Dairy Farm Energy Management Guide

California

General Info

Milk Harvest

Milk Cooling Milk Cooling

Lighting Compressed Air

Water Systems Washing & Water Heating

Air Circulation & Ventilation

Table of Contents
Introduction .. vi Milk_Harvest 1
Purpose 1 Equipment.. 2 Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs).. 7 Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs). 8 Operator Level Checks . 16 Glossary of Milk Harvest Terms .. 19

Milk Cooling .. 22
Purpose and Cooling Standards . 22 Equipment .. 25 Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs) .... 37 Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs) .... 37 Operator Level Checks...... 40 Glossary of Milk Cooling Terms.47

Lighting 49
Purpose.... 49 Dairy Farm Task Lighting... 50 Visually Intensive Task Lighting.53 Livestock Handling Lighting58 General Lighting...61 Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs)...... 62 Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs) 63 Operator Level Checks64 Glossary of Lighting Terms.65

Air Circulation and Ventilation.. 68

Purpose and Design 70 Heat Stress Reduction.... 70 Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs) .. 79 Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs) .... 80 Operator Level Checks .. 81 Glossary of Air Circulation and Ventilation Terms.. 82

Washing and Water Heating...85

Purpose, Requirements.. 87 Equipment. 87 Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs) . 89 Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs) . 90 Vacuum Level Required for Washing . 97 Operator Level Checks. 105 Glossary of Washing and Water Heating Terms.. 108

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Water Systems 110

Purpose .... 110 Water Supply ... 111 Water Usage .... 111 System Design .... 114 Intermediate Water Storage .. 118 Equipment .... 119 Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs) .. 120 Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs) .... 120 Operator Level Checks .. 123 Glossary of Water System Terms .... 124

Compressed Air 125

Purpose and Design Factors 125 Equipment .. 126 Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs) .. 130 Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs) .... 131 Operator Level Checks .. 135 Glossary of Compressed Air Terms .... 139

General Information.. 140

Energy Efficient Electric Motors ... 140 Gas-Fired Absorption Heat Pumps .. 145 Temperature Monitoring .... 147 Understanding Pump Curves ... 149 Variable Frequency Drives .... 152

References...159

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 Southern California Edison February 2004 Prepared for: Southern California Edison Prepared by: Dr. David C. Ludington, Eric L. Johnson, James A. Kowalski, Anne L. Mage DLtech, Inc. Ithaca, New York Tel: (607) 266-6401 Fax: (607) 266-7037 Email: [email protected] Richard A. Peterson Northeast Agriculture Technology Corporation Ithaca, New York Tel: (607) 266-9007 Fax: (607) 266-9008 Email: [email protected]
Important: These materials are meant to examine dairy farm energy management, to clarify and illustrate typical situations, and must be appropriately adapted to individual circumstances. Moreover, the materials are not intended to provide legal advice or establish legal standards of reasonable behavior.

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Dairy Farm Energy Management Guide

(return to: Table_of_Contents)

Introduction

The American dairy farmer manages a highly efficient food production system. Yet he/she continues to seek ways to become more efficient, because that is the only way to remain competitive. This guidebook provides a comprehensive study of energy utilization on a modern California dairy farm, including discussions of techniques to effectively manage energy costs. The goal of this guideline is to increase the understanding of how electric energy is used, provide a measure for comparison, and explore available opportunities for conservation on a modern dairy farm. Electricity is not purchased as a direct end use commodity, but rather for the results that can be produced thru conversion to useful light, heat or power. By increasing the awareness for how electric energy is transformed to an end use and investigation of options for conservation, better energy related management decisions can be achieved to increase profitability. Opportunities for significant energy savings exist that allow dairymen options to better control their energy costs. For example, adding a variable speed drive (VSD) to a vacuum pump will reduce energy use by 50% or more, with no loss of milking system performance. Although not all options for energy savings available are this dramatic, their cumulative impact can help improve dairy farm profitability. The first, least cost way to approach saving energy is to carefully maintain existing equipment at peak operating efficiency. Worn, poorly maintained equipment uses more energy while not meeting original performance specifications. When equipment needs to be replaced, select the highest efficiency equipment available. The pressures of increasing energy costs drive the advancement of energy saving technologies. Newer, more efficient equipment is always being developed. Take time to analyze the specifications and make the most cost effective choices. The guide focuses on 7 major electric energy use categories found on California dairies, they include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Milk Harvest Milk Cooling Lighting Circulation & Ventilation Washing & Water Heating Water Systems Compressed Air Systems

The pie chart on the following page shows the distribution of electric energy use on a representative diary farm in California. Washing and water heating is not shown because fossil fuel is primarily used to heat water. The overall impact of each area of energy use is also represented in the chart.
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Electric Energy Use on a Representative California Dairy Farm

Waste Handling 24% Miscellaneous 2% Milk Cooling 27%

Water Systems 8%

Air Circulation 10%

Milk Harvest 12% Lighting 13% Compressed Air 4%

The individual sections of the guide offer a comprehensive examination of Purpose and function of energy use for that category. Description and discussion of typical equipment employed. Development of an Energy Utilization Index (EUI) to provide a benchmark for comparison of energy use. Describe and explain Energy Conservation Measures (ECM) that can be implemented to use energy more effectively. Provide a series of basic field testing procedures and measures that can be used to maintain equipment at peak operating efficiency.

Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs) were developed to provide a measurement of how efficiently electrical energy is being utilized on the dairy farm. Values are commonly expressed in terms of kWh per cow-year, or kWh per hundredweight of milk cooled. EUIs provide a management and evaluation tool that can be used for comparison of energy use patterns on a specific dairy in relation to energy use on a representative group of dairies. EUIs are useful for determining the overall efficiency of electrical energy use on a dairy farm as well as individual processes or equipment. They provide a benchmark to indicate whether energy use is in line with that on other farms. They can also offer insight on how electrical energy is used, identify areas of excessive energy use, provide an indication of effectiveness from implementing energy conservation measures and to distinguish the impact from adopting new technologies. The following summary of EUIs for typical California dairies will provide you with typical energy use ranges for each of the major operations on the farm. They can serve as a guide to help you begin to make the most cost effective energy choices.
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Overall Farm EUI Typical Farm EUIs vary greatly depending on farm size, method of housing and milk harvest, utilization of energy conserving technology and extent to which environmental factors (lighting, ventilation/air circulation, waste and material handling) are modified through the use of electric technologies. EUIs have been found to range from as low a 300-400 kWh per cow-year, to over 1500 kWh per cow-year. The lower values are found on large freestall, milking parlor dairies that use: High-efficiency milk cooling systems variable speed drive vacuum and perhaps milk pumps heat recovery, as this effects milk cooling high-efficiency lighting limited application of air circulation equipment less complicated waste handling systems efficient water heating (for electric water heating) efficient farmstead layouts effective cost control methods. Farms with high EUIs generally indicate: smaller production units lower production efficiencies older, less efficient equipment Larger Farm EUI values can also be attributed to: implementation of complex, integrated waste handling systems to comply with current or future environmental regulations extensive use of air circulation to reduce heat stress and maintain milk production levels adoption of Long Day Lighting photoperiod manipulation to reduce seasonal variations to milk production. limited management focus on energy related issues. On a dairy farm, however, careful thought needs to be given to each opportunity to save energy. Some energy conservation measures can save energy, but at a cost higher than the value of the energy saved. In the area of ventilation and air circulation, energy savings measures could result in lower ventilation performance and greater animal discomfort. In such cases the dollars saved on energy could be insignificant when compared to the cost of lost milk production. The first, least cost way to save energy is to carefully maintain equipment at peak operating efficiency. Worn, poorly maintained equipment uses more energy while not meeting original performance specifications. When equipment is replaced, try to get the highest efficiency equipment available. However, sometimes the extra cost of higher efficiency exceeds the payback realized from lower energy use. Take time to analyze the specifications and make the most cost effective choices.

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Some of the basic processes found on dairy farms are discussed in more detail in a General Information section. These include energy efficient electric motors, gas-fired absorption heat pumps, heat exchangers, temperature monitoring, understanding pump curves, and variable frequency drives. (return to top of Introduction: Introduction) (return to Table of Contents: Table_of_Contents)

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1. Milk Harvest
Purpose Equipment Vacuum pump Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs) Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs) Operator Level Checks Glossary

Section Contents:

Purpose Milk Harvest

The milk harvesting system is the most important technology used on a modern dairy and accumulates more hours of use than any other piece of equipment. Careful design, selection, installation, maintenance of this equipment is critical to optimal performance, efficiency and quality of milk harvest. The milking process is responsible for quickly and efficiently harvesting the milk produced by the dairy herd 2 or 3 or more times per day, 365 days per year. A significant amount of energy must be expended to extract milk from the dairy cow and transport the milk to onfarm storage. The milking system is an assembly of separate components that are connected together thru electrical and piping systems to perform the task above. The centerpiece of the milking system is the vacuum pump and is the primary electrical energy user. The vacuum pump operates whenever milking or washing the milking equipment takes place, and on large modern dairies this can be 24-hour a day, 7-day a week. Total energy used by the vacuum pump can comprise 26% of all electrical energy used on California dairies. The vacuum pump produces a negative pressure to facilitate removal of milk from the cow and provides air movement that assists milk flow from the claw to the receiver. Presently there are four main types of vacuum pumps that are in use: 1. 2. 3. 4. Sliding vane rotary pump Water-ring Rotary lobe type pump Turbine

Each type of vacuum pump offers different advantages and drawbacks that require careful consideration when selecting. They also vary in their energy use characteristics and their adaptability to energy conserving measures that should be taken into account. (return to top of section: Milk_Harvest)

Dairy Farm Energy Management Guide

Equipment - Vacuum Pumps

Sliding Vane Rotary Pump The rotary vane vacuum pump is perhaps the oldest and most efficient type still being used for milking systems. This pump uses sliding vanes set in slots in a rotating shaft. With centrifugal force, the vanes are forced outward against the housing. Oil lubrication forms a seal between the vanes edge and housing. Figure 1-1 below shows a cross section of the vane pump. Note that the center of rotation of the rotor is not at the center of the housing. As the shaft and vanes rotate through one revolution, the volume between two adjoining vanes varies from near zero to a maximum volume and back to near zero. Where the volume in increasing, the air is sucked into the pump through the inlet. When the volume is decreasing, the air is compressed and squeezed out of the pump into the outlet.

