DIODE: A diode allows electricity to flow in one direction only and blocks the flow in the opposite direction.

They may be regarded as one-way valves and they are used in various circuits, usually as a form of protection. There are different types of diode but their basic functions are the same. These are noted below along with examples of diodes in use. CAPACITOR: Capacitors are components that are used to store an electrical charge and are used in timer circuits. A capacitor may be used with a resistor to produce a timer. Sometimes capacitors are used to smooth a current in a circuit as they can prevent false triggering of other components such as relays. When power is supplied to a circuit that includes a capacitor - the capacitor charges up. When power is turned off the capacitor discharges its electrical charge slowly. RESISTOR: Resistors determine the flow of current in an electrical circuit. Where there is high resistance in a circuit the flow of current is small, where the resistance is low the flow of current is large. Resistance, voltage and current are connected in an electrical circuit by Ohms Law. When a resistor is introduced to a circuit the flow of current is reduced. The higher the value of the resistor the smaller/lower the flow of current.
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component which resists changes in electric currentpassing through it. It consists of a conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil. When a current flows through it, energy is stored temporarily in a magnetic field in the coil. When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor, according to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, which opposes the change in current that created it.

Transistors can be regarded as a type of switch, as can many electronic components. They are used in a variety of circuits and you will find that it is rare that a circuit built in a school Technology Department does not contain at least one transistor. They are central to electronics and there are two main types; NPN and PNP. Most circuits tend to use NPN. There are hundreds of transistors which work at different voltages but all of them fall into these two categories.

The transistor operates in three modes depending on how the pn junctions in the device are biased. ! Cutoff - both junctions reverse biased. No current flows ! Saturation - both junctions forward biased. Maximum current flows. ! Active - base-emitter junction is forward biased and collector-base is reversed biased. The base-emitter voltage is approximately 0.5 - 0.7 volts (the turn-on voltage of the junction.
The term microprocessor and microcontroller have always been confused with each other. Both of them have been designed for real time application. They share many common features

and at the same time they have significant differences. Both the ICs i.e., the microprocessor and microcontroller cannot be distinguished by looking at them. They are available in different version starting from 6 pin to as high as 80 to 100 pins or even higher depending on the features. Difference between microprocessor and microcontroller Microprocessor is an IC which has only the CPU inside them i.e. only the processing powers such as Intels Pentium 1,2,3,4, core 2 duo, i3, i5 etc. These microprocessors dont have RAM, ROM, and other peripheral on the chip. A system designer has to add them externally to make them functional. Application of microprocessor includes Desktop PCs, Laptops, notepads etc. But this is not the case with Microcontrollers. Microcontroller has a CPU, in addition with a fixed amount of RAM, ROM and other peripherals all embedded on a single chip. At times it is also termed as a mini computer or a computer on a single chip. Today different manufacturers produce microcontrollers with a wide range of features available in different versions. Some manufacturers are ATMEL, Microchip, TI, Freescale, Philips, Motorola etc. Microcontrollers are designed to perform specific tasks. Specific means applications where the relationship of input and output is defined. Depending on the input, some processing needs to be done and output is delivered. For example, keyboards, mouse, washing machine, digicam, pendrive, remote, microwave, cars, bikes, telephone, mobiles, watches, etc. Since the applications are very specific, they need small resources like RAM, ROM, I/O ports etc and hence can be embedded on a single chip. This in turn reduces the size and the cost. Microprocessor find applications where tasks are unspecific like developing software, games, websites, photo editing, creating documents etc. In such cases the relationship between input and output is not defined. They need high amount of resources like RAM, ROM, I/O ports etc. The clock speed of the Microprocessor is quite high as compared to the microcontroller. Whereas the microcontrollers operate from a few MHz to 30 to 50 MHz, todays microprocessor operate above 1GHz as they perform complex tasks. Read more about what is microcontroller. Comparing microcontroller and microprocessor in terms of cost is not justified. Undoubtedly a microcontroller is far cheaper than a microprocessor. However microcontroller cannot be used in place of microprocessor and using a microprocessor is not advised in place of a microcontroller as it makes the application quite costly. Microprocessor cannot be used stand alone. They need other peripherals like RAM, ROM, buffer, I/O ports etc and hence a system designed around a microprocessor is quite costly.

