Juxtaposition of symbols
Let M and N be closed surfaces with symbols X and Y . What
surface has the symbol XY ? This is not uniquely determined, but we
shall see that the standard form of XY is uniquely determined by X
and Y .

b
a a c
c
b

X
X

Figure 6.24. Opening the triangle

First choose a triangle in M meeting the boundary polygon of the

plane representation with symbol X, and open out along the edge of
the triangle as shown in Figure 6.24 (perform a barycentric subdivision
first if need be). Do the same thing in Y ,

b’
c’ a’ c’
a’
b’

Y
Y

Figure 6.25. Opening the triangle in Y

and then glue to obtain a polygon with symbol XY .

The result is a closed surface, orientable if and only if both M and N
are.
 4. JUXTAPOSITION OF SYMBOLS 50

c’ c

b’
a’ b
a

Figure 6.26. The ‘sum’ of X and Y

Lemma 6.9. By Theorem 6.8, any two connected sums of M and

N have the same standard from, so we may define M ]N to be the
connected sum of M and N , unique up to homeomorphism.
Notice that some of the ‘up to homeomorphisms’ may be non-trivial.
For example, the following diagram gives two possible connected sums
of tori.

Figure 6.27. The connected sum of two tori

For multiple connected sums, write kN = N ]N ] . . . ]N . Also, write S

for the sphere, P for the projective plane and T for the torus. This
notation allows Theorem 6.8 to be restated as: any closed surface is
homeomorphic to one of S, kP , or kT .
Example 6.10. (1) If M is any closed surface, then M ]S ∼
= S]M ∼
=
M.
(2) P ]2P ∼
= P ]T .
(3) 2P can be replaced by T if there is at least one P , so Theorem 6.8
may be rewritten as follows: every closed surface is homeomorphic to
k−1 k−2



one of S, hT , P ] 2 T (k odd) or K] 2 T (k ≥ 2 even), where
K = 2P is a Klein bottle.
 5. EULER CHARACTERISTIC 51

5. Euler characteristic
Let K be a set of triangles with the intersection condition (IC). Let
α0 (K) denote the number of vertices in K, α1 (K) the number of edges,
and α2 (K) the number of triangles.
Definition 6.11. The number
χ(K) = α( K) − α1 (K) + α2 (K)
is the Euler characteristic of K.
We wish to show that the Euler characteristic is preserved under
the reduction rules and under barycentric subdivision.
Lemma 6.12. The Euler characteristic is preserved by the symbol
reductions and by barycentric subdivision.
Proof. The first assertion has a long proof – simply check all
the cases. To start you off, notice that in rule [2] (cancellation of
. . . aa−1 . . . we lose 1 edge and 1 vertex, preserving χ. The other rules
are similar.
Under barycentric subdivision, let K 0 be the combinatorial surface
obtained from K. Then α0 (K 0 ) = α0 (K) + α1 (K) + α2 (K) (one new
vertex for each edge and each triangle in K), α1 (K 0 ) = 2α1 (K) +
6α2 (K) (six new edges in each triangle of k and each edge of k split
into two), and α2 (K 0 ) = 6α2 (K). It follows that
χ(K 0 ) = α0 (K 0 ) − α1 (K 0 ) + α2 (K 0 )
= α0 (K) + α1 (K) + α2 (K) − 2α1 (K) − 6α2 (K) + 6α2 (K)
= α0 (K) − α1 (K) + α2 (K) = χ(K).

(Notice we need barycentric subdivision on things like the sumbol

−1
aa to really produce a combinatorial surface).
Theorem 6.13. Let M be a closed surface, with a symbol contain-
ing n letters (n is even), and represented by a plane polygon bounded
by a simple closed polygon with n + r sides (notice that a letter may
stand for several edges). Let M have m distinct vertices appearing at
the start or end of the letters. Then
χ(M ) = m − 12 n + 1.
This is proved by a simple counting argument. It may be used
to show that the Euler characteristic is a topological invariant, which
shows in turn that the list of surfaces in Theorem 6.8 are all distinct.
Proof. (of Theorem 6.13) Let D denote the polygonal region rep-
resenting M but without any edges identified. By a simple induction,
we have that
χ(D) = 1.
 6. INVARIANCE OF THE CHARACTERISTIC 52

On the other hand, each side of M that does not use a new letter
appears twice and generates one new vertex, so
α0 (M ) − α0 (D) = m + 12 r − (n + r) = m − n − 12 r.
The edges of M are glued in pairs, so that
α1 (M ) − α1 (D) = 12 (−n − r).
Finally there are equal numbers of triangles, so
α2 (M ) = α2 (D).
Adding up we get
χ(M ) − χ(D) = m − 12 n,
so χ(M ) = m − 12 n + 1.
To deduce that any combinatorial surface representing a given sur-
face has the same Euler characteristic a further argument is needed
(see below).
Corollary 6.14. (1) χ(S) = 2;
(2) χ(sphere with k cross-caps) = 2 − k;
(3) χ(sphere with h handles) = 2 − 2h.
So the standard form of any closed surface M is unique, and it is
determined by χ(M ) and the orientability of M .
Example 6.15. (1) abcbca = 2P .
(2) abca−1 cb−1 = 3P .
(3) abcdef e−1 db−1 af c = 6P .
(4) ae−1 a−1 bdb−1 ced−1 c−1 = 2T .

6. Invariance of the characteristic

It remains to prove that different triangulations of the same surface
cannot give rise to different Euler characteristics.
Solution 1: Consider subdivisions of the surface into polygons (not
just triangles). Notice that the characteristic is unchanged by (a) sub-
dividing edges, or if only two edges meet at a vertex, by removing that
vertex. (b) subdividing an n-gon by connecting two of the vertices by a
new edge, or amalgamtaing two regions into one by removing an edge).
(c) introducing a new edged and vertex running into a region from a
vertex on the edge, or removing such an edge.
Now IF two triangulations of the same surface have the property
that any edge from the first triangulation meets any edge from the
second in only finitely many points, then it is not hard to see that the
above moves preserve the characteristic and allow us to move from the
first triangulation to the second.
The problem is that there may be edges intersecting each other
infinitely often... This can be avoided by moving one of the edges
 6. INVARIANCE OF THE CHARACTERISTIC 53

slightly without altering the combinatorics. However that proof is long

- it does not need new ideas but it is not easy.
Solution 2: If we develop a little more theory about how to compute
fundamental groups (mainly the Seifert-van Kampen theorem) then
you can compute the fundamental group of each standard model of
a surface. Some of these groups are large and complicated, but their
abelianizations can be computed and are all different.
Solution 3: With the machinery we develop later, it is possible
to compute the first homology groups of each surface, and these are
all different. The problem with this is that we only know that the
homology group depends only on the surface because of an unproven
theorem!
 CHAPTER 7

Simplicial complexes and Homology groups

For now, we shall deal mainly with dimensions 0, 1, 2 and 3. An im-

plicit exercise throughout this section is to generalize all the definitions
and proofs to higher dimensions.
Definition 7.1. An oriented 0-simplex is a point P .
An oriented 1-simplex is a directed line segment P1 P2 .
An oriented 2-simplex is a triangle P1 P2 P3 with a prescribed order.
P3

P1 P2

Figure 7.1. An oriented 2-simplex

Notice that the simplex of opposite orientation is (defined to be)

the negative of the simplex:
1. P1 P2 = −P2 P1 6= P2 P1 ,
2. P1 P2 P3 = P2 P3 P1 = P3 P1 P2 = −P1 P3 P2 = −P3 P2 P1 = −P2 P1 P3 .
An oriented 3-simplex is a tetrahedron P1 P2 P3 P4 with a prescribed
orientation.
P1