OILER OILER CROSS OILER BRACKET ROTOR & SHAFT (INCLUDES BEARINGS & WING SEAL BEAR COLLAR (2) SET SCREW KEY HOUSING

PULLEY END SCREW

BALL BEARING (2) END CAP

PULLEY

Figure 1-1. Sliding vane vacuum pump (Masport Vacuum Pump) Lubrication of the sliding vane pump is crucial. This includes the vanes and the two end bearings. Two oiling systems are used. One could be termed passive and the other type is active. The passive type would be a drip system where the oil rate is dependent on the vacuum inside the pump. When vacuum levels are low, say during the washing cycle, lubrication may be reduced. This may be during a time when lubrication is most needed. To overcome this deficiency, a positive oiling system has been introduced. Unfortunately, some of the oil used for lubrication becomes atomized and entrained in the air stream discharged from the pump. This is unacceptable if the oil is discharged to the atmosphere. Oil reclaimers were added to the exhaust to remove oil mist from the air. This oil can be re-used. However, some oil still escapes, often coating the ground and surrounding surfaces.

Dairy Farm Energy Management Guide

Water Ring The water ring or water seal vacuum pump is quite similar to the vane pump in principal but much different in operation. Instead of the sliding vanes pressing against the pump housing, this rotor has rigid blades and the outer seal between these blades and the inside of the housing is a ring of water. These pumps are quiet and no oil is needed. The cross section in Figure 1-2 shows the same offset between the center of the rotor and center of the housing. Water becomes entrained in the exhaust air. This water must be removed before the air is discharged to the environment. The recovered water can be either (1) disposed of and make-up water added to the system or (2) recycled through a cooling device and returned to the vacuum pump reservoir. Because of contamination of the water with milk and air contaminants, this water must be changed periodically.

The simplicity of the Seimens pump, along with its superior design characteristics, ensure greater reliability and lower maintenance expenses. I - The all stainless steel rotor is cast with short, rigid blades, further strengthened by reinforcing rings at both ends and a full length tapered hub. 2The design of the discharge and suction ports has an important impact on the efficient operation of any water sealed pump. The ports on the Seimens pump are designed to compensate for motor size, and vacuum levels required, through its specially patented variable discharge port design. 3 & 4 Two flat port plates enclose the rotor in axial direction. The clearances, maintained by separate thrust bearings, keep the rotor in a properly centered position.

Figure 1-2. Water ring vacuum pump (Siemens)

Dairy Farm Energy Management Guide

Rotary Lobe (blower) Pump A more recently introduced vacuum pump is the rotary lobe that was first used as a blower to deliver air, as the name implies, rather than developing a partial vacuum on the inlet side. This pump has two rotating ductile iron shafts with two lobes on each shaft. An end view of the "shaft" resembles a figure eight. See Figure 1-3. These two shafts (impellers) rotate in opposite directions with a pair of timing gears to maintain proper orientation between them. See cut away view in Figure 1-3. Because there is no contact between the rotating impellers and the cast iron housing, no lubrication is needed in the pump. The timing gears at each end of the pump are generally lubricated with an oil bath and splash method. Seals prevent oil from entering the pump; thus, the discharge air from the pump is oil free. Close tolerances between the two impellers and the housing give high efficiency and allow the pumps to develop vacuums up to 15 inches Hg.

Figure 1-3. Blower (lobe) vacuum pump (Kaeser Compressors, Inc.) The high temperatures in the pump may cause milk, for instance, to dry on the internal surfaces. Periodically this pump should be cleaned to maintain good performance. This is done by admitting water on the inlet side. (Follow manufacturers recommendations).

Turbine The turbine vacuum pump is the only one currently in use that is not a positive displacement pump. The turbine operates like a centrifugal pump or fan by using the mass and momentum of the air to create a vacuum. Turbine vacuum pumps feature a high temperature discharge that is free of oil. The turbine pump is the least efficient with an efficiency about half that for a vane or rotary lobe pump. The turbine pump housing and turbine (impeller) are both made of aluminum. The impeller has the characteristic shape of a turbine blade. See Figure 1-4. The rpm of the turbine is higher than the other vacuum pumps with speeds up to 5,000 rpm listed in the literature. With two outboard bearings and no internal lubrication, the discharge air is clear of oil. Because of greater clearance between the turbine and housing, one might think that the capacity would decrease faster with increasing vacuum than the vane pump. This does not seem to be the case.
Dairy Farm Energy Management Guide

Figure 1-4. Turbine vacuum pump Table 1-2 shows the distribution of vacuum pump types in California. The survey was conducted by the University of California Cooperative Extension. Since the introduction of the variable speed drive for vacuum pumps there may have been a shift from water Table 1-2 Distribution of Vacuum Pump Types 37% Oil vane 25% Lobe/Blower 27% Water Ring 9% Turbine 2% Did not know Source: UCCE Survey of 1997 of vacuum pump types Appendix E ring to lobe/blower and from oil vane to lobe/blower because of the concern for oil being discharged into the environment. In 1993 tests were conducted on various types of vacuum pumps as selected dairy farms in New York State. The tests were conducted to measure the efficiency of the vacuum pumps in terms of air delivery [cubic feet per minute (ASME)] per kiloWatt of input power while operated at various vacuum level under farm conditions. The results of these test are presented in Figure 1-5.

Dairy Farm Energy Management Guide

Figure 1-5. A Review of Vacuum Pump Technology (David C. Ludington, Stanley A. Weeks) The efficiency of all pump types decreases as the vacuum level was increased. This indicates that more efficient operation can be gained by operated at the lowest possible vacuum level at the vacuum pump. This means operating that the lowest vacuum level at the milking unit and minimizing the drop in vacuum between the milking unit and the vacuum pump.

Vacuum Pump Sizing Correctly sizing the vacuum pump for the dairy allows the pump to meet the vacuum needs of the milking center during normal operation and washing and control energy operating costs. Current sizing guidelines (ASAE Standard S518.2 Feb03, Milking Machine Installations Construction and Performance.) recommends the following: Basic reserve of 35 cfm Incremental allowance of 3 cfm per milking unit Additional allowances for ancillary equipment such as milk meters, vacuum operated automatic take-offs, etc.

Dairy Farm Energy Management Guide

Providing vacuum pump capacity in excess of this guideline increases capital costs for equipment and life cycle energy operating costs. Oversized vacuum pumps are commonly found in existing installations for a number of reasons. Previous guidelines have specified pump capacities of up to 10 cfm per milking unit. Some current installations are also in excess of this guideline with the belief that the extra vacuum capacity is needed to ensure an adequate wash. The Washing and Water Heating section of this guidebook provides instructions for tuning the CIP process for effective cleaning and a vacuum demand that is less than is required to meet the minimum effective reserve for milking. (return to top of section: Milk_Harvest)

Milk Harvest Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs)

The major energy user in the process of milk harvest is the vacuum pump. Delivery of a continuous stable vacuum supply to each individual milker unit is critical to the milk harvest process. Conventional vacuum systems relied on vacuum pumps that operated at full capacity and a vacuum regulator to control airflow thru the milking system. Although effective at providing adequate milking vacuum, a large portion of the total vacuum pump capacity is never utilized and is vented to the atmosphere by the regulator. EUIs for conventional vacuum systems can easily range from 70 to 100 kWh per cow-year and represent a significant portion of total electrical use. The conventional vacuum system offered little if any means of controlling energy use. Introduction of the variable speed drive (VSD) technology for controlling vacuum in a milking system has allowed for a dramatic reduction in energy use, while still producing equivalent vacuum stability. The VSD is able to adjust the rate of air removal from the milking system, by changing the speed of the vacuum pump motor; to equal the rate air is admitted to the system at a given vacuum level. All of the energy used to move air through the conventional vacuum regulator is saved. The EUIs achieved by VSD equipped vacuum pumps are reduced to 25 to 50 kWh per cow-year. Energy operating costs are reduced by up to 60 % by running the vacuum pump at reduced speeds. (return to top of section: Milk_Harvest)

Dairy Farm Energy Management Guide

Milk Harvest Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs)

Efficiency of Vacuum Pump When purchasing a vacuum pump buy the pump that: has the highest relative efficiency (see Figure 1-5), that can be driven by a variable frequency drive, and do not oversize the vacuum pump.