A microcontroller is a small and low-cost computer built for the purpose of dealing with specific tasks, such as displaying information in a microwave LEDor receiving information from a televisions remote control. Microcontrollers are mainly used in products that require a degree of control to be exerted by the user. Microcontroller v/s microprocessor Microprocessors are used to execute big and generic applications, while a microcontroller will only be used to execute a single task within one application. Some of the benefits of microcontrollers include the following: Cost advantage: The biggest advantage of microcontrollers against larger microprocessors is that the design and hardware costs are much lesser and can be kept to a minimum. A microcontroller is cheap to replace, while microprocessors are ten times more expensive. Lesser power usage: Microcontrollers are generally built using a technology known as Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS). This technology is a competent fabrication system that uses less power and is more immune to power spikes than other techniques. All-in-one: A microcontroller usually comprises of a CPU, ROM, RAM and I/O ports, built within it to execute a single and dedicated task. On the other hand, a microprocessor generally does not have a RAM, ROM or IO pins and generally uses its pins as a bus to interface to peripherals such as RAM, ROM, serial ports, digital and analog IO. Read more about the difference between microcontroller and microprocessor. How does a Microcontroller work? Microcontroller has an input device in order to get the input and an output device (such as LED or LCD Display) to exhibit the final process. Let us look into the illustration of how a microcontroller works in a Television. The Television has a remote control as an Input device and the TV screen as the output device. The signal sent from the remote control is captured by the microcontroller. The microcontroller controls the channel selection, the amplifier system and picture tube adjustments such as hue, brightness, contrast etc. General architecture of a microcontroller The architecture of a microcontroller depends on the application it is built for. For example, some designs include usage of more than one RAM, ROM and I/O functionality integrated into the package.

The architecture of a typical microcontroller is complex and may include the following: 1. A CPU, ranging from simple 4-bit to complex 64-bit processers. 2. Peripherals such as timers, event counters and watchdog. 3. RAM (volatile memory) for data storage. The data is stored in the form of registers, and the general-purpose registers store information that interacts with the arithmetic logical unit (ALU). 4. ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or flash memory for program and operating parameter storage. 5. Programming capabilities. 6. Serial input/output such as serial ports. 7. A clock generator for resonator, quartz timing crystal or RC circuit. 8. Analog-to-digital convertors. 9. Serial ports. 10. Data bus to carry information.

1.1 Why the name Microprocessor?

We might have often heard the word "Microprocessor" and often mislead'ed by the same. To put is shortly, every electronic device today uses microprocessors in some form. In fact if you can see this page is because your device uses a microprocessor. The name itself specifies its meaning by splitting the word micro-processor into two MICROis derived from a Greek word Micros which means small (in size, quantity, number and dignity) andProcessor is the logic circuitry that responds to and processes the basic instructions. It is so called because this device comprises of transistors which are small in size (micrometer). The word micro is used in electronics and in science generally, to mean Onemillionth or 10^-6. It has also used to denote something very small like a very small processor or microprocessor. It has also become an abbreviation for microprocessor, microcomputer, microprocessorbased system or a microcontroller indeed almost anything that has micro in its name. In the scientific sense, the word micro is represented by the Greek letter (u). The advent of low-cost computers on integrated circuits has completely transformed modern society marking the"Computer Age". General-purpose microprocessors in personal computers are used for computation, text editing, multimedia display, communication over the Internet, signal processing, mobile phones and many such applications.

1.2 What is need of microprocessor?

In the beginning, systems did not possess any intelligence. These early days systems used vacuum tubes and hence these could carry out only few arithmetic operations. It was a difficult task to operate these machines, even difficult to maintain them and yes, it was only the food-of-the-rich. But in course of time, the need of the day started asking us for more. Machines started developing into organized systems. In an irony, humans expected more from these systems but gave less space to these devices to inhale the pressure. These systems, hence, became more efficient and more intelligent. A small chip, now, can handle the work that 50,000 or more vacuum tubes would do in fraction of the time taken by those tubes. These chips are termed as "Microprocessor". Microprocessor is the heart of computer systems. We are learning this so that we could understand the complete mechanism and structure of the systems that we use daily like a computer, washing machine, television, etc. A microprocessor can perform various functions depending upon the application. It is used to build a system which can perform multiple tasks by avoiding the use of traditional transistor individually and thus making the system compact in size. It is the basic building block of the third generation computers that makes them compact and versatile. These days every single piece of electronics that we embed in our surrounding has microprocessors (intelligence) in them.

2.1 Introduction to 8085 Microprocessors

The microprocessor is a semiconductor device (Integrated Circuit) manufactured by the VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) technique. It includes the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (explained in further chapters), registers and control circuit on a single chip, to perform a function or useful task. We can connect memory and other add-ons like keyboard, logic circuit, etc. to the microprocessor. The microprocessor then commands these devices to act according to the program or code written in it. Inside the microprocessor there is a Central Processing Unit, semiconductor memories like EPROM and RAM, input device, output device and interfacing devices. The memories, input device, output device and interfacing devices are called peripherals. The popular input devices are keyboard and floppy disk and the output devices are printer, LED/LCD displays, CRT monitor, etc.

Advantages of Microprocessor based system 1. Computational/Processing speed is high. 2. Intelligence has been brought to systems. 3. Automation of industrial processes and office administration. 4. Since the devices are programmable, there is flexibility to alter the system by changing the softwarealone.