P4
P2

P3

Figure 7.2. An oriented 3-simplex

Notice that for 2-simplexes,

 
1 2 3
Pi Pj Pk = sign PPP,
i j k 1 2 3
54
 1. CHAINS, CYCLES AND BOUNDARIES 55

and this extends to higher dimensions,

 
1 2 3 4
Pi Pj Pk P` = sign PPPP.
i j k ` 1 2 3 4

Definition 7.2. The boundary of an oriented simplex is defined

as follows.
The boundary of a 0-simplex P is 0:
∂0 (P ) = 0.
The boundary of a 1-simplex P1 P2 is
∂1 (P1 P2 ) = P2 − P1 ,
(the formal difference of the end point and the starting point of the
simplex).
The boundary of a 2-simplex P1 P2 P3 is
∂2 (P1 P2 P3 ) = P2 P3 − P1 P3 + P1 P2 .
The boundary of a 3-simplex P1 P2 P3 P4 is
∂3 (P1 P2 P3 P4 ) = P2 P3 P4 − P1 P3 P4 + P1 P2 P4 − P1 P2 P3 .
Each summand of the boundary is called a face of the simplex. Thus,
(for the 3-simplex in Figure 7.2), P2 P3 P4 , P1 P4 P3 = −P1 P3 P4 are faces,
while P1 P3 P4 is not.
Definition 7.3. A simplicial complex is a subset of Rn comprising
a union of simplexes such that
(1) each point of the set belongs to at least one and only finitely many
simplexes;
(2) two different simplexes in the complex either are disjoint or one is
(up to orientation) a face of the other, or a face of a face of the other
(and so on), or the set of points in common is (up to orientation) a
face (or a face of a face or...) of each simplex.
1. Chains, cycles and boundaries
The surface of the oriented tetrahedron is an example of a simplicial
complex, built out of four 0-simplexes, six 1-simplexes, and four 2-
simplexes.
For a simplicial complex K, let Cn (K) be the free abelian group
generated by the oriented n-simplexes in K. The elements of Cn (K)
are the n-chains of K.
For example, if K is the complex in Figure 7.3, then (write mi for
general elements of Z):
C2 (K) = {m1 P2 P3 P4 + m2 P1 P3 P4 + m3 P1 P2 P4 + m4 P1 P2 P3 },
C1 (K) = {m1 P1 P2 +m2 P1 P3 +m3 P1 P4 +m4 P2 P3 +m5 P2 P4 +m6 P3 P4 },
and
C0 (K) = {m1 P1 + m2 P2 + m3 P3 + m4 P4 }.
 1. CHAINS, CYCLES AND BOUNDARIES 56

P1

P4
P2

P3

Figure 7.3. The tetrahedron is a simplicial complex

Now if σ is an n-simplex in K, then ∂n (σ) is an element of Cn−1 (K).

If we extend the definition to make C−1 (K) = 0, then ∂n extends to
the boundary homomorphism
∂n : Cn (K) −→ Cn−1 (K).

Example 7.4. A sample calculation of the boundary of a 1-chain:

∂1 (3P1 P2 − 4P1 P3 + 5P2 P4 ) = 3∂1 (P1 P2 ) − 4∂1 (P1 P3 ) + 5∂1 (P2 P4 )
= 3(P2 − P1 ) − 4(P3 − P1 ) + 5(P4 − P2 )
= P1 − 2P2 − 4P3 + 5P4 .

Definition 7.5. The group of n-cycles in K, is defined to be Zn (K) =

ker(∂n ).

Example 7.6. The 1-chain z = P1 P2 + P2 P3 + P3 P1 is a 1-cycle

since ∂1 (z) = 0, so z ∈ Z1 (K).

Definition 7.7. The group of (n − 1)-boundaries in K is defined

by Bn−1 (K) = image(∂n ).

Example 7.8. We know that w = P1 P2 +2P2 P3 +P3 P1 is a 1-chain,

so ∂1 (w) = P3 − P2 is a 0-boundary.

Example 7.9. Compute directly the groups Zn (K) and Bn (K)

where K is the simplicial complex shown in Figure 7.3.
Since the highest-dimensional simplex in K is 2-dimensional, C3 (K) =
0, so B2 (K) = ∂3 (C3 (K)) = 0.
Also, C−1 (K) = 0, so Z0 (K) = C0 (K). Therefore Z0 (K) is free abelian
on the generators P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 .
Now the image of a group under a homomorphism is generated by the
images of the generators. Since C1 (K) is generated by
P1 P2 , P1 P3 , P1 P4 , P2 P3 , P2 P4 , P3 P4 ,
B0 (K) must be generated by
P2 − P1 , P3 − P1 , P4 − P1 , P3 − P2 , P4 − P2 , P4 − P3 .
 1. CHAINS, CYCLES AND BOUNDARIES 57

Of course there is no reason to expect these to freely generate B0 (K),

and it is clear that they do not. We claim that B0 (K) is free abelian
on the generators P2 − P1 , P3 − P1 , P4 − P1 . (This is easy: these are
independent over Z, and the other generators are in the group generated
by these three).
Now Plet’s try to find Z1 (K). Any element of C1 (K) is of the form
c = mij Pi Pj . Now ∂1 (c) = 0 if and only if each vertex at the
beginning of r edges (counted with multiplicity) is also at the end of r
edges (again counted with multiplicity). It follows that
z1 = P2 P3 + P3 P4 + P4 P2 ,
z2 = P1 P4 + P4 P3 + P3 P1 ,
z3 = P1 P2 + P2 P4 + P4 P1 ,
z4 = P1 P3 + P3 P2 + P2 P1
are all 1-cycles (notice that these are the boundaries of the individual
2-simplexes). We claim that these four cycles generate Z1 (K): to prove
this we must do some work as Z1 is defined not as the image under a
homomorphism but as the kernel of a homomorphism. So, choose an
arbitrary element z ∈ Z1 (K). Consider the vertex P1 , and let the
coefficient of P1 Pj in Z( K) be mj . Then
z 0 = z + m2 z4 − m4 z2
is a cycle that does not contain edges P1 P2 or P1 P4 . It follows that
the only edge having P1 as a vertex in the cycle z 0 is P1 P3 , so this
must appear with coefficient 0 (otherwise there would be nothing to
cancel the P1 appearing in the boundary). So z 0 is a cycle consisting
only of the edges of the 2-simplex P2 P3 P4 . Since in a 1-cycle each of
the vertices P2 , P3 and P4 must appear the same number of times as a
beginning and as an end of an edge,
z 0 = z + m2 z4 − m4 z2 = rz1
for some r. So Z1 (K) is generated by z1 , z2 , z4 . Since these are bound-
aries of the 2-simplex,
Z1 (K) = B1 (K).
Finally, let us compute Z2 (K). The chain group C2 (K) is generated
by the simplexes P2 P3 P4 , P3 P1 P4 , P1 P2 P4 , P2 P1 P3 . If P2 P3 P4 has coef-
ficient r1 , and P3 P1 P4 has coefficient r2 in a 2-cycle, then the common
edge P3 P4 has coefficient r1 −r2 , so r1 = r2 . Similarly, in a cycle each of
the 2-simplexes appear with the same coefficient, so Z2 (K) is generated
by the single element
P2 P 3 P4 + P 3 P1 P 4 + P1 P 2 P4 + P 2 P1 P3 .
It follows that Z2 (K) is infinite cyclic.
 2. THE EQUATION ∂ 2 = 0 58

Notice that in the above example we find that Bn is a subgroup of

Zn . This is true in general, because of a simple but deep equation dealt
with in the next section.
2. The equation ∂ 2 = 0
Theorem 7.10. Let K be a simplicial complex. Then the homo-
morphism
∂n−1 ∂n : Cn (K) → Cn−2 (K)
2
is trivial. That is, ‘∂ = 0’.
Proof. First show that it is enough to check this on simplexes,
since these generate Cn . Then simply calculate: for example, in di-
mension 2 we have
∂1 (∂2 (P1 P2 P3 )) = ∂1 (P2 P3 − P1 P3 + P1 P2 )
= (P3 − P2 ) − (P3 − P1 ) + (P2 − P1 )
= 0.

Corollary 7.11. Bn (K) = ∂n+1 (Cn+1 (K)) is a subgroup of Zn (K) =

ker(∂n ).

Definition 7.12. The nth homology group of the simplicial com-

plex K is defined to be the quotient group
Zn (K)
Hn (K) = .
Bn (K)
Look back at Example 7.9: we may now write down the homology
groups of the tetrahedron:
C3 (K) = 0, so Z3 (K) = B3 (K) = 0 and H3 (K) = 0.
Z2 (K) ∼= Z, B2 (K) = 0 so H2 (K) ∼ = Z.
Z1 (K) = B1 (K), so H1 (K) = 0.
Z0 (K) is free abelian on P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 , while B0 (K) is generated by
P2 − P1 , P3 − P1 , P4 − P1 , P3 − P2 , P4 − P2 , P4 − P3 We now claim that
each coset of B0 (K) in Z0 (K) contains exactly one term of the form
rP1 . To prove this, let z ∈ Z0 (K) be of the form
z = s2 P2 + s3 P3 + s4 P4 + ∗P1 ,
so that
z − [s2 (P2 − P1 ) + s3 (P3 − P1 ) + s4 (P4 − P1 )] = rP1 ,
showing that z ∈ rP1 + B0 (K). (At this point we have proved that
H0 (K) is cyclic: the next thing to find out is whether or not it has
torsion). If r0 P1 ∈ rP1 + B0 (K), then (r0 − r)P1 ∈ B0 (K), so r0 = r. It
follows that H0 (K) ∼ = Z.
 CHAPTER 8