Variable Frequency Drive for the Vacuum Pump

(Photo Courtesy of DeLaval)

(Westfalia-Surge)

Figure 1-6. Variable frequency drive and drive installed on vacuum pump Conventionally, vacuum pumps had operated at constant speed removing air from the milking system at a rate of 7 to 10 cubic feet per minute (cfm) per milking unit primarily to insure good washing. Research in 1982 showed that the actual airflow was below 3.6 cfm/unit 99 percent of the time. The difference between the air removed by the vacuum pump and what actually leaked into the system was admitted through a regulator. There was a common misperception that a larger vacuum pump capacity with greater horsepower was necessary to provide stabile vacuum levels and to insure proper cleaning. Today there is a technology that can reduce the energy used by up to 60 percent. This technology is called a variable frequency drive (VFD). The VFD is electrically installed between the motor on the vacuum pump and the switch that currently controls the motor. A second device that monitors the vacuum level is installed in the vacuum line. This device sends an electrical signal to the VFD that varies with vacuum level. The VFD compares this signal with the set point. As the actual vacuum level differs from the set point, the speed of the motor/vacuum pump is changed to compensate for the change in vacuum level. If the vacuum is too low the motor will go faster and if the vacuum is too high the motor will be slowed. With a VFD, the air removed by the vacuum pump equals the air entering the milking system and there is not need for a conventional regulator.
Dairy Farm Energy Management Guide

Advantages of Using a VFD: Save Energy and Dollars The system can have a payback of less than 2 years. The savings depend on the hours the vacuum pump operates per day and the amount the vacuum pump is oversized. Energy saving can be estimated by the following: Annual savings (kWh) = [Horsepower of present vacuum pump 0.25 x no. of milking units] x 0.9 x Hours of operation per day x 365 Noise Reduction - The noise level can be reduced by many decibels. Vacuum Pump Lasts Longer. The reduced RPMs of the vacuum pump reduces wear. Stable Vacuum - With good design and proper installation, vacuum stability can be better than with a conventional regulator.

Figure 1-7. VFD vacuum pumps on California dairy

Dairy Farm Energy Management Guide

Applications Additional factors to consider for VFD application on the following types of vacuum pumps. Sliding Vane Rotary Pump The rotary vane pump is one of the most efficient vacuum pumps in use. Most vane pumps work well on variable frequency drive - vacuum regulation with minimal efficiency loss at reduced speeds. Some vane pumps begin to rattle at low speeds because reduced centrifugal force is not strong enough to hold the vanes firmly against the pump housing. Some vanes may actually move away from the housing and then move back producing a rattle. Some vane pumps have springs in the rotor that force the vanes out against the housing. These pump can be operated at a lower rpm without the rattle. Special attention should be directed to the oiling system on the vane pump. Failure of an oiling jet can cause rapid failure of the pump. Oil discharge from the exhaust is one of the biggest drawbacks to the vane pump. Oil reclaimers minimize the amount of oil discharged but some oil vapors are still emitted. This oil vapor tends to condense and precipitate out of the air stream after it has exited the exhaust system, causing an oil film to form in the vicinity of the discharge. Water vapor is also present in the exhaust air. Oil reclaimers tend to condense and accumulate this water. Oil reclaimers need to be drained of water regularly. The application of a variable speed vacuum regulator greatly improves the effectiveness of the oil reclaimer and virtually eliminates the oily residue in the vicinity of the discharge. The variable speed vacuum regulator also greatly increase the amount of water accumulated by the oil reclaimer. When a vane pump is plumbed to a system as a backup to a main pump, extreme care should be taken that no vacuum from the system and the main pump feeds back to the vane backup pump. Vacuum applied to a vane pump while it is not running will cause the oiling system to fill the pump with oil. A vane pump so filled will not start or run should it ever be needed. Most slide type isolation valves leak too much air to prevent the pump from filling with oil. A vent should be installed between the slide valve and the vane pump to vent any air leakage past the slide valve. Care should be taken that gravity will not fill the pump with oil either. Rotary Lobe Type Pump The rotary lobe pump is also a very efficient vacuum pump that works very well with variable frequency vacuum regulation. The efficiency of the rotary lobe pump tends to decrease slightly faster at lower speeds than vane pumps. This is because the amount of slip air through the close tolerances of the pump stays the same as the delivered air decreases. A 10 hp rotary lobe pump tested on a dynamometer required 2 hp input power to develop 4 cfm at 14 inches of mercury. Since the discharge air is free from oil, heat recovery can be installed to reclaim heat from the discharge air. This reclaimed heat can be used to preheat water or it can be used for space heating.
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Water Ring Vacuum Pumps The centrifugal nature of the ring of water limits the ability of the water ring pump to operate with a variable speed regulator. Once the centrifugal force is insufficient to overcome the vacuum, the water ring distorts. This distorted ring can cause very high torque requirements and overloaded motors, as water must be squeezed out of the rotor where the ring is too thick. The water ring pump also has a lower efficiency than the vane or rotary lobe pumps. The capacity and efficiency of the water ring pump varies with the supply water temperature and therefore can exhibit wide performance fluctuations throughout the year. The low efficiency and inability to operate with a variable speed vacuum regulator severely limits the opportunity for energy conservation with water ring pumps. Turbine Vacuum Pumps The turbine vacuum pump is the only one currently in use that is not a positive displacement pump. The turbine operates like a centrifugal pump or fan by using the mass and momentum of the air to create a vacuum. Turbine vacuum pumps feature a high temperature discharge that is free of oil. The turbine pump is the least efficient with an efficiency about half that for a vane or rotary lobe pump. Energy conservation measures with a turbine pump are limited to recovering waste heat for water or space heating. The low efficiency has deterred attempts to apply a variable speed vacuum regulator to the turbine pump. There is a real concern that the high slip of a centrifugal pump will cause rapid overheating if the turbine pump is operated at a reduced speed.

Regulator Location and Efficiency on Conventional Vacuum Systems Conventional vacuum systems incorporate a vacuum pump operating at a fixed speed/airflow, a vacuum regulator and a load. The load consists of the air admitted by the components that make up the milking system including milking units, pulsators, claws, other device that admits air during operation and air leaks. To maintain a set vacuum level, the vacuum pump must remove air from the milking system at the same rate as air is being admitted Since the air admitted is dynamic and the pump out rate is constant, a vacuum regulator is necessary to admit the difference between the pump capacity and the air load. The typical vacuum regulator is a mechanical device that adjusts the rate of air admission into the system. The vacuum regulator provides airflow into the system so that the sum of the air admitted by the milking system plus the air admitted through the regulator exactly matches the fixed airflow at the vacuum pump. When the air load is low, the regulator must admit nearly the entire pump capacity. When the load increases the regulator must close and admit less air. The difference in vacuum level that occurs between the regulator in the fully open - full flow state and fully closed state will be greater than zero. This is an inherent attribute of mechanical vacuum
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regulators. The National Mastitis Council (NMC) has established that a vacuum drop of 0.6 inches of mercury below the stable vacuum level is acceptable to allow the regulator to close. To illustrate this, consider the following example. A water tank that has a constant out flow with a float controlled input valve to maintain the water level in the tank. When the water out flow is increased to a new gpm, the level of water in the tank will decrease. Lowering the float and further opening the input valve. The new level of water in the tank will be that point where the float valve is opened far enough to again balance the outflow. This new level will be lower than the original level because of the interval that occurs between opening of the input valve and establishing new outflow. Regulator efficiency, as determined by the NMC test, measures how close to fully closed the regulator is by the time the vacuum level drops to 0.6 inches of mercury below the set point. Regulators that fully close and admit no air before the vacuum level drops to 0.6 inches of mercury below the set point are considered 100% efficient. Regulators that have not fully closed at 0.6 inches of mercury below the set point are less than 100% efficient. Regulator efficiency is determined by measuring the system airflow reserve at 0.6 inches of mercury below the set point with the regulator operating (Effective Reserve) and dividing this by the system airflow reserve at 0.6 inches of mercury below the set point with the regulator forced closed (Manual Reserve). The location of the vacuum regulator has a significant impact on the regulator efficiency and subsequently, the vacuum system efficiency. It has been common practice to locate the regulator away from the receiver to minimize the noise in the milking parlor and to allow the regulator to draw cleaner air that is freer of cow hair and dirt. Installing the regulator in locations away from the receiver introduce losses that decrease efficiency. Frictional head loss is the reduction of vacuum level due to the friction of the airflow within the pipe. Frictional head loss increases both with increased airflow and with increasing resistance of the pipe. Long lengths of small diameter pipe with many elbows and other fittings will have much higher resistance to airflow than a short length of large diameter pipe with no fittings. Frictional head loss between the regulator and the receiver causes the vacuum level at the receiver to be lower than the vacuum level at the regulator. During periods of low airflow at the receiver, such as normal milking or group changes, there is little airflow between the receiver and the regulator. This low airflow causes minimal vacuum drop between the regulator and the receiver. In contrast, during periods of high airflow at the receiver, such as unit attachment or unit fall off, there is a large airflow between the receiver and the regulator. This high airflow causes a larger vacuum drop between the regulator and the receiver. The vacuum difference between the regulator and the receiver is then dependent on how much air is flowing through the receiver. A regulator that requires 0.6 inches of mercury below the set point to close fully will only achieve 100% regulator efficiency when the vacuum level is the same at the receiver as is at the regulator. Consider what would happen to this regulator if there were a vacuum drop between the regulator and the receiver of 0.2 inches of mercury during peak airflow. By the time the
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regulator has dropped 0.4 inches below set point, the receiver has dropped the full 0.6 inches. The regulator will still be admitting air to the system even though the receiver vacuum drop exceeds the 0.6 inches of mercury standard. To improve the efficiency of the regulator it is necessary to reduce frictional head loss between the regulator and receiver. This is best accomplished by locating the regulator as close to the receiver as possible, thereby minimizing the resistance of the pipe between the regulator and receiver. In addition to improving the vacuum regulation at the receiver, improving the regulator efficiency also has a substantial energy saving potential. Minimum standards for effective reserve are directed towards ensuring that the load (air flow) never, or very rarely exceeds the vacuum pump capacity. Systems with low regulator efficiencies require more pump capacity to achieve the minimum effective reserve standard. A 20 hp pump operating with a 95% efficient regulator will have a higher effective reserve than a 30 hp pump with a 60% efficient regulator. High regulator efficiencies indicate the effective reserve and manual reserve are very close, and high volumes of air are not being introduced at the regulator and pumped through the system. Relocation of the vacuum regulator to provide better regulator efficiencies can allow belt sheave ratios to be reduced to slow the pump down and lighten the load on the motor and save energy. A smaller vacuum pump and motor could also be used if conditions allow. Improving regulator efficiency has the potential to save considerable money. Dairies pay for manual reserve in energy costs, oversized pumps, larger air lines and greater installation costs. The return from that investment is the effective reserve. It is therefore highly desirable to keep the effective reserve as close to the manual reserve as possible. This can only be accomplished with high regulator efficiency.