5. Less number of components, compact in size and cost less. Also it is more reliable. 6. Operation and maintenance are easier. Disadvantages of Microprocessor based System 1. It has limitations on the size of data. 2. The applications are limited by the physical address space. 3. The analog signals cannot be processed directly and digitizing the analog signals introduces errors. 4. The speed of execution is slow and so real time applications are not possible. 5. Most of the microprocessors do not support floating point operations

2.2 Features of 8085

Some important features of 8085:

It is an 8 bit microprocessor (each character is represented by 8 bits or a byte). It is manufactured with N-MOS (n-type Metal Oxide Semiconductor) technology implemented with 6200 transistors It has 16-bit address lines - A0-A15 (to point the memory locations) and hence can point up to 2^16 = 65535 bytes (64KB) memory locations. The first 8 lines of address bus and 8 lines of data bus are multiplexed AD0-AD7. Data bus is a group of 8 lines D0-D7. It provides 5 level interrupts and supports external interrupt request. A 16 bit program counters (PC). A 16 bit stack pointer (SP). It provides 1 accumulator, 2 flag register, six 8-bit general purpose register arranged in pairs: BC, DE, HL and 2special purpose registers. It consists of 74 instruction sets. It performs arithmetic and logical operations. It provides status for advanced control signals On chip clock generator. It requires a signal +5V power supply and operates at 3.2 MHZ single phase clock with maximum clock frequency 6 MHz and minimum clock frequency 500 kHz. Serial input/output port. 1.3 micro sec instruction cycle. It is enclosed with 40 pins DIP (Dual in line package). It can be used to implement(interface) 3 chip micro-computers (8085, 8155,8255 and 8355:Peripheral IC's).

3.1 Why the name Micro Controller?

It is small on chip microcomputer which has processor, memory, I/O pins for input and output, etc. It is used to control the operation of machine using fixed Program that is stored in ROM/EPROM and that does not change over the life time. It is named so because it is basically used for control actions.The name itself specifies its meaning by splitting the word micro-controller into two MICRO is derived from a Greek word Micros which means small (in size, quantity, number and dignity) and Controller is the logic circuitry that does thecontrol action based on the program written.

It is so called because this device comprises of transistors which are small in size (micrometer). The word micro is used in electronics and in science generally, to mean Onemillionth or 10^-6. It has also used to denote something very small like a very small processor or micro controller. In the scientific sense, the word micro controller is represented by the Greek letter (uc). The advent of low-cost computers on integrated circuits has completely transformed modern society marking the"Computer Age". General-purpose micro controllers are used for computation, mobile phones and many such applications.

3.2 Need of Micro Controller

Most electronic devices we use today have microcontroller in them of some form or another. Microcontrollers are 'Embedded' within such devices so that they can control the features or actions of those devices. Another name for a microcontroller is therefore an 'Embedded Controller'. A Microcontroller is required to: --> Gather input via various sensors,human intervention,etc. --> Process this input into a set of actions. --> Use the ouput obtained from the processed data on the Micro controller for designing a simple interactive device

A Microcontroller saves cost, saves power consumption and makes the circuit compact. Microcontrollers are small, low power computers. Unlike desktop or laptop computers' microcontrollers don't come with keyboards or mice (we call these 'inputs' since they put information into the computer) or displays (called 'output' because they display the output of the computer.) This allows us to choose our own inputs and outputs so we can make them do things that would be difficult with a common computer. There are hundreds of types of things you can use for inputs and output, can you can combine them in enough ways that make the possibilities infinite.

Introduction to 8051 micro controller

Term 8051 refers to MCS 51 family of microcontroller IC's introduced by intel corporation in 1971. A microcontroller is a computer with most of the necessary support chips on board. All computers have several things in common, namely:

A central processing unit (CPU) that 'executes' programs. Some random-access memory (RAM) where it can store data that is variable. Some read only memory (ROM) where programs to be executed can be stored. Input and output (I/O) devices that enable communication to be established with the outside world i.e. connection to devices such as keyboard, mouse, monitors and other peripherals.

There are a number of other common characteristics that define microcontrollers. If a computer matches a majority of these characteristics, then it can be classified as a 'micro controller'. Micro controllers may be: 1. 'Embedded' inside some other device so that they can control the features or actions of the product. Another name for a micro controller is therefore an 'embedded controller'. 2. Dedicated to one task and run one specific program. The program is stored in ROM and generally does not change. 3. A low-power device. A battery-operated microcontroller might consume as little as 50 milliwatts.

4.2 Features of 8051 micro controller?

Features: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. It is 8 bit Micro Controller It has on chip oscillator and clk generator ckt with operating frequency 12MHz. It has on chip 4Kb ROM which can be expanded upto 64 kb It has 128 bytes of on chip RAM It has 4 register banks: bank 0, bank 1, bank 2, and bank 3. Each register bank consists of 8 register. 6. 16 memory location of data memory are bit/byte addressable 7. The data memory can be expanded upto 64kb 8. It has 4 parallel I/O port: port0, port1, port2, port3. Each port is 8-bit directional I/O port. Each port is bit/byte addressable. 9. It has two 16 bit multi mode programmable timer/counter 10. It has multi mode high speed programmable full duplex serial port. 11. It has 5 hardware interrupt: 3 internal interrupt and 2 external interrupt. All 5 interrupt are operated in two priority level 12. It has on chip power saving circuit operated in two modes: 1. idle mode, 2. Power down mode. 13. It has 11 special function register. 14. It has 111 instructions, 64 instruction are single cycle. 15. It has on chip Boolean processor for single bit manipulation.