More homology calculations

In this section we go through a few more homology calculations, and

find spaces with torsion in their homology groups. We also interpret
what the homology groups are saying about the ‘shape’ of the simplicial
complex.
First, we state the basic result that shows how homology groups
are related to the topology of the simplicial complex.
Theorem 8.1. If X and Y are homeomorphic topological spaces
with the property that they are homeomorphic to some simplicial com-
plex, then they may be triangulated to form simplicial complexes K and
L (homeomorphic to X and Y respectively, and H∗ (K) ∼ = H∗ (L).
Notice the notation H∗ is shorthand for Hn for all n. In light
of Theorem 8.1, we may now talk about the homology groups of a
topological space.
Example 8.2. If S is the 2-sphere, then H0 (S) ∼
= Z, H1 (S) = 0,
H2 (S) ∼
= Z, and H n≥3 (S) = 0.
Recall that S n = {x ∈ Rn+1 | |x| = 1} is the n-sphere, and B n =
{x ∈ Rn | |x| ≤ 1} is the n-ball.
Also notice that for a simplicial complex, connected implies path-
connected. We shall therefore use the term ‘connected’ to mean both
these properties.
Theorem 8.3. Let K be a simplicial complex. Then H0 (K) ∼
= Zm ,
where m is the number of connected components of K.
Proof. C0 (K) is free abelian on the finite number of vertices Pi
in K, and B0 (K) is generated by the edges Pi2 − Pi1 , where Pi1 Pi2 is
an edge in K. Fix a vertex Pi1 . Then any Pir in the same connected
component of K as Pi1 can be joined to Pir by a path of edges
Pi1 Pi2 , Pi2 Pi3 , . . . , Pir−1 Pir ,
so
Pir = Pi1 + (Pi2 − Pi1 ) + · · · + (Pir − Pir−1 )
which shows that Pir ∈ Pi1 + B0 (K).
On the other hand, if Pis is not in the same component as Pi1 , then
by reversing the above argument we have that Pis ∈ / Pi1 + B0 (K). To
see this, assume that Pis ∈ Pi1 + B0 (K). Then Pis − Pi1 is an integer
59
 1. GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF HOMOLOGY 60

combination of boundaries of 1-simplexes in K. In this expression, find

if possible a boundary (Pi2 − Pi1 ) with Pi2 distinct from Pis and Pi1 .
Subtract (Pi2 − Pi1 ) from both sides to see that Pis − Pi2 is an integer
combination of boundaries of 1-simplexes in K. Continue for finitely
many steps: the process stops only when the next vertex found is Pis ,
at which point the list of boundaries obtained gives a path from Pi1 to
Pis .

Theorem 8.4. If K is a collapsible simplicial complex, then Hn (K) =

0 for all n ≥ 1, and H0 (K) ∼
= Z.
Proof. ‘Collapsible’ will be defined in the lectures, and is illus-
trated by the allowed collapsings below (these are not collapsible, but
the moves indicated are collapses):

Figure 8.1. Collapsing a simplicial complex

‘Collapsible’ then means that the simplicial complex may be collapsed

to a point. The proof is completed by showing that collapsing does not
change the homology groups.

Corollary 8.5. Any triangulation of S n is not collapsible, but

any triangulation of B n is collapsible.
1. Geometrical interpretation of homology
We have seen already that H0 (K) is given by Zm , where m is the
number of connected components in K.
The 1-cycles are generated by closed curves along edges of K.
The 2-cycles are generated by closed 2-dimensional surfaces in K
(and so on...).
Z1 (K)
Now H1 (K) = B 1 (K)
amounts roughly to counting closed curves
that appear in K which are not there simply because they are bound-
aries of 2-dimensional pieces.
H2 (K) counts the closed 2-dimensional surfaces in the space which
are not boundaries of 3-simplexes, and so on.
Thus, the homology groups are in some sense counting the ‘holes’
in higher dimensions. We saw already that the fundamental group
 1. GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF HOMOLOGY 61

π1 detects the presence of 2-dimensional holes well, but fails to de-

tect 3-dimensional holes (like the inside of a 2-sphere). However, the
homology group of the right dimension will detect the hole.
For example, H1 (S 2 ) = 0 since any closed surface on S 2 bounds
a 2-dimensional piece of the sphere. On the other hand, H2 (S 2 ) 6= 0
since the 2-dimensional surface S 2 is not the boundary of anything in
the sphere.
Example 8.6. We expect H1 (S 1 ) to be isomorphic to Z by the
above argument. Let’s prove this.

P3 P2

P1

Figure 8.2. A triangulation of the circle

Let K be the indicated triangulation of the circle. Then C1 (K) is

generated by P1 P2 , P2 P3 , and P3 P1 .
If a 1-chain is a cycle, then it must contain P1 P2 and P2 P3 the same
number of times (that is, with the same coefficient), since the boundary
cannot contain a non-zero multiple of P2 . A similar argument works
for any pair of edges, so Z1 (K) is generated by the cycle
P 1 P2 + P 2 P3 + P 3 P1 .
B1 (K) = ∂2 (C2 (K)) = 0 (there are no 2-simplexes in K), so H1 (K) ∼
=
Z.
In fact a higher-dimensional argument shows that Hn (S n ) ∼
= H0 (S n ) ∼
=
n
Z for all n, while Hj6=n,0 (S ) = 0.
Definition 8.7. The elements of Hn (K) (i.e. the cosets of Bn (K)
in Zn (K)) are called homology classes. Cycles in the same homology
class are called homologous.

Example 8.8. The annulus (or the cylinder). Triangulate the an-
nulus as shown in Figure 8.3.
H0 (K) ∼
= Z since K is connected.
Let z = rP1 P2 + . . . be a 1-cycle. Then z − r∂2 (P1 P2 Q1 ) is a cycle
homologous to z and without P1 P2 . Continue in the same way to find
a cycle homologous to z containing no edge on the inner circle. Now
subtract multiples of ∂2 (Qi Pi Qj ) to get a cycle z 0 homologous to z with
no terms Qi Pi either. Now if the edge Q5 P1 appears in z 0 then P1 would
 1. GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF HOMOLOGY 62

Q2
Q1

P2
P3 P1
Q3 Q5

P4 P5

Q4

Figure 8.3. A triangulation of the annulus

appear in ∂1 (z 0 ) which is impossible (and similarly for the other edges

going from the outer to the inner circle). So z is homologous to a cycle
made up of edges along the outer circle only. By a familiar argument,
it follows that z is homologous to a cycle of the form
n(Q1 Q2 + Q2 Q3 + Q3 Q4 + Q4 Q5 + Q5 Q1 ).
It follows that H1 (K) ∼
= Z.
H2 (K) = 0 since Z2 (K) = 0 (any 2-simplex has in its boundary
an edge on the inner or the outer circle, which appears in no other
2-simplex).

Example 8.9. The torus. Triangulate the torus as indicated.

a

2 4

1 3 5

6 8 10

b b
7 9 11

12 14 16

13 15 17

Figure 8.4. A triangulation of the torus

Since K is connected, H0 (K) ∼

= Z.
 1. GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF HOMOLOGY 63

Let z be a 1-cycle. Change by a multiple of the boundary of 41 to

get a homologous cycle not containing the side  of 41. Repeat with
boundary of 42 to eliminate the side | of 42. Continue, eliminating
 of 43, | of 44,  of 45, − of 46,  of 47, | of 48,  of 49, | of
410,  of 411, − of 412,  of 413, | of 414,  of 415, | of 416,
and  of 417.
So z is homologous to a cycle z 0 containing only edges of the circles
a and b and the edges 1,2,3,4 below.

1 2

b b

3 4

Figure 8.5. Any 1-cycle is homologous to a cycle here

Since z 0 is a cycle, it cannot containg any of the edges 1,2,3 or 4.

So z is homologous to a cycle having edges only on the circle a or the
circle b. The usual argument implies that each edge on each of the two
circles must appear the same number of times.
At this point we know that H1 (K) is a quotient of Z ⊕ Z: the next
little argument finds out which quotient.
If a 2-chain is to have a boundary containing just a’s and b’s, then
all the triangles (give them all a clockwise orientation) must appear
with the same coefficient so that the inner edges will cancel out. The
boundary of such a triangle is therefore 0. It follows that every ho-
mology class contains exactly one element of the form ra + sb, and
that
H1 (K) ∼
= Z ⊕ Z,
with generators a and b.
For H2 (K), a 2-cycle must contain 42 with clockwise orientation
the same number of times it contains 43 (also with clockwise orien-
tation), to make the  edge cancel, and similarly for any adjacent
triangles. So every triangle appears with the same coefficient in a 2-
cycle, and Z2 (K) ∼= Z. Since there are no 3-simplexes, B2 (K) = 0,
 1. GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF HOMOLOGY 64

so
H2 (K) ∼
= Z.
Finally, it is clear that Hn≥3 (K) = 0.