Variable Speed Vacuum Regulation As was noted in the previous section, it is necessary for the air inflow rate of the vacuum system to exactly match the pump out rate of the vacuum pump in order to maintain the desired vacuum level. When a pump operates at fixed speed and flow rate, this balancing of the inflow and pump out rate is accomplished by a vacuum regulator. An alternative method of balancing the inflow rate with the pump out rate is to regulate the speed of the vacuum pump. So that the pump out rate exactly matches the vacuum load inflow rate. This control method eliminates the need to admit extra air through a regulator. The energy savings attainable by implementing a variable frequency drive vacuum regulator are significant. Reducing the pump out rate by 50% reduces energy consumed by 50%. A typical milking system averages approximately hp of vacuum demand for each milking unit. Using the current pump-sizing standard of 35 cfm plus 3 cfm per milking unit to assure adequate reserve results in potential energy savings of 30 to 50%. Consider the following example for a double 24-milking parlor. The pump size at 35 cfm plus 3 cfm per unit results in a 179 cfm pump. At 10 cfm per hp the smallest pump for this parlor would be 20 hp. During operation the average vacuum demand of this parlor would be equivalent to 12 hp or 120cfm.
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A conventional system with a vacuum regulator would supply 120 cfm of air to operate the milker system by having the regulator admit 80 cfm of air to balance the pump capacity of 200 cfm. By applying a variable speed vacuum regulator, the average electrical demand and energy use for this parlor would be equivalent to 12 hp for a 40% savings. Older standards required even more vacuum capacity and systems with 10 cfm per milking unit are commonly found on older parlors. Energy savings on these older systems can be as high as 80%. Variable speed drive vacuum regulators consist of a sensing element, a controller, and a variable frequency motor drive. The sensing element is an electronic vacuum transducer that converts the vacuum signal into an electrical signal for processing by the controller. The controller is a microprocessor-based computer that monitors the vacuum level signal from the transducer and determines the appropriate speed to operate the vacuum pump in order to maintain the desired vacuum level. The controller contains the operator interface where vacuum level settings and tuning parameters are adjusted. The variable frequency motor drive is a device that converts standard line voltage at 60 Hz to a variable frequency and variable voltage output to drive a 3 phase induction motor. By reducing the frequency and voltage supplied to the motor, the speed and the power consumed by the motor will be reduced. For a vacuum system, a motor running on a 30 Hz supply will run at half its rated speed and will consume half of the normal energy. For more information on variable frequency drives see the VFD section of this guidebook. As with conventional, mechanical regulators, placement of the sensing element of a variable speed regulator is very important. The sensing element of a variable speed regulator consists of an electronic vacuum transducer and any plumbing needed to connect the transducer to the vacuum system near the receiver. The sensing element should be located as close to the receiver as possible noting the following limitations: Vacuum lines carrying air away from the receiver typically get contaminated with water, CIP residue, milk foam, and other contaminants. These contaminants may affect the sensing element and reduce the sensitivity of the vacuum regulator. Residue of CIP agents and milk can form a crust on the diaphragm of the transducer, permanently reducing the sensitivity and accuracy of the transducer. It is therefore recommended that the transducer be located a short distance from the vacuum line with a sensing tube from the transducer to the vacuum line. This sensing tube should automatically drain any contaminants that may enter. There should be no sags or other liquid traps that would inhibit the draining of the tube. For short distances (less than 10 feet) a inch vacuum hose is adequate for connecting the transducer to the vacuum line. For distances over 10 feet, inch pipe is recommended. PVC pipe works well for this sensing tube. A short inch vacuum hose connects the transducer to this sensing pipe. All points in this sensing tube must slope downwards towards an automatic drain, or back into the vacuum line.

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High velocity air in the vicinity of the sensing element interface causes turbulence that can cause small errors in the vacuum readings at the transducer. Any protuberance into the airline causes turbulence. To minimize this turbulence, insert hose barbs or pipe adapters into the main airline as shallow as possible and square to the main airline wall. Angled or very deep set fittings cause higher turbulence at the end of the fitting and will result in vacuum reading errors, particularly at high airflows. For milking systems with two receivers, the main air lines that supply each receiver should be bridged together with the same size pipe as the main air lines. The sensing point should then be inserted in the center of this bridge line. This line will experience much lower air velocities and will provide a very accurate and responsive vacuum reading at the transducer.

The electronic control of a variable speed vacuum regulator does not require that the vacuum level drop in order to achieve full capacity. Therefore the regulator efficiency of a variable speed system should not be less than 100%. The electronic controller maintains the vacuum level exactly at set point until the pump is running full speed. A variable speed vacuum control is capable of regulating vacuum level more precisely than a top quality mechanical regulator. High-speed acceleration and deceleration along with proper tuning assure that transient demand fluctuations are quickly corrected for during the milking phase. Due to these high speed acceleration and deceleration capabilities, the electronic controller of a variable speed regulator should allow the vacuum pump to respond to fluctuations more slowly during the washing. Thereby minimizing stress on the pump, motor, belts, and VFD transistors during air injected CIP cleaning when large vacuum demand fluctuations are normal. (return to top of section: Milk_Harvest)

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Operator Level Checks Milk Harvest

Vacuum System Vacuum Level 1. Check vacuum level with a quality gauge that is independent of any variable speed vacuum sensor. This gauge should be permanently mounted near the receiver or should be easily connected to a test port near the receiver. Gauges permanently installed can suffer shortened life from contamination by moisture and residue carry over from the receiver and trap. Use of a test port valve to isolate the gauge except during periodic vacuum level checks will reduce this contamination. 2. Vacuum levels that have drifted from desired value cause performance changes, efficiency changes, and herd health changes. High vacuum levels cause injury to cow, higher air flow, higher power requirements by the vacuum pump, and reduced vacuum pump capacity. Low vacuum levels cause slow milk out and can cause health problems if there is inadequate collapsing of the liner during the rest phase of pulsation.

Variable Speed Vacuum Pump Operating Speed 1. Motor running faster than normal. Check for leaks; i.e. cracked pipes, joints, split liners, leaking gaskets on filter, trap, receiver, milk line. Check for loose pump belts. This requires higher motor speed to reach the same pump speed. Check system vacuum level. High system vacuum will cause higher pump speed.

2. Motor running slower than normal. 3. This can cause performance problems if the cause of the low pump speed is plugged air vents or malfunctioning pulsators. Check system vacuum level. Low system vacuum will cause lower pump speed.

Motor speed is erratic. Variable speed vacuum sensor fouled or sensor line plugged or leaking. Split liner, cracked or disconnected pulsator tube, or faulty pulsator admitting excessive air in cycles.

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Vacuum Pump Temperature 1. The vacuum pump temperature should be measured near the end of milking using an infrared thermometer or adhesive temperature strip. 2. Small changes in end of milking temperature are normal when the ambient air temperature changes. 3. A significant temperature rise usually indicates that service is required. Check the system vacuum. Higher vacuum levels will cause higher pump temperatures. Check for exhaust restrictions. A restricted exhaust will cause higher pump temperatures. For rotary vane pumps, check that the oiling system is functioning properly. For lobe blower pumps, high temperatures can indicate a lubrication problem or that the pump needs cleaning.

Vacuum Pump Motor Temperature 1. The vacuum pump motor temperature should be measured near the end of milking using an infrared thermometer or adhesive temperature strip. 2. High motor temperatures can indicate a high load on the motor or a problem with the supply voltage to the motor. The causes of high pump temperature will likely cause a rise in motor temperature as well. Imbalanced or low line voltage and imbalanced motor currents will cause a rise in motor temperature without a rise in pump temperature.

Cleaning Rotary Lobe Vacuum Pumps Rotary lobe pumps accumulate residue from milk foam and wash chemicals on the rotors during normal operation. This accumulation must be removed periodically to maintain the tolerances in the pump. Pumps that have not been cleaned as required run hot and require more input power because of the friction of this accumulation. Rotary lobe pumps are cleaned by introducing soap and water to the inlet of the pump while the pump is running. Care should be taken to prevent a slug of water from entering the pump as this can destroy the pump. Allow the pump to run for a while after washing to dry the rotors. Some milking equipment companies have introduced automatic controls to automatically wash the pump on a regular basis.