Example 8.10. The Klein bottle. Let K be the triangulation of

the Klein bottle indicated below.

b b

Figure 8.6. A triangulation of the Klein bottle

As usual, H0 (K) ∼ = Z.
By the argument used in Example 8.8, any 1-cycle is homologous to
a cycle of the form ra + sb. Again, this shows that H1 (K) is a quotient
of Z ⊕ Z.
If a 2-chain is to have a boundary containing just a and b, then again
all triangles oriented clockwise must appear with the same coefficient
(so the common edges inside will cancel out). Now the boundary of
such a 2-chain is k(2a), where k is the number of times each triangle
appears. It follows that H1 (K) is the abelian group generated by a and
b with the relation 2a = 0, so
H1 (K) ∼
= Z ⊕ Z/2Z.
Since there are no 2-cycles, H2 (K) = 0.
Notice that the Klein bottle is non-orientable, and has torsion in
its homology. These two properties go together for closed surfaces, but
do not for surfaces with boundary, as the next example shows.
Example 8.11. Let K be a triangulation of the Möbius band.
Then H0 (K) ∼ = Z, H1 (K) ∼ = Z, and Hn≥2 (K) = 0. The reason is
that the Möbius band retracts onto the circle (or, K collapses to a
triangulation of the circle).
 2. EULER CHARACTERISTIC 65

2. Euler characteristic
Recall the structure theorem for finitely generated abelian groups:
any such group G is given uniquely by
G∼= Zm ⊕ torsion.
The number m is called the Betti number of G. By the structure
theorem, the Betti number is well-defined (isomorphic groups have the
same Betti numbers).
Let βj be the Betti number of Hj (K) for a given simplicial complex K.
Define the Euler characteristic of K by
X
χ(K) = (−1)i (# of n-simplexes in K).
i≥0

j
P
Theorem 8.12. χ(K) = j≥0 (−1) βj .

This is a remarkable fact: of course there is no reason to have

βj equal to the number of j-simplexes: in fact one may change the
triangulation (by barycentric subdivision for instance), which changes
all the summands in the Euler characteristic but by Theorem 8.12 must
preserve the Euler characteristic.
 CHAPTER 9

Simplicial approximation and an application

So far we have seen how to construct abelian groups Hn (K) (for

n ≥ 0) for a simplicial complex K. We also triangulated topological
spaces, to allow Hn (X) to be defined for a topological space X.
Remark 9.1. Problem Can Hn (·) be extended to a functor from
the category of topological spaces and continuous maps to the category
of abelian groups and homomorphisms?
To understand what is involved here, consider the following diagram.
f
X −−−→ Y
 

triangulatey
triangulate
y
f¯
K −−−→ L
 

Hn y
H
y n
Hn (f¯)
Hn (K) −−−→ Hn (L)
Thus we need to make sense of simplicial maps between simplicial com-
plexes. This is fairly involved and we shall initially do this without
proofs.
Definition 9.2. If K is a simplicial complex of dimension n (a
combinatorial-geometric object) denote by |K| (called the polyhedron
of K) the set of points in Rn that lie in at least one of the simplexes
of K, topologized as a subset of Rn .

Lemma 9.3. (a) |K| is a closed compact subset of Rn .

(b) Every point of |K| is in the interior of exactly one simplex of K.
(c) If L is a subcomplex of K, then |L| is a closed subset of |K|.

Definition 9.4. If K and L are simplicial complexes, a simplicial

map f : |K| → |L| is a function from |K| to |L| with the following
properties.
1. If a is a vertex of a simplex of K, then f (a) is a vertex of a
simplex of L.
2. If (a0 , a1 , . . . , an ) is a simplex of K, then f (a0 ), . . . , f (an ) span a
simplex of L (possibly with some repeats).
66
 9. SIMPLICIAL APPROXIMATION AND AN APPLICATION 67

i 0 1 n
P
3. If
Px = i λi a is in a simplex (a , a , . . . , a ) of K, then f (x) =
λi f (a ) (i.e. f is linear on each simplex).
Of course a simplicial map of simplicial pairs f : (|K|, |L|) → (|M |, |N |)
is just a simplicial map f : |K| → |M | such that f (|L|) ⊂ |N |.
Remark 9.5. (1) Simplicial maps are the natural structure-preserving
maps between simplicial complexes, allowing us to define the category
of simplicial complexes and simplicial maps.
(2) If f is a simplicial map, it is automatically continuous.
(3) Definition 9.1 allows us to be more precise about triangulations: a
triangulation of a topological space X is a simplicial complex K and a
homeomorphism h : |K| → X. We shall usually ignore h and treat |K|
itself as the triangulation of X.

Theorem 9.6. If f : X → Y is a map, then there exist triangu-

lations K and L of X and Y respectively, such that the induced map
|K| → |L| is homotopic to a simplicial map f¯ : |K| → |L|.
The proof of this result will be found in the references.
Definition 9.7. If f : X → Y is a map, then define the induced
map in homology, Hn (f ) : Hn (X) → Hn (Y ), as follows. If z is an
n-cycle in (a suitable triangulation K of) X, then
Hn (f )(z + Bn (K)) = f¯(z) + Bn (L),
where L is a (suitable) triangulation of Y .

Theorem 9.8. Hn (·) is a functor from the category of topological

spaces and maps to the category of abelian groups and homomorphisms.
Notice that a proof of this result involves constructing the map f¯
and showing that homotopic maps induce the same maps in homology.
As an application of these ideas, we now prove the Brouwer Fixed-Point
theorem. In comparing this result to the Borsuk–Ulam theorem, notice
how homology allows us to work easily in higher dimensions.
Theorem 9.9. Any map f : B n → B n has a fixed point for n ≥ 1.
Proof. First see that the case n = 1 is trivial (draw a picture).
Recall that Bn = {x ∈ Rn | |x| ≤ 1} is the n-ball. Assume that
f : B n → B n is a map with no fixed point, so f (x) 6= x for all x ∈ B n .
For each x ∈ B n , there is then a uniquely defined line segment from
f (x) to x, which may be extended in the direction f (x) to x until it
meets the boundary S n−1 of B n at some point y. This assignment
defines a map g : B n → S n−1 , by g(x) = y. By Theorem 9.8, there is
an induced homomorphism of abelian groups
Hn−1 (g) : Hn−1 (B n ) → Hn−1 (S n−1 ).
We know that Hn−1 (B n ) = 0, while Hn−1 (S n−1 ) ∼
= Z.
 9. SIMPLICIAL APPROXIMATION AND AN APPLICATION 68

On the other hand, if K and L are the triangulations of B n and S n−1

used to define Hn−1 (g), then the (n − 1)-cycle given by the subcom-
plex of K that is a triangulation of S n−1 (with the proper orientation)
represents the homology class of 0 in Hn−1 (B n ) but is sent under g to
a generator of Hn−1 (S n−1 ) (since g fixes the boundary of B n ), which is
a contradiction.
 CHAPTER 10

Homological algebra and the exact sequence of a

pair

In this section we develop more sophisticated machinery to compute

homology groups, and to construct the homology groups of a pair of
spaces. These turn out to be stronger invariants than the homology
groups alone. The first step is to develop a better understanding of the
algebra that arises from chain groups and boundary homomorphisms.
If K is a simplicial complex, then it has naturally associated to it a
sequence of abelian groups and homomorphisms
∂n ∂n−1 ∂ ∂ ∂
· · · −→ Cn (K) → −→Cn−1 (K) → −→ . . . →2 −→C1 (K) →1 −→C0 (K) →0 −→0,
with the additional critical property that ∂k−1 ∂k = 0.
It is convenient to consider the purely algebraic portion of this
situation – and to extend the chain to the right (negative values of k).

1. Chain complexes and mappings

Definition 10.1. A chain complex hA, ∂i is a doubly infinite se-
quence
A = {. . . , A2 , A1 , A0 , A−1 , A−2 , . . . }
of abelian groups Ak , together with a collection
∂ = {∂k | k ∈ Z}
of homomorphisms such that ∂k : Ak → Ak−1 and ∂k ∂k−1 = 0.
For brevity, we shall sometimes denote the chain complex hA, ∂i by
A. In a chain complex, it is clear that the image of ∂k is a subgroup of
the kernel of ∂k−1 . By analogy with the topological situation, we make
the following definitions.
Definition 10.2. If A is a chain complex, then the kernel Zk (A)
of ∂k is the group of k-cycles, and the image Bk (A) = ∂k+1 (Ak+1 ) is
the group of k-boundaries. The factor group Hk (A) = Zk (A)/Bk (A) is
the kth homology group of A.
In the topological setting, a mapping f from X to Y gives, for
suitable triangulations of X and Y , a homomorphism fk from Ck (X)
to Ck (Y ) which commutes with ∂k . This gives an anologous notion of
maps for chain complexes.
69
 2. RELATIVE HOMOLOGY 70

Theorem 10.3. Let hA, ∂i and hA0 , ∂ 0 i be chain complexes, and

suppose there is a collection of homomorphisms fk : Ak → A0k giving
the following commutative diagram
∂k+2 ∂k+1 k ∂ ∂k−1
. . . −−−→ Ak+1 −−−→ Ak −−−→ Ak−1 −−−→ . . .
  

fk+1 y

fk y f

k−1 y

0 0 0
∂k+2 ∂k+1 ∂0 ∂k−1
. . . −−−→ A0k+1 −−−→ A0k −−−
k
→ A0k−1 −−−→ . . .
Then fk induces a natural homomorphism f∗k : Hk (A) → Hk (A0 ).
In the above situation, we say that f = {fk | k ∈ Z} commutes
with ∂.
Definition 10.4. A chain complex hA0 , ∂ 0 i is a subcomplex of a
chain complex hA, ∂i if, for all k, A0k is a subgroup of Ak , and ∂k0 (c) =
∂k (c) for all c ∈ A0k .

Example 10.5. Let A be a chain complex, and let A0 be a subcom-

plex of A. Let i be the collection of injection mappings ik : A0k → Ak
given by ik (c) = c. It is clear that i commutes with ∂, so there are
induced homomorphisms i∗k : Hk (A0 ) → Hk (A). Despite the fact that
i is simply the identity inclusion, the induced map in homology may be
non-trivial. For instance, we may view (a triangulation of) the 2-sphere
S 2 as a subcomplex of (a triangulation) of the 3-ball B 3 : the induced
map
i∗2 : H2 (S 2 ) → H2 (B 3 )
is not an isomorphism.
2. Relative homology
Let A0 be a subcomplex of A (for instance, arising from a simplicial
subcomplex Y of a simplicial complex X). We can regard Ck (Y ) as a
subgroup of Ck (X), and ∂k (Ck (Y )) ≤ Ck−1 (Y ). We may therefore form
the collection A/A0 of factor groups Ak /A0k , and we claim that A/A0
gives rise to a chain complex in a natural way. To do this, a collection
∂¯ of homomorphisms
∂¯k : (Ak /A0 ) → Ak−1 /A0


k k−1

such that ∂¯k−1 ∂¯k = 0 must be constructed. Define ∂¯k by setting

∂¯k (c + A0 ) = ∂k (c) + A0
k k−1
for c ∈ Ak .
∂¯k is well-defined. If c1 ∈ c + A0k , then c1 − c ∈ A0k , so ∂k (c1 − c) ∈
A0k−1 . Thus
∂k (c1 ) ∈ ∂k (c) + A0k−1
also, so ∂¯k is well-defined.
It is clear that ∂¯k is a homomorphism and ∂¯k−1 ∂¯k = 0.
 2. RELATIVE HOMOLOGY 71

Theorem 10.6. If A0 is a subcomplex of the chain complex A, then

the collection A/A0 , together with the collection ∂¯ of homomorphisms
defined by
∂¯k (c + A0k ) = ∂k (c) + A0k−1
for c ∈ Ak , is a chain complex.
Since A/A0 is a chain complex, it has associated to it homology
groups Hk (A/A0 ).
Definition 10.7. The homology group Hk (A/A0 ) is the kth rela-
tive homology group of A modulo A0 .
In the topological setting, where Y is a subcomplex of a simplicial
complex X, the usual notation for the kth relative homology group aris-
ing from the subcomplex C(Y ) of the chain complex C(X) is Hk (X, Y ).
That is, all the chains of Y are ‘set equal to zero’. This corresponds to
the geometric process of shrinking the subcomplex Y to a point.
Example 10.8. Let X be the one-dimensional simplicial complex
shown in Figure 10.1,
P3

P1 P2

Figure 10.1. The simplicial complex X

and let Y be the subcomplex consisting of the edge P2 P3 .

We know that H1 (X) ∼ = Z. Geometrically, shrinking P2 P3 to a
point collapses the rim of the triangle, as shown in Figure 10.2.

P1 P2=P3

Figure 10.2. The simplicial complex X with edge P2 P3

shrunk to a point

The result is still topologically a circle, so we expect that H1 (X, Y ) ∼

=
Z.
Generators for C1 (X) are P1 P2 , P2 P3 , and P3 P1 . Since P2 P3 ∈
C1 (Y ), generators of C1 (X)/C1 (Y ) are
P1 P2 + C1 (Y ), and P3 P1 + C1 (Y ).
 3. THE EXACT HOMOLOGY SEQUENCE OF A PAIR 72

To find Z1 (X, Y ), compute

∂¯1 (nP1 P2 + mP3 P1 + C1 (Y )) = ∂1 (nP1 P2 ) + ∂1 (mP3 P1 ) + C0 (Y )
= n(P2 − P1 ) + m(P1 − P3 ) + C0 (Y )
= (m − n)P1 + C0 (Y ),
since P2 and P3 are in C0 (Y ). Thus, for a cycle, we must have m = n,
which shows that a generator for Z1 (X, Y ) is (P1 P2 + P3 P1 ) + C1 (Y ).
Since B1 (X, Y ) = 0, this shows that
H1 (X, Y ) ∼
= Z.
Since P1 + C0 (Y ) generates Z0 (X, Y ) and
∂¯1 (P2 P1 + C1 (Y )) = (P1 − P2 ) + C0 (Y ) = P1 + C0 (Y ),
so H0 (X, Y ) = 0.

Example 10.9. Consider the circle S 1 as a subcomplex of the ball

B 2 . Geometrically, shrinking the edge of the ball B 2 to a point results
in a topological 2-sphere (make sure you understand why it does not
result in a point). So, we expect that despite the fact that H2 (B 2 ) = 0,
the relative homology group H2 (B 2 , S 1 ) should be Z.
To compute H2 , regard B 2 as the triangular region inside the tri-
angle of Figure 63, and S 1 as the rim of the triangle. Then C2 (B 2 , S 1 )
is generated by P1 P2 P3 + C2 (S 1 ), and
∂¯2 (P1 P2 P3 + C2 (S 1 )) = ∂2 (P1 P2 P3 ) + C1 (S 1 )
= (P2 P3 − P1 P3 + P1 P2 ) + C1 (S 1 ).
Now (P2 P3 − P1 P3 + P1 P2 ) ∈ C1 (S 1 ), so
∂¯2 (P1 P2 P3 + C2 (S 1 )) = 0.
Therefore P1 P2 P3 + C2 (S 1 ) ∈ Z2 (B 2 , S 1 ). Since B2 (B 2 , S 1 ) = 0, we
have as expected that
H2 (B 2 , S 1 ) ∼
= Z.
3. The exact homology sequence of a pair
In this section there are many routine calculations using quotient
groups which are left as exercises.
Lemma 10.10. Let A0 be a subcomplex of a chain complex A, and
let j be the collection of canonical homomorphisms jk : Ak → Ak /A0k .
Then, for every k,
jk−1 ∂k = ∂¯k jk ,
so j commutes with ∂.
An immediate consequence is the following important result.
Theorem 10.11. The map jk induces a natural homomorphism
j∗k : Hk (A) → Hk (A/A0 ).
 3. THE EXACT HOMOLOGY SEQUENCE OF A PAIR 73

Let now A0 be a subcomplex of a chain complex A. Let h ∈

Hk (A/A0 ), so that h = z + Bk (A/A0 ) for some z ∈ Zk (A/A0 ) and
z = c + A0k for some c ∈ Ak . Notice that passing from h to c involves
choosing a representative of a representative. Now ∂¯k (z) = 0, which
implies that ∂k (c) ∈ A0k−1 and so ∂k (c) ∈ Zk−1 (A0 ) (since ∂k−1 ∂k = 0).
Define a map
∂∗k : Hk (A/A0 ) → Hk−1 (A0 )
by setting ∂∗k (h) = ∂k (c) + Bk−1 (A0 ).
That is, start with an element of Hk (A/A0 ). Such an element is
represented by a relative k-cycle modulo A0 . That means its boundary
is in A0k−1 . Since its boundary is in A0k−1 and is also the boundary of
something in Ak , this boundary must be a (k − 1)-cycle in A0k−1 . So,
from h ∈ Hk (A/A0 ) we have produced a (k − 1)-cycle representing a
homology class in Hk−1 (A0 ).
Lemma 10.12. The map ∂∗k : Hk (A/A0 ) → Hk−1 (A0 ) is well-defined,
and is a homomorphism.
Recall from Example 10.5 the maps i∗k , and from Lemma 10.10 the
maps j∗k : these give a chain of maps and homomorphisms,
∂∗k+1 i j∗ k
... → → Hk (A0 ) →→
∗k
Hk (A) →→ Hk (A/A0 )
∂∗k i∗k−1 j∗k−1 ∂∗k−1
→→ Hk−1 (A0 ) → → Hk−1 (A) → → Hk−1 (A/A0 ) → → . . .