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Other subcomponents in the milking system include: Pulsation system Milking units Automatic detachers Milk transfer pumps Milk meters Vacuum, milk, wash and pulsation lines Vacuum regulators and controllers Backflush systems Numerous configurations of milking stalls (herringbone, parallel, flat barns, swing, tandem, and rotary parlors). These components are low energy users compared to the vacuum pump. However, proper operation of these components is critical to the success of milk harvest. (return to top of section: Milk_Harvest)

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Glossary of Milk Harvest Terms

Air Injector: A device that allows the controlled, cyclic admission of air during cleaning and sanitizing to produce slug flow conditions. Clean-in-Place (CIP): The capacity to clean the milking system by circulating appropriate solutions through it without disassembly. Distribution Tank: An air vessel or chamber, in the main airline between the vacuum pump or interceptor and the sanitary trap, which acts as a manifold for other pipelines. Effective Reserve: Air flow rate, measured with all teatcups plugged and operating, that can be admitted at or near the receiver in pipeline milking machines to induce a vacuum drop of 0.6" of Hg below the working vacuum level in the receiver. An indication of the reserve pump capacity actually available to maintain system vacuum when extra air is admitted. (Based on the assumption that a vacuum drop of 0.6" has little or no effect on milking performance and that I sufficient to allow the regulator to close Manual Reserve: The air flow rate measured at the same position and conditions as for effective reserve except that the regulator is disabled. This is the reserve pump capacity available, if the regulator could close completely at 0.6"below the working vacuum level, to maintain the system vacuum when extra air is admitted through units during milking. Milkline: A pipeline which carries milk and air during milking and has the dual function of providing milking vacuum and conveying milk to a receiver. Milk Meter: A device between the cluster and milkline for measuring a cows milk yields in either mass or volume. Pulsator: A device for producing cyclic pressure changes. Pulsator airline: The vacuum line connecting the main airline to the pulsators. Pulsator Controller: A mechanism to operate pulsators, either integral with a single Pulsator (self-contained Pulsator) or system controlling several pulsators. Receiver: A collecting vessel under vacuum that receives milk from one or more milklines or milk transfer lines and feeds the receiver milk pump. Receiver Milk Pump: A pump for removing milk under vacuum in the receiver, moving the milk through filters and inline cooling systems, and discharging to atmospheric pressure in a storage tank, refrigerated or non-refrigerated. Regulator: An automatic valve designed to maintain a steady vacuum in a milking system. Regulator Efficiency: The effective reserve expressed as a % of the manual reserve (ER/MR). Should be maintained at 90% and above.
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Sanitary Trap: The vessel between the milk system and the air system to prevent movement of liquid from one to the other. Vacuum Pump: An air pump which produces vacuum in the system. Variable Frequency Drive: VFD is a device that is installed on the motor of the vacuum pump. The VFD controls the motor/pump speed to maintain a vacuum level set point. As vacuum level differs from the set point, the speed of the motor/pump is changed to compensate for the change in vacuum level. With a VFD, air removed by the pump equals the air entering the milking system, and the vacuum regulator is eliminated. Energy savings are realized by not moving air thru the system that was admitted by the vacuum regulator. Wash Pipeline: A pipeline which, during the CIP process, carries cleaning and disinfectant solutions from the wash sink to the milkline. The wash pipeline is not usually in use during milking. (return to top of section: Milk_Harvest) (return to Table of Contents: Table_of_Contents)

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(return to: Table_of_Contents)

2. Milk Cooling
Purpose and Cooling Standards Equipment Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs) Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs) Operator Level Checks Glossary

Section Contents

Purpose and Cooling Standards Milk Cooling

The cooling process of milk produced on California dairy farms consumes the largest portion (30%) of total electrical energy used. The cooling of milk immediately after milking is vital to maintaining high quality levels until processed for fluid consumption or used to manufacture other dairy products. The Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance, 2001 Revision states: Raw milk for pasteurization shall be cooled to 10C (50F) or less within 4 hour or less, of the commencement of the first milking, and to 7C (45F) or less within two (2) hours after the completion of milking. Provided, that the blend temperature after the first milk and subsequent milkings does not exceed 10C (50F). [www.cfsan.fda.gov/~ear/pmo013.html] The 3-A Sanitary Standards for Farm Milk Cooling and Holding Tanks, Number 13-10 is a second standard that deals with cooling milk on dairy farms. Section E1.1 deals with cooling. This standard states: Cool the product to 50F (10C) or less within 4 hours or less of the commencement of the first milking and to 40 F (4.4 C) or less within 2 hours after the completion of milking. Provided, that the blend temperature after the first milking and subsequent milkings does not exceed 50 F (10 C). In California the milk temperature must be cooled to 50F prior to pickup. However, milk that is shipped out of state must be cooled to 45F. Since there is some uncertainty about final destination of the milk that leaves the farm, most CA dairy farmers cool their milk to 45F. For the purposes in this Dairy Farm Guidebook, the assumption will be made that milk will be cooled to 45F and the blend temperature, where applicable, will not exceed 50F Since milk harvested from the dairy cow is typically 99 F and will be stored at 45 F, the temperature must be reduced 54 F. To reach this temperature roughly 50 Btu of heat
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must be removed per pound of milk. [Assumes the specific heat of milk to be 0.93 Btu/lb, F] Some of this heat may be lost as the milk travels from the cow to the cooling system. The amount of heat lost will depend on the milking system and the ambient air temperature. Because there is a possibility that no heat may be lost due to high ambient air temperatures, the cooling system should be designed to remove all this heat. Two types of milk cooling systems are used on California dairy farms. They are: Direct expansion refers to a system where the evaporator plates are incorporated in the lower portion of the storage tank in direct contact with the milk. Liquid refrigerant boils [expanding] inside the evaporator thus the name direct expansion. Milk cooling takes place within the tank. One or more agitators move the milk over the evaporator plates for cooling. There is a limit to the size of refrigerated milk cooling and storage tanks due to structural issues. There is also a limit to the refrigerated surface area. The ability to remove heat from the milk fast enough [Btu/hr] to meet cooling requirements with high milk loading rates is not possible without reducing evaporator surface temperature to the point where freezing of milk may occur. This is particularly challenging when milk temperatures approach 38 F. Agitating warm milk for long periods of time can also be detrimental to milk quality. Generally, this milk cooling system cannot cool the milk as fast as the milk enters the tank. There must be time between milkings such that the cooling system can catch-up and cool the milk to 45 F. With cows being milk up to 22 hours per day, this cooling system cannot be used. Instant cooling is where the milk cooling is completed external to the storage tank or silo and then pumped into storage. An intermediate cooling fluid, such as chilled water from an ice builder or a glycol-water mixture from a chiller is used to cool milk rapidly in a heat exchanger rather than direct expansion. Theoretically there is no limit to the surface area in a heat exchanger, only economical and practical limits. The trend towards larger milking herds, greater milk production per cow and larger more efficient milking parlors [cows per hours] has increased milk flow rate [gal/hr], with large volumes of milk to be cooled within a 24 hour period. The instant cooling system is not limited by the amount of surface cooling area in the storage tank or silo. This is the most common cooling system on larger California farms in spite of slightly less efficiency due to lower evaporator temperatures and pumping energy required to move the intermediary fluid thru the heat exchangers.

Refrigeration Cycle A mechanical refrigeration cycle is nearly always used to either cool the milk directly or indirectly via an intermediate cooling fluid. The basic mechanical refrigeration system is shown in Figure 2-1. The system consists of a motor driven compressor that compresses the cold refrigerant gas returning from the evaporator so that the refrigerant can be condensed at high temperature. The high pressure - high temperature gas from the compressor flows to the condenser where the refrigerant is de-superheated and condensed by transferring heat to a cooling medium, usually air and/or water. The high- pressure liquid from the condenser will be a few degrees warmer than the cooling medium. This
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liquid is then metered thru a thermostatic expansion valve into the low- pressure evaporator that is in contact with milk (direct expansion), water (ice builder) or glycol-water solution in a chiller. Here the liquid refrigerant boils at low pressure and temperature absorbing heat from the milk, water or glycol-water. The low-pressure vapor is removed from the evaporator by the compressor where the vapor is again compressed and the cycle is completed.

Figure 2-1. Schematic of a Mechanical Refrigeration System The efficiency of a refrigeration system is given in terms of an EER [Energy Efficiency Ratio] where the units are Btu (cooling effect) per Watthour of energy input. There are many factors that impact EER. One factor deals with the relationship between the high side and low side pressure. EER will decrease as the difference between these two pressures increases. To maximize EER the low side pressure needs to be kept as high as possible and the high side pressure kept at low as possible. These factors need to be considered when selecting the refrigeration equipment. Other factors will be discussed later. An assortment of energy conserving measures exists to improve the overall efficiency of milk cooling systems. More discussion of their application will be presented later.

(return to top of section: Milk_Cooling)

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Equipment Milk Cooling

Compressors The most common refrigeration compressor found on dairy farms today is the reciprocating. Reciprocating compressors can be either open type, hermetic or accessible hermetic. The open type has the drive unit external to the compressor. Power would generally be transmitted from the drive unit [motor] to the compressor by V-belts. The hermetic type has the compressor and motor in a common sealed housing. The seal is generally a weld. See Figure 2-2. The motor operates in a low- pressure atmosphere of the refrigerant.

Figure 2-2. Hermetically sealed reciprocating compressor (Copeland) The accessible hermetic unit is similar except the housing is bolted together in a single unit rather than welded. The motor and compressor are accessible. See Figure 2-3. In some cases the low pressure - low temperature refrigerant passes over the motor.

Figure 2-3. Accessible reciprocating compressor (Copeland)

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Condensers, Air- and Water-Cooled The purpose of the condenser is to desuperheat and condense the refrigerant gas by removing the sensible superheat, the latent heat of condensation and sensible heat to subcool the liquid. There are two major types of condensers; air-cooled and water-cooled. If the condenser is an integral part with the compressor on a common platform, the unit is called a condensing unit. Condensers may also be mounted remote of the compressor. The air-cooled units are similar to a car radiator. The refrigerant gas flows through finned tubing and air is moved over the fins perpendicular to the tubing to remove heat from the gas. The contact time between the air and the fins is short. The capacity of an air-cooled condenser is determined by the area of the fins, the velocity of the air across the fins, and a mean temperature difference between the air and refrigerant. Air-cooled condensers can be either an integral part with the compressor on a common platform or remove. An example of a remote air-cooled condenser is show in Figure 2-4 as installed on a dairy farm.