Lemma 10.13. The sequence of groups and homomorphisms above

form a chain complex.
Now we have a chain complex, we could of course find the homol-
ogy groups... Fortunately there are no further complications to be
unearthed in that direction: all the homology groups of the sequence
are trivial.
Recall that a chain complex A = hA, ∂i is called a (long) exact
sequence if all the homology groups are 0, i.e. for every k the image of
∂k is exactly equal to the kernel of ∂k−1 .
Theorem 10.14. The chain complex (10.1) is exact.
The exact sequence is called the exact homology sequence of the
pair (A, A0 ). If the chain complexes arise from a pair of topological
spaces, we obtain the exact homology sequence of a pair of spaces. In
this case, we obtain for a subcomplex L of the simplicial complex K,
∂∗k+1 ∗k i j∗ k
... → → Hk (L) →→ Hk (K) →→ Hk (K, L)
∂∗k i∗k−1 j∗k−1 ∂∗k−1
→→ Hk−1 (L) → → Hk−1 (K) → → Hk−1 (K, L) → → . . .
j∗ 1 ∗1 ∂ ∗0 i j∗0
→→ H1 (K, L) →→ H0 (L) →→ H0 (K) →→ H0 (K, L) → 0
 3. THE EXACT HOMOLOGY SEQUENCE OF A PAIR 74

Example 10.15. Let’s assume the result that Hk (B n ) = 0 for

k > 0, and use Theorem 10.14 to deduce the homology of spheres.
Choose and fix a triangulation K of B n+1 , with the subcomplex L cor-
responding to the boundary S n . Form the exact homology sequence of
the pair (K, L):
i∗n+1 j∗n+1 ∂∗n+1
Hn+1 (L) → −→ Hn+1 (K) → −→ Hn+1 (K, L) → −→
| {z } | {z } | {z }
=0 =0 ∼
=Z

∗n i ∗nj∗n ∂ j∗k+1
Hn (L) →−→ Hn (K) →−→ Hn (K, L) →−→ . . . → −→
| {z } | {z } | {z }
=? =0 =0
∂∗k+1 ∗k i∗k j
Hk+1 (K, L) → −→ Hk (L) →−→ Hk (K) →−→ ...
| {z } | {z } | {z }
=0 =? =0
for any k, 1 ≤ k < n. Our assumption is that Hk (K) = 0 for k ≥ 1, as
indicated. Since L is subcomplex of K, we have that Ck (K) ≤ Ck (L)
(for k ≤ n, and using the standard (n + 1)-simplex as K; since all the
k-chains must live on the faces of K). It follows that Hk (K, L) = 0 for
k ≤ n, which is again indicated on the exact sequence. As in Example
10.9, we see that Hn+1 (K, L) ∼= Z, with a generating homology class
containing the representative
P1 P2 . . . Pn+2 + Cn+1 (L).
For 1 ≤ k < n, the exact sequence in the last row of the diagram above
tells us that Hk (L) = 0: from Hk (K) = 0, we see that
ker i∗k = Hk (L).
On the other hand, from Hk+1 (K, L) = 0, we see that image∂∗k+1 = 0.
From exactness, ker i∗k = image∂∗k+1 , so Jk (L) = 0 for 1 ≤ k < n.
A similar argument gives Hn (L) ∼ = Z:
(1) Since Hn+1 (K) = 0, we have imagej∗n+1 = 0.
(2) By (1) and exactness, ker ∂∗n+1 = imagej∗n+1 = 0, so ∂∗n+1 is an
isomorphism.
(3) By (2), image∂∗n+1 ∼= Z.
(4) Since Hn (K) = 0, ker i∗n = Hn (L).
(5) By exactness again, image∂∗n+1 = ker i∗n , so Hn (L) ∼ = Z.
Thus, Hn (L) = Hn (S n ) ∼
= Z and H k (L) = H k (S n
) = 0 for 1 ≤ k <
n.
Since S n is connected, H0 (S n ) ∼
= Z. This fact can also be read off
from the last three terms of the exact sequence,
∗1 ∂ ∗0 i j∗0
H1 (K, L) →−→ H0 (L) →−→ H0 (K) →−→ H0 (K, L) .
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
=0 =? ∼
=Z =0

Example 10.16. Consider the following diagram representing a

triangulation K of the Möbius band, and a subcomplex L that tri-
angulates the boundary circle of the Möbius band.
 3. THE EXACT HOMOLOGY SEQUENCE OF A PAIR 75

e2 e3 e4

e1 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 e1
e7 e8 e9 e10

e5 e6

Figure 10.3. The Möbius band and edge

If z is any 1-cycle in K, then it may be written in the form

z = λ1 z 1 + · · · + λ6 z 6
where z i is the 1-cycle associated with the unique loop on the interior
edges of K together with the vertex ei which contains ei with coefficient
+1. Thus, z 1 = e1 + e7 + e8 + e9 + e10 , z 2 = e2 + e8 + e9 + e1 0 and so
on.
Now it is easy to check that H1 (L) ∼ = Z, with generator e2 + e3 +
4 5 6 ∼
e + e + e , and H1 (K) = Z, with generator z 1 = e1 + e7 + e8 + e9 + e10 .
Let’s compute the homomorphism i∗1 . First, more details on H1 (K).
B1 (K) is generated by the following elements of Z1 (K):
∂2 t1 = e2 − e7 − e1 = z 2 − z 1 ,
∂2 t2 = e7 + e8 − e5 = −z 5 ,
∂2 t3 = e3 − e9 − e8 = z 3 ,
∂2 t4 = e9 + e10 − e6 = −z 6 ,
∂2 t5 = e4 − e1 − e10 = z 4 − z 1 ,
so that H1 (K) is the abelian group generated by z 1 , z 2 , z 3 , z 4 , z 5 , z 6
with the relations z 2 − z 1 = −z 5 = z 3 = −z 6 = z 4 − z 1 = 0.
Working in H1 (K) (so equals means homologous), we have that
e2 + e3 + e4 + e5 + e6 = z 2 + z 3 + z 4 + z 5 + z 6
= z1 + 0 + z1 + 0 + 0
= 2z 1 .
Now the homomorphism i∗1 is determined by its effect on the generator
of H1 (L), and we have seen that i∗1 applied to e2 + e3 + e4 + e5 + e6 in
L gives e2 + e3 + e4 + e5 + e6 in K, but in H1 (K) we know that
e2 + e3 + e4 + e5 + e6 = 2z 1
in H1 (K). Thus i∗1 takes a generator to twice a generator: it is multi-
plication by two from Z to Z.
We are now in a position to write down the exact sequence for the
pair (K, L):
i =×2 j∗1
H2 (L) → H2 (K) → H2 (K, L) → H1 (L) ∗1→ → H1 (K) →→ H1 (K, L)
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
=0 =0 =? ∼
=Z ∼
=Z =?
 3. THE EXACT HOMOLOGY SEQUENCE OF A PAIR 76

∗0 i
→ H0 (L) →→ H0 (K) → H0 (K, L) → 0.
| {z } | {z } | {z }
∼
=Z ∼
=Z =?
Now apply exactness to deduce the following.
H2 (K, L) ∼= ker i∗1 = 0.
H1 (K, L) ∼= H1 (K)/imagei∗1 ∼= Z/2Z, with generator the image under
j∗1 of a generator of H1 (K).
Since both K and L are connected and non-empty, the map i∗0 is an
isomorphism (check this!). It follows that H0 (K, L) = 0.