Figure 2-4. Remote air-cooled condenser A water-cooled condenser operates under the same principles as an air-cooled condenser except water is the coolant. Water-cooled condensers are generally smaller in size and offer a higher EER than air-cooled condensers. There are several reasons. The heat transfer coefficient [Btu/ft2, F, hr] between the metal surface of the exchanger and water is greater than that for air. This coefficient describes the heat transfer [Btu/hr] for each square foot of surface area and the mean temperature difference [F] between the refrigerant gas and the cooling media. This means that for the same temperature difference, the surface area of a water-cooled condenser will be smaller than the air-cooled condenser. This generally means the size or footprint is less. This also means that the temperature difference can be smaller with the same surface area, which helps maintain a higher EER.
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Water is a better carrier of heat than air. On an equal volume basis, water will absorb 3,500 times as much heat (Btu) for the same rise in temperature. This means that a much greater volume of air is required than water to remove the same amount of heat from the condensing refrigerant. The airflow in an air-cooled condenser is perpendicular to the flow of refrigerant. This reduces the contact time between the air and the condenser surface thus requiring greater face area. This is not true in a water-cooled condenser. Water-cooled shell and tube condensers are commonly used on dairy farms. A cross section of such a heat exchanger is shown in Figure 2-5 along with a complete unit. The unit shown has a removable core for cleaning. Generally the cooling water flows through the tubes and the condensing refrigerant gas is in the shell. The unit shown is a 2 tube passes with baffles in the shell to reduce short-circuiting and increase turbulence of the refrigerant. Condensed refrigerant collects in the bottom of the shell.

Figure 2-5. Example of a shell and tube water-cooled condenser (Standard Refrigeration) An assembly of a compressor and condenser plus associated controls and equipment is call a condensing unit. Three condensing units are shown in Figure 2-6. These units have a water-cooled condenser mounted underneath an accessible hermetic compressor. The water pipe connections can be seen on the end of the condenser. The flow of water through the water-cooled condenser is generally controlled by pressure controlled water valve.

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Figure 2-6. Water-cooled condensing units with accessible hermetic compressors The flow control valve can be seen between the right end of the water cooled condenser and the galvanized water pipe. The control is connected to the high-pressure side of the compressor. The purpose is to maintain a constant head pressure.

Thermostatic Expansion Valve [TEV] This type of expansion device is often used on refrigeration system for milk cooling. The device functions as a restrictor and flow regulator. There is considerable pressure drop across this restriction separating the high-pressure side condenser from the low side evaporator. The refrigerant flow through the TEV is controlled such that the refrigerant gas leaving the evaporator will have a few degrees of superheat. This insures that no liquid refrigerant enters the compressor. [The sensing bulb for the TEV is identified in Figure 21.] The sensing bulb contains a small amount of refrigerant, the same refrigerant as in the cooling system, so the pressure in the bulb is the same as the pressure in the return pipe from the evaporator. The sensing tube provides feedback to the TEV.

Evaporator The evaporator is that section of the refrigeration system where the liquid refrigerant evaporates or boils at low pressure and temperature, absorbing heat from the surroundings space. For milk cooling, the evaporator may be a part of the bottom of the milk cooling/storage tank [direct expansion] or a chiller, where an intermediary fluid, such as water or a water-glycol solution, is employed to transport heat from the milk in a plate heat exchanger to the evaporator of the mechanical refrigeration system.

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Direct Expansion This system cools the milk directly in the milk storage tank. The lower section of the tank is the evaporator. There is a chance that the milk can be frozen at the evaporator if the evaporator temperature is too low and there is insufficient mixing of the milk that allows the milk to remain in contact with the evaporator too long. Indirect or Instant Cooling: Here an intermediary fluid, such as water or a water-glycol solution, is employed to transport heat from the milk to the evaporator. The chiller generally works in conjunction with a dual stage plate cooler. Well water is used in the first stage of the plate cooler to reduce milk temperature to within 5F of input water temperature. The chiller provides 28-34 F water propylene glycol solution to the second stage of the plate cooler. When milk enters the second stage of the plate cooler, chilled solution from the chiller instantly cools the milk to 38 F. The milk enters the bulk tank or silo completely cooled. Generally, instant chilled water/glycol cooling systems are slightly less efficient than direct expansion systems. The reason for the lower efficiency is the lower suction pressure to achieve lower evaporator temperatures inherent to instant cooling systems and the pumping energy required to move the water/glycol thru the heat exchanger. The lower temperatures and short heat transfer period along with pumping energy cause the instant cooling system to use more energy per hundredweight than a direct expansion system. A schematic diagram of an instant cooling system using a one-pump (coupled) system is shown in Figure 2-7.

Figure 2-7. Instant milk cooling system with a coupled, one pump system Having a single circulation pump requires careful sizing of the evaporator chiller and milk plate heat exchanger because each will have the same flow rate [gpm]. The two heat exchangers [evaporator and milk cooler] are coupled. Manufacturers of plate heat exchangers usually recommend that the coolant flow rate be 2 to 3 times the flow rate of product being cooled.
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A better practice may be a decoupled system where two pumps are used, one for the evaporator and a second for the plate heat exchanger. Such a system is shown in Figure 2-8. Here the two pumps can be sized individually to optimize the performance
Glycol -Water Return WaterGlycol Condenser Evaporator Chiller Final Cooler Precooler Warm Water

Warm Milk

Compressor

Pump 1

Pump 2 Water-Glycol Storage Cold Cold Milk Water

Figure 2-8. Instant milk cooling system with decoupled, two pump, system of the evaporator/chiller section and the final plate heat exchanger. With this system there is also an opportunity to have two feedback control loops; one to maintain the correct temperature of the water-glycol storage and second to achieve proper temperature of the cooled milk. The evaporator on a cooling system could be the cooling plates in a falling film chiller. Examples of a falling film chiller and a single plate are shown in Figures 2-9 and 2-10. The falling film chiller consists of a series of plates arranged vertically, the number of plates being determined by the required cooling capacity. These plates can be seen in Figure 29.

(Photo courtesy of DeLaval) Figure 2-9. Falling film chiller showing vertical plates and a view of a plate
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The warmed water/glycol solution from the plate cooler enters the top of the chiller cabinet and empties into a distribution pan, which is suppose to evenly disperses the solution over the vertical cooling plates. Achieving this can be a challenge. A thin layer (film) of solution cascades (falls), thus the name falling film chiller, down each side of the refrigerated plate and falls into an insulated reservoir located the base of the unit, where it will be returned to the plate heat exchanger. Falling film chillers are generally associated with coupled systems, one circulating pump. Generally two plates would be connected to a single condensing unit. Referring to Figure 2-10, the six white (frost covered) pipes are attached to six vertical plates. Each pipe is served by a thermostatic expansion valve with the sensing bulb attached to the exit pipe from that same plate [liquid refrigerant enters at the bottom and gas exits at the top of the plate]. The three drier/filters each serve one condensing unit and two plates.
2 chillers

6 sensing bulbs

3 electric solenoid valves

6 thermostatic expansion valves

3 refrigerant driers

Figure 2-10. Falling film chillers showing refrigerant connections There are alternative evaporators that generally associated with a decoupled cooling system. For this arrangement the water-glycol would be stored in a separate tank. Two types will be presented. These units have a much smaller foot print that the falling film chiller The first is a chiller barrels. A chiller barrel can be different shapes and sizes. An example is shown in Figure 2-11.

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Figure 2-11. Chiller Barrels (TX from Standard Refrigeration Co.) This chiller barrel is similar in constructed to a shell & tube heat exchanger discussed earlier as a water cooled condenser. This chiller does not have to be coupled to the milk plate heat exchanger so that both units need not be sized to function at the rated capacity with the same coolant flow rate (gpm). . A second alternative is the brazed heat exchanger. These units are similar in function to the single pass plate heat exchangers used to cool milk that will be discussed next. However, these units do not have gaskets between the plates and they cannot be opened, the unit is welded shut. An example of a brazed heat exchanger is shown in Figure 2-12.

Figure 2-12. Brazed plate heat exchanger; a complete unit and an expanded view (Flat Plate) Because of their design these units are more compact and have a smaller foot print than either falling film or chiller barrels. These units can be used for direct expansion. The barrel chillers and the brazen heat exchangers are more likely to be used on the decoupled system. The system pictured in Figure 2-13 is a decoupled system with barrel chillers and scroll compressors. The diagram in Figure 2-14 shows the decoupled - two pumps system.

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Figure 2-13. Decoupled or two pump system (Kool Way by WestfaliaSurge)

CHILLER BARRELS

SIGHTGLASS

SOLENOD VALVE
TEMPERATURE SENSOR

FLOW SAFETY SWITCH

PROCESS RETURN

LIQUID LINE DRYER ACCUMULATOR

COMPRESSOR

CIRCULATION PUMP REFRIGERANT

BALL VALVE

PROCESS PUMP

PROCESS SUPPLY

AIR-COOLED CONDENSER

Figure 2-14. Flow diagram for Kool Way by WestfaliaSurge

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The circulation pump operates whenever the refrigeration system is operating. The refrigeration system is controlled by the temperature of the LowTemp tank. The process pump runs continuously with no feedback control.

Milk Cooling Heat Exchangers The heat exchangers used for cooling milk are made of stainless steel and are designed to be opened for cleaning. A well-water-cooled heat exchanger that partially cools the milk prior to entering a direct expansion cooling system or an instant cooler has been available for over 20 years. Today this energy conservation measure [ECM] is standard equipment on larger farms. For instant milk cooling systems this precooler is the first section of a larger plate heat exchanger with final cooling occurring in the second section. Well Water Partial Cooling The use of a well water-cooled plate or shell & tube heat exchanger to precool milk prior to the milk entering a refrigerated milk tank or a final plate heat exchanger is common. Earlier, shell & tube or double tube heat exchangers were commonly used. More recently plate type heat exchangers have become dominant. There are three major configurations of a plate heat exchanger. The configuration shown in Figure 2-15 is a single pass unit. Here the two fluids are in contact [on either side of a plate] as the fluids make one pass between the plates.