Example 10.17. In a similar way we can compute the relative ho-

mology group of the pair (cylinder, both ends). Let K be the trian-
gulation of the cylinder indicated below, and let L be the subcomplex
compirising the two ends (i.e. e7 , e8 , e9 and e10 , e11 , e12 ).

v1 e7 e8 e9 v1

t1 t3 t5

e6 e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6

t2 t4 t6

v2 e10 e11 e12 v2

Figure 10.4. The cylinder and its two ends

In this case i∗0 : H0 (L) → H0 (K) has infinite cyclic kernel, gener-
ated by the element v 1 − v 0 in H0 (L). (Notice that L is not connected
but K is, so i∗0 cannot be an isomorphism in contrast to the situation
of Example 10.16). Also, i∗1 takes each of the generators e7 + e8 + e9
and e10 + e11 + e12 of H1 (L) to a generator of H1 (K): it follows in
particular that i∗1 is surjective.
As an exercise, apply the method of Example 10.16 to compute the
groups Hk (K, L) for k = 0, 1, 2.
Notice that these examples show that using homology of pairs pro-
duces strictly more information: for example, the Möbius band and
the circle have the same homology groups. However, the Möbius band
has a triangulation K containing a subcomplex L with the property
that H1 (K, L) ∼= Z/2Z, which shows that it is not homeomorphic to
the circle.
 APPENDIX A

Finitely generated abelian groups

Proofs for the results on this sheet may be found in any group
theory book. We shall deal with abelian (commutative) groups, and
therefore use additive notation (so the binary operation of the group is
+).
Definition A.1. Let G be an abelian group. A set of elements
{gi }i∈I in G is a generating set for G if every g ∈ G can be written in
the form X
g= ni gi
i∈I
(ni ∈ Z) in which sum all but finitely many ni are zero. If G has a
generating set with finitely many elements, then G is said to be finitely
generated.
Examples of finitely generated groups are Z, C4 × C4 (Cn is the
cyclic group of order n.) An example of an abelian group that is not
finitely generated is Q.
A group that is generated by a single element is called a cyclic
group.
A group G is torsion-free if for each g ∈ G\{0}, ng = 0 =⇒ n = 0.
A group G is torsion if every g ∈ G has an n ∈ N for which ng = 0.
Example A.2. The set of torsion elements in an abelian group
forms a subgroup, called the torsion subgroup.

Definition A.3. Let G be a finitely-generated torsion-free group.

Then G has a basis: a generating set {g1 , . . . , gm } that is also indepen-
dent:
n1 g1 + · · · + nm gm = 0 =⇒ n1 = · · · = nm = 0.
Abelian groups that are torsion-free are called free abelian groups.
A basis for a finitely-generated torsion-free abelian group is not unique
(for example, {(1, 0), (0, 1)} and {(3, 4), (4, 5)} are both bases for Z×Z),
but the cardinality of a basis is determined by the group.
Definition A.4. If G is a finitely-generated torsion-free group,
then the number of elements in a basis for G is the rank of G.
It makes sense to talk about an independent generating set for a
finitely generated abelian group that is not free: a set {b1 , . . . , bn } is
77
 1. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM 78
P
a basis in this sense if {b1 , . . . , bn } generates G and ni bi = 0 if and
only if ni bi = 0 for each i. However, the number of elements in such a
set is NOT well-defined. As an exercise, show that {1} and {2, 3} are
both independent generating sets for C6 . Because of this, we shall only
use words like basis for free abelian groups.
A general finitely-generated abelian group with a generating set of
m elements is a quotient of a free abelian group of rank m. Equivalently,
it is given by generators and relations,
G = hg1 , . . . , gm | Ri,
where R is a set of relations of the form n1 g1 + · · · + nm gm = 0. Notice
that we are always assuming that the generators commute, so this is
not quite the same notation as used in presentations of groups.
Example A.5. Work through the following:
Z ∼ Z×Z×Z
= h(3,6,−9),(2,4,−1),(1,2,11)i
∼
= ha, b, c | 3a + 6b − 9c = 0, 2a + 4b − c = 0, a + 2b + 11c = 0i.
To see this, work with the generator-relation expression. By adding
integer multiples of the relation a + 2b + 11c = 0 to the other two
relations, we arrive at
a + 2b + 11c = 0, −23c = 0, 24c = 0.
It follows that
ha, b, c | 3a + 6b − 9c = 0, 2a + 4b − c = 0, a + 2b + 11c = 0i
∼
= ha, b, c | a + 2b + 11c = 0, −23c = 0, 24c = 0i.
It follows that in the group c = 24c − 23c = 0, and so a = −2b:
ha, b, c | 3a+6b−9c = 0, 2a+4b−c = 0, a+2b+11c = 0i ∼ = ha, b | a+2b = 0i.
Finally, this shows that the group is generated by the single element b,
and that b is torsion-free:
ha, b, c | 3a + 6b − 9c = 0, 2a + 4b − c = 0, a + 2b + 11c = 0i ∼
= hbi.

1. The Fundamental Theorem

Lemma A.6. If G is a finitely-generated abelian group with torsion
subgroup T , then G is an internal direct product T × F where F ∼= Zm
is a free subgroup of G.
Notice that if G itself is torsion then F is trivial. The number m is
called the Betti number of G, and it is uniquely determined by G.
Theorem A.7. Every finitely-generated abelian group G is isomor-
phic to a direct product of cyclic groups in the form
Cpr11 × · · · × Cprnn × Zm ,
 2. EXACT SEQUENCES 79

where the pi are primes, not necessarily distinct. Equivalently, it may

be written in the form
Cm1 × . . . Cmr × Zm ,
in which mi divides mi+1 .
The number m is the Betti number of G. The numbers mi are
the torsion coefficients of G; they are uniquely determined by G. The
prime powers pri i are also uniquely determined by G.
Example A.8. (1) C2 × C2 × C2 × C3 × C3 × C5 is isomorphic to
C2 × C6 × C30 .
(2) The abelian groups of order 360 = 23 32 5 may be determined using
Theorem A.7. They are (writing them in terms of torsion coefficients):
C2 × C6 × C30 , C6 × C60 , C2 × C2 × C90 , C2 × C180 , C3 × C120 , and C360 .
Finally, an example taken from topology: the following example is
the kind of calculation that you need to be able to do.
Example A.9. Let Z be the free abelian group generated by {P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 },
and let B be the subgroup of G generated by
{P2 − P1 , P3 − P1 , P4 − P1 , P3 − P2 , P4 − P2 , P4 − P3 }.
Determine the structure of Z/B.
Consider a general element z + B of the quotient group Z/B. Then
z = s1 P1 + s2 P2 + s3 P3 + s4 P4 say, so
z − [s2 (P2 − P1 ) + s3 (P3 − P1 ) + s4 (P4 − P1 )] = rP1
for some r ∈ Z, so
z + B = rP1 + B.
That is, every coset of B (i.e. every element of Z/B) may be written
in the form rP1 + B. This means that Z/B is cyclic – all that remains
is to decide if it has torsion.
To decide if Z/B is torsion, assume that sP1 + B = rP1 + B. This
implies that (s − r)P1 ∈ B, and it is clear from the generators of B
that this requires r = s. It follows that Z/B is torsion-free and cyclic,
so Z/B ∼ = Z.
(We have also found a generator for Z/B, namely the coset P1 +B.)

2. Exact sequences
A sequence of groups and homomorphisms
α β
F → −→G → −→H
is exact at G if image(α) = ker(β), where image(α) = α(F ) and
ker(β) = {g ∈ G | β(g) = 0}.
 2. EXACT SEQUENCES 80

Example A.10. Prove the following.

(1) If both α and β are trivial (zero homomorphisms) then G = 0.
(2) If α = 0 then β is injective.
(3) If β = 0 then α is surjective.
α β
(4) If F → −→G → −→H −→ 0 is exact at G and at H then
G/α(F ) ∼
= H.
The result (4) is sometimes written G/F ∼ = H by a slight abuse of
notation: F is isomorphic to α(F ).
A sequence of groups and homomorphisms is called exact if it is
exact at every group.
The study of exact sequences is a part of homological algebra, about
which we shall say more later in the course.
 APPENDIX B

Review problems

These problems are set at the approximate level of understanding re-

quired to do well in the examination. The real exam questions will of
course be more carefully written. No attempt has been made to make
these questions similar in length to exam questions.
[1] Define the homomorphism f∗ from π1 (X; x0 ) to π1 (Y ; y0 ) associated
with a based map f : (X; x0 ) → (Y ; y0 ). Prove that your definition
gives a well–defined function, and that it is a homomorphism.
Give examples to show that:
(i) f may be injective with f∗ not injective;
(ii) f may be surjective with f∗ not surjective.
[2] Let X and Y be topological spaces.
(a) Define the concept of a continuous function from X to Y .
(b) Define the term compact for a topological space.
(c) Suppose f : X → Y is continuous and surjective. Show that if X
is compact then Y must also be compact.
(d) Using (b) (or another method) show that the circle S 1 is compact.
(You may assume that a subset of R is compact if and only if it is
closed and bounded).
(e) Is it true that the pre–image of a compact set under a continuous
map is compact?
[3](a) Define what it means for two continuous maps to be homotopic,
and what it means for two spaces to be (i) homeomorphic and (ii)
homotopy equivalent. Give an example (with brief proofs) of two spaces
that are homotopy equivalent without being homeomorphic. Can the
reverse happen?
(b) Regard S 1 as the set {z ∈ C | |z| = 1}, and let p : I → S 1 be a loop
with p(0) = p(1) = 1. Define the degree of p, written deg(p). State
carefully but do not prove any preliminary results you need. Calculate
the degree of the map qn (t) = e2πint .
(c) Define f : S 1 → S 1 by f (z) = z n . Assuming that deg defines
an isomorphism from π1 (S 1 ; 1) → Z, calculate the homomorphism f∗ .
Prove that if n 6= 0 there can be no map g : D2 → S 1 such that g
restricted to S 1 is equal to f .
[4](a) Explain briefly (without giving proofs) how the fundamental
group π1 (X, x0 ) of a space X at a point x0 is defined.