Product Out Water In

Product In Water Out

Single Pass

Figure 2-15. Single Pass plate heat exchanger The flow pattern in Figure 2-15 is a counterflow configuration, the coolant and milk flow in opposite directions, the cold water input is next to the cool milk out. All heat plate exchanger should be installed with counterflow. This flow pattern has a higher mean temperature difference and a greater effectiveness than parallel flow.

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A dual or double pass heat exchanger is more effective than a single pass unit. Here the product makes two passes so that the product is in contact with the coolant twice as long, assuming all other factors are equal. See Figure 2-16.
Product In Water Out Product Out Water In

Product Drain

Dual Pass

Figure 2-16. Dual pass plate heat exchanger The comparison between single and dual pass plate heat exchangers is shown in Figure 217. The graph shows the relationship between the number of plates and the expected temperature drop in the milk with single and dual pass plate heat exchangers. The ratio of low rate between the milk and cooling water was 1:1. There are three data points for the single pass unit. A linear projection of those three data points was made to estimate the temperature drop for a single pass exchanger unit with more plates. Two data points are plotted for a dual pass unit. If both types had 32 plates, the expected drop in temperature for the single pass unit would be 25 F and slightly over number of plates and temperature drop 28 F for a dual pass unit. For the same number of plates, a dual pass is more effective that a single pass.
34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 10

Temperature Drop, F

Dual Pass Single Pass, projected

Single Pass, actual 15 20 25 30 35 40

Number of Plates

Figure 2-17. Relationship between number of plates and temperature drop The third configuration for a plate heat exchanger is the two-stage. Figure 2-18 shows the flow configuration for this unit. This unit is equivalent to two single pass units jointed together. One section is used for precooling with well water and the second section is for final cooling with chilled water or glycol-water solution. This unit is common on California dairy farms.

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Product In Water Out

Product Out Chilled Water In

Product Drain Water In Chilled Water Out

Two Stage

Figure 2-18. Two stage; well water precooler and chilled water or water-glycol final cooling) The effectiveness of a heat exchanger is also dependent on the ratio of flow [gpm] between the product and the cooling media. A higher coolant flow rate provides a greater mean temperature difference between the milk and coolant and a higher coolant velocity between the plates that increases the heat transfer coefficient. Most manufacturers recommend at least a ratio of 2, water flow twice the milk flow. The data for the graphs shown in Figure 2-19 were taken from manufacturers literature to demonstrate the impact of coolant flow on the exit milk temperature. The milk flow from the milk pump on a receiver is intermittent. When the level of milk in the receiver reaches the upper probe, the pump starts. The milk flow could be at least 25 gpm for a few seconds and then stop for perhaps a minute. Tests on two conventional receiver pumps in a double parlor showed that the average milk flow rate during milking was about 12 gpm. Both receiver pumps operated 26 percent of the time, meaning that the average flow rate of milk when a pump was operating was 44 gpm. To achieve a recommended flow ratio of 2, the chilled coolant flow rate while the milk pump was operating must be 88 gpm which difficult to achieve on a dairy farm.
Milk Exit Temperature, F
100 90 80 70 60 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Tci = 65F Tci = 55F Tci = 75F

Coolant Flow Rate, gpm

Figure 2-19. Impact of coolant flow rate on exit milk temperature for three coolant temperatures (Tci), inlet milk temperature = 98F, intermittent milk flow = 35 gpm, coolant flow while milk pump is operating, low flow between cycles. (return to top of section: Milk_Cooling)
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Milk Cooling Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs)

The EUI for milk cooling with a well maintained cooling system and no energy conservation measures averages between 0.8 and 1.2 kWh/cwt [hundred weight] of milk cooled. There are two EMCs that can be employed. They will be described in the next section. As ECMs are added, the EUI will decrease. Partial cooling the milk with a well water precooler will save 0.2 to 0.3 kWh per cwt milk cooled. Installing a variable frequency drive will lower the EUI an additional 0.2 kWh per cwt milk cooled. The actual reduction in energy use will be dependent on well water temperature, water flow and the effectiveness of the VFD to reduce the milk flow through the heat exchanger. Milk cooling system Conventional Well water precooler Well water precooler with VFD on receiver pump EUI, kWh/cwt cooled 1.2 0.8 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.4

(return to top of section: Milk_Cooling)

Milk Cooling Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs)

There are several measures that can be implemented that will reduce the energy consumed to cool milk. Some of these were mentioned above. Precoolers Well water-cooled heat exchangers partially cool milk prior to the milk entering the refrigerated storage tank or a second heat exchanger for instant cooling. This practice was discussed earlier because the practice has been widely accepted and in many areas has achieved 100 percent market penetration. Variable Frequency Drives [VFD] For Milk Pumps As stated earlier, under conventional practice, the flow rate (gpm) of milk from a receiver is not uniform. The flow of milk during milking from the milk pump will vary from zero to 25 50 gpm. In a milking parlor with two milk pumps, the pumps may operate 10 to 25 percent of the time while the cows on one side of a parlor are being milked. This means that there is no milk flowing through the heat exchanger 75 to 90 percent of the time and the flow during the other 10 to 20 percent of the time will be high. This is not an efficient way to operate a heat exchanger. On the well water or chilled water-glycol side of the heat exchanger the flow needs to be 50 to 100 gpm for that 10 to 20 percent of the time. This to is difficult. To help alleviate this problem, a variable frequency drive can be applied to the milk pump. The concept here is to slow down the flow of milk from the receiver so that the milk pump operates a higher percentage of the time. This means the flow of milk through the heat
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exchanger will be lower and more continuous. Both factors improve the effectiveness of the heat exchanger. Control for the variable frequency drive is generally a series of magnetic reed switches mounted inside a hollow stainless steel pipe [probe] mounted vertically near the center of the receiver through the Plexiglas cover. Depending on the length of the probe, two to four reed switches are positioned along the probe at appropriate locations. Stainless steel floats that hold a magnet fit around the probe and are held positioned along the probe at the same location as the reed switches. The floats are held in place by clips on either side of the float. When the float with a magnet floats up to the reed switch the switch either closes or opens depending on the logic being used. When the float leaves the switch the switch returns to its initial position. Using a binary code, the frequency output from the VFD and thus the speed [rpm] of the receiver pump can be controlled by which reed switches are closed [one] and which ones are open [zero]. The VFD can be programmed to provide different speeds depending on the position of the floats. When the top reed switch is activated the VFD generally goes to 60 Hz for full speed of the milk pump. When the lowest switch is activated as the milk rises in the receiver, the pump will start at the lowest preset speed giving the lowest milk flow. The goal is to have the pump operate at the lowest speed for the greatest percentage of the time. One needs to be careful when setting this lowest speed. Nearly all receiver milk pumps are centrifugal [variable delivery, delivery varies with total head and rpm] as opposed to positive displacement pumps where delivery is nearly linear with speed and within reason unaffected by discharge pressure. Centrifugal pumps experience shut-off head. At a certain combination of total head [pressure] and pump rpm, the flow from the pump stops. The total head is the sum of the suction head, between 12 and 15 inches of Hg, and discharge head that includes the vertical height to the discharge point or height of milk in a silo, the pressure loss in the filter, the friction of the heat exchanger and piping. The curves shown in Figure 2-20 illustrate the performance of a 4-blade impeller milk receiver pump driven at different speed with a VFD. A vacuum of 13 inch Hg was maintained in the receiver. The pump had considerably different characteristics during speeding up and slowing down. With 13 inch of vacuum the shut off head occurred at 42 Hz, or 2,400 rpm for a motor rated at 3,450 rpm. The first seven data points in Figure 2-20 are plotted on the graph in Figure 2-21. The sensitivity of the pumping rate to pump speed is significant. When speeding up, a change in pump speed of 10 Hz or about 600 rpm made little difference in flow rate. However, when the pump was being slowed down by the VFD, the flow rate decreased from 14 to 0.6 gpm for the same change of 600 rpm. Setting the preset speeds on a VFD for any milk pump must be done with care.

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25 20

Flow Rate, gpm

15
Slow ing Dow n

10 5 0 35 40 45 50 55 60 65

Speeding Up

Milk Pump Speed, VFD Frequency, Hz

Figure 2-20 Characteristics of a 4 Blade Impeller Milk Pump with a VFD Another issue that should be considered is the agitation of the milk inside the milk pump at lower speeds. When the pump is operating at full speed (the impeller was turning at 3,450 rpm) the delivery rate was about 20 gpm. For every gallon of milk delivered the impeller turned 172 times. At low speed the delivery was less than 4 gpm but the speed was 2,400 rpm. Now the impeller turned 600 times per gallon or more that three times the agitation. The impact of this additional agitation has never been studied.

16 14 Milk Flow Rate, gpm 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 Pump Speed, VFD Frequency, Hz Speeding Up Slow ing Dow n

Figure 2-21 Enlargement of a Portion of Figure 2-20

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Scroll Compressors Two new classes of compressors, the scroll and discus are now being introduced for milk cooling on dairy farms. These new compressors are both more efficient. The scroll compressor utilizes two identical scrolls, one fixed and the second rotating within the fixed scroll. Because the scroll compressors operate in a circular motion, have fewer moving parts and no intake or discharge valves, there is less vibration and less noise.