81
 B. REVIEW PROBLEMS 82

(b) State carefully a theorem relating the size of the fibres of a based
covering of a path–connected space to the number of cosets of a sub-
group of the fundamental group of the space.
(c) A certain path–connected topological space L has the sphere S n as
its universal cover, and the covering map P : S n → L has 5 points in
each fibre. Find if possible the structure of the group π1 (L, `0 ) for any
`0 ∈ L. (Indicate clearly any assumptions you make about n).
[5] Let X be a topological space, and suppose that U and V are two
open, path–connected subsets of X such that X = U ∪ V , and U ∩ V
is non–empty and path–connected. Label the various inclusions as in
the following diagram:

k
U ∩ V −−−→ U
 
 
`y yi
j
V −−−→ X

Pick a base point x0 ∈ U ∩ V . Show that if the homomorphisms

k∗ : π1 (U ∩ V ; x0 ) → π1 (U ; x0 ) and `∗ : π1 (U ∩ V ; x0 ) → π1 (V ; x0 ) are
both onto, then the homomorphisms i∗ : π1 (U ; x0 ) → π1 (X; x0 ) and
j∗ : π1 (V ; x0 ) → π1 (X; x0 ) are also onto.
[6](a) State how the projective plane RP n may be defined as a quo-
tient space of the sphere S n . Compute the fundamental group of the
projective plane RP n (you may assume that π1 (S n ) is known). In-
dicate carefully how the value of n affects your argument. If X is a
space with π1 (X) = Z/3Z, explain why there can be no covering map
p : RP 2 → X.
[7] State carefully and prove the Borsuk–Ulam Theorem concerning
maps f : S 2 → S 1 with the property that f (−x) = −f (x) for all
x ∈ S 2 . (state but do not prove any standard results you need on
fundamental groups).
[8] State clearly the classification of closed compact surfaces. Explain
the importance of orientability and the Euler characteristic in the clas-
sification.
Find the standard form of the closed surfaces represented by the
following symbols:
(a) abca−1 cb−1
(b) abcdef e−1 db−1 af c
[9] Let K be a simplicial complex of dimension n and let L be a sub-
complex of K. Define the homology sequence of the pair (K, L). State
(but do not prove) the main theorem about this sequence.
Let K be the Möbius band triangulation shown above, and let L
be the edge. Show that H1 (L) ∼ = Z, and given that H2 (K) = 0,
∼
H1 (K) = Z, show that if ı : L ,→ K is the inclusion map, then the
induced map in homology ı∗ : H1 (L) → H1 (K) is multiplication by 2.
 B. REVIEW PROBLEMS 83

Now write down the homology sequence of the pair (K, L) from
H2 (K, L) = 0 to H̃0 (L) = 0 and deduce the relative homology group
H1 (K, L).
[10] Write down the fundamental (or homotopy) groups of the spaces
obtained by identifying the edges of a square as in the following dia-
grams:

You need not prove your assertion. Prove that the two spaces are not
homeomorphic.
[11] Find the Euler characteristic of a 2–sphere with n handles attached
to it.
[12] Compute directly the homology groups of the space X obtained
by identifying the edges in the following diagram.

a
P P

b b

P a P

(a) Define a map f from X onto the topological circle give by the b
edges by sending a point Q in the square to a point on either b edge
horizontally. Compute the induced maps f∗ : Hn (X) → Hn (b) for
n = 0, 1, 2, by describing the images of generators.
(b) Do the same with the map g from X defined by sending a point Q
to a point on the a edge directly above it.
[13] Describe without proofs how the exact homology sequence of a pair
is defined.
[14] Let X be the simplicial complex consisting of the edges of the
triangle below,
and let Y be the subcomplex consisting of the edge P2 P3 . Com-
pute from first principles the relative homology groups H0 (X, Y ) and
H1 (X, Y ).
 B. REVIEW PROBLEMS 84

P3

P1 P2

[15] Consider the edge Y (a circle) of the disk X as a subcomplex.

Compute H2 (X, Y ) directly.
[16] Let K be a simplicial complex with the following property: there
is a vertex v0 of K such that if σ is a q–simplex of K and v0 is not a
vertex of σ, then there is a (unique) (q + 1)–simplex of K with σ as
one of its q–dimensional faces and v0 as one of its vertices. Prove that
Hq (K) = 0 if q > 0. (Hint: how do you prove that Hq (∆n ) = 0 for
q > 0 where ∆n is the simplicial complex consisting of all the faces of
an n–simplex?)
[17] Let K be a simplicial complex. Define the Euler characteristic of
K and prove that if K and L are two simplicial complexes with |K|
homeomorphic to |L| then the Euler characteristics of K and of L are
equal. (You may state without proving any properties of the rank of
an abelian group that you need).
[18](a) Let X be the space consisting of two circles with a single com-
mon point. Briefly describe the steps in the calculation of π1 (X).
(b) Indicate with a sketch the covering space of X corresponding to the
subgroup generated by a loop which runs three times round one circle
and once round the other circle.
[19](a) What is meant by saying “spaces Y and Z have the same ho-
motopy type”?
(b) Prove that the projective plane with one point removed does not
have the same homotopy type as a torus with one point removed.
[20] State and prove the Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem concerning
maps of closed balls.
[21] Let K be a simplicial complex. Define the terms p–chain, p–
boundary, p–cycle and the pth homology group Hp (K). Prove that
H0 (K) ∼= Zn where n is the number of components of K.
[22] And of course make sure you can do all the exercises...
 Index

action fibre
on fibres, 36 action on, 36
right, 36 fibres, 36
arrows, 29 finitely generated abelian groups, 66
functor, 29
barycentric subdivision, 46 functorial, 29
basis, 8 fundamental group
Betti number, 66 torsion, 37
Borsuk–Ulam theorem, 37
boundaries, 57 genus, 50
boundary, 14
homomorphism, 57 handles, 49
map, 57 Hausdorff, 15
boundary of a simplex, 56 homeomorphic, 7
Brouwer fixed-point theorem, 68 homeomorphism, 7
homogeneous coordinates, 11
canonical projections, 9 homological algebra, 70
categories, 29 homologous, 62
chains, 56 homology
closed set, 5 classes, 62
closure, 14 group, 59
coherent orientation, 43 groups of a space, 60
collapsible, 61 induced map, 68
compact, 14 of spheres, 74
complex of the annulus, 62
chain, 70 of the torus, 63
connected, 60 relative group, 72
simplicial, 56 homotopic, 21
connected, 20, 41 rel A, 21
continuous, 5 homotopy
continuous function, 6 class, 22
cover equivalence, 22
universal, 33
covering map, 32 interior, 14
covering space, 32
crosscaps, 49 Klein bottle, 17
cycles, 57 homology groups, 65

degree, 37 lift, 35
link, 41
Euler characteristic, 52, 66
evenly covered, 32 Möbius band, 12
exact homology sequence of a pair, 74 metric open ball, 5
exact sequence, 74 metric space, 5
85
 INDEX 86

objects, 29 relative, 7
open set, 5 subspace, 7
orientable, 43 torus, 12
oriented simplex, 55 triangulation, 40

path, 20 universal cover, 33

end point, 20
multiplication, 29
starting point, 20
path-connected, 20
product topology, 8
projective space, 11

quotient topology, 11

rectangles, 8
retraction, 22
right action, 36

sheets, 32
simplex
boundary, 56
face, 56
simplicial complex, 56
polyhedron, 67
simplicial map, 67
space
discrete, 5
metric, 5
topological, 6
sphere, 11
sruface
symbol, 46
strong deformation retract, 22
subcomplex, 71
surface, 40
classification, 50
combinatorial, 41
genus, 50
orientable, 43
polygonal representation, 46
symbol of a surface, 46

tetrahedron, 57
homology groups, 59
topological space
based, 27
topology, 6
concrete, 7
discrete, 7
generated by a basis, 8
metric, 7
product, 8
quotient, 11