Figure 2-22. Scroll Compressor (Copeland) A study comparing a scroll compressor with a reciprocating hermetically sealed compressor on a direct expansion cooling system showed a 20 percent reduction in energy use. The reduction in energy use was caused primarily by a reduction in the electrical demand. These units are quieter and operate with less vibration. (return to top of section: Milk_Cooling)

Operator Level Checks Milk Cooling

Air Circulation For Air-Cooled Condensers Place condensers in an area where air temperatures will be the lowest possible. Providing air-cooled condensers with air that is as close to outside air temperature as possible will give the best possible performance. Locating condensers in a utility room with poor air circulation causes the condensers to operate at an elevated temperature that results in a higher head pressure, higher energy use and reduced refrigerating capacity. Locate condenser in shady areas, not in the direct sun or on the roof. Condensing units are not placed on roof tops because that is the coolest place but because this is the cheapest floor space, there is no available space inside and reduces noise.

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The liquid refrigerant leaving a condenser will hopefully be 5 to 10 F warmer than the ambient air temperature. The closeness of the refrigerant temperature to the ambient air is a good indication of the effectiveness of the condenser. Water-Cooled Condensers Be sure ample cooling water is available for all condensers. Remember that the compressor head pressure generally controls the water flow rate via a pressure-controlled water valve. Maximum water flow will occur when the compressors are working under full loaded and/or when the cooling water is warm. Check the temperature of the water entering and leaving the condenser. The entering water should be close to the temperature of ground/well water. The temperature of the exit water will be warmer than the inlet temperature but the water should not be hot. As mentioned above, compare the temperature of the liquid refrigerant leaving the condenser and the inlet and exit water temperatures. Again the exiting liquid refrigerant temperature should be a few degrees warmer than the exit water temperature. Sight Glass and Moisture Indicator All refrigeration systems [condensing units] should have a sight glass and moisture indicator, usually in one unit. The unit is mounted in the liquid line ahead of the thermostatic expansion valve. When the system in operating there should not be any bubbles visible in the sight glass. Bubbles indicates low refrigerant. While the systems are starting up and when they are shutting down there may be bubbles. This is to be expected and does not indicate low refrigerant. Built into the center of the sight glass is a chemical that changes color when exposed to water/moisture. The housing for the sight glass will show the color when the system is dry and the color when the system is wet. These chemicals are temperature sensitive. Temperatures near 75 F give the best results.

Refrigerant Leak Detection Oil Refrigerant leaks are associated with oil leaks. Oil and accumulated dirt appearing at pipe joints [solder or compression], surfaces around compressor particularly where there is highpressure refrigerant is a sure indicator of a leak. If oil accumulates there is a refrigerant leak. This is not a scientific detector but an operator can observe oil accumulating and report this to the equipment dealer. Electronic Detection These instruments measure variation in current flow caused by ionization of decomposed refrigerant between two oppositely charged platinum electrodes. The electronic detector is the most sensitive and common of the various leak detection methods. They are capable
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of sensing a leak as small as 1/100 oz of R-12 per year. Dye Method Uses fluorescent dyes and an ultraviolet light to pinpoint leaks. A pre-measured amount of dye is injected into the refrigeration system at a service port and allowed to circulate. The refrigeration lines, valves, fittings, tubing, coils, compressors and seals are scanned with a hand held ultraviolet light. Any leaks present will glow brightly, revealing their precise location. Can reveal leaks as low a 1/8 oz. per year. Halide Torch The halide torch is a fast, reliable, economical method of detecting chlorinated [R 12 and R 22 for instance] refrigerant leaks. Air is drawn over a copper element heated by propane flame. If halogenated vapors are present, they decompose, and the color of the flame changes to bluish-green. Although not as sensitive as electronic detectors, this method is suitable for most purposes.

Field Tests & Maintenance Measures Milk Cooling Periodically check that the precooler solenoid functions properly. Mineral deposits accumulated over time can prevent the solenoid from opening fully and water flow through precooler is reduced. Likewise, the solenoid valve can leak causing high water use and cooling of the wash water. Check the temperature of the milk leaving the precooler. Most instant cooled systems have both precooler and final cooler in the same plate cooler so this cannot be checked. If the precooler is a separate unit, the exit temperature of the milk should be within about 5 to 10 degrees of the incoming water temperature. The closer to the incoming water temperature, the better. Check the milk tank temperature. Overcooling the milk results in a much higher energy use. Condensing unit operating time: o Direct expansion cooling systems: the condensing unit will operate after milking is complete because the milk in the tank will not be cooled to the desired level by the end of milking. How long the compressor runs after each milking depends on the relationship between the flow rate of milk into the tank and the cooling capacity. Note the usual running time for the condensing unit. If the operating times become gradually longer this would indicate a problem with the efficiency or effectiveness of the chilling system as long as the amount of milk being cooled remains constant. The problem could be at the precooler; flow rate of water, water temperature, fouling of
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the heat exchanger. The problem could be at the condensing unit perhaps a loss of refrigerant or the condensers are becoming dirty and less effective. o Direct or instant cooling systems: the condensing unit should turn off shortly after the end of milking. Problems with the cooling system would be indicated by a gradual rise in milk temperatures entering the silo. Problem would be similar to those mentioned above.

Check compressor, condenser and motor temperatures.

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Table 2-1. Refrigeration Troubleshooting Chart Symptom

Slow cooling (low Btu/hr capacity) Low suction Pressure

Problem
1. Inadequate refrigerant charge 2. Plugged suction line filter 3. Plugged suction screen 1. Plugged orifice 2. Partially pierced aeroquip fitting 3. Low head pressure (below 200 psi) 4. Restricted liquid or suction line 5. Plate iced up, thermostat cutout too low 6. Plugged evaporator inlet 1. Dirty air condenser 2. Defective fan motor 3. Inadequate ventilation 4. Restricted airflow 5. Defective fan motor switch 6. Misadjusted fan motor switch 7. Limed up TS 8. Plugged high side (liquid line) filter/drier 9. Restricted or too small orifice (metering) 10. Restricted or kinked liquid line 11. Partially pierced aeroquip fitting on high side 12. Plugged evaporator inlet 13. High suction pressure caused by tank filled with refrigerant 14. Overcharge of freon combined with evaporator covered with hot milk and 100 F ambient

Solution
1. Replace refrig. charge 2. Replace filter 3. Clean screen 1. Clean orifice 2. Remove and repierce 3. Adjust head pressure control 4. Remove restriction 5. Readjust thermostat above 36F

High head Pressure

1. Clean condenser 2. Replace fan motor 3. Improve ventilation 4. Relocate condenser 5. Replace fan control 6. Readjust fan control 7. Delime 8. Replace Filter/Drier 9. Clean or replace with correct size 10. Locate and remove restriction 11.Disassemble and remove seal 12. Blow backward 13. Spray water on condenser 14. Correct refrigerant charge and spray water on the condenser

Compressor cut-outs on internal thermal overload

1. Internal thermal faulty 2. Compressor heating up: start relay defective 3. Compressor heating up: system low on refrigerant 4. Compressor heating up, high head or low suction pressure 5. Low capacity compressor body 1. Motor overheating 2. Defective internal thermal on motor 3. Motor failing

1. Replace overload or compressor 2. Replace start relay 3. Charge refrigeration system 4. Remove restricted lines or improve system charge 5. Replace compressor body 1. No lubricant in gear box Too heavy lubricant in gear box 2. Replace thermal overload 3. Replace or repair motor 1. Replace or adjust

Intermittent Agitator

Defective or misadjusted thermometer

1. Milk too warm

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Table 2-2. Plate Milk Pre-cooler Troubleshooting Chart Symptom

Reduced milk flow rate through plate milk pre-cooler

Problem
Plates have burn on milk residue Blockage / obstruction in flow path Pump is leaking before plate Filter is restricted / blocked Product viscosity has changed Water pressure too great causing plates to bulge and restrict milk flow Mineral fouling of plates General fouling of plates Debris between plates Pump is leaking Output restriction of water flow Check condition of gaskets Check frame for proper tightening Excessive line pressures Corrosion of stainless steel due to high concentration of chlorine sanitizers. Check flow rates for both sides Check coolant temperature Check for fouling or deposits

Solution
Disassemble plate cooler and manually clean Install new filter element Check inlet & outlet pressures Circulate hot acid wash for 30 min. Disassemble plate cooler and manually clean Filter inlet water Check water outflow lines Replace as necessary Retighten to mfg. spec. Check inlet & outlet pressures Consider iodophor or quaternary ammonia sanitizers. Remove obstructions Disassemble plate cooler and manually clean.

Reduced coolant (water) flow rate through milk pre-cooler

Milk and/or Coolant leaking

Product Temperature Incorrect

Source: Westfalia-Surge

Milk Pumps All Milk Pumps Pump Seal: Leaks in the shaft seals on receiver pumps can go undetected for long periods of time. This is because a leaking pump seal leaks air into the pump rather than leak milk out. The air that enters the pump aerates the milk causing lower milk quality and lower pumping efficiency. Check valve: The check valve serves to prevent backflow of milk into the receiver once the pump shuts off. The check valve should close without bouncing or leaking. Bouncing check valves can be heard as thumping or banging after the pump shuts off. Back flow of milk will cause chilled milk to be re-warmed by precooler water in instant cooling systems and milk quality suffers from excessive pumping.

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Test for leaking check valves and pump seals: Check that all clamps and gaskets between the receiver and check valve are secure. Fill the bottom of the receiver with clear, cool water. Apply normal milking vacuum to the receiver. Observe the receiver pump outlet for air bubbles entering the receiver from the pump. If no bubbles are present, then the check valve, pump seal and pipe connections are sound and no leaks exist. If bubbles are present, turn on the milk pump to fill the milk pump line with water and then turn off the milk pump. Observe for air bubbles entering the receiver. If there are no bubbles then the check valve is the cause of the leak. If there are still air bubbles entering the receiver then either the seal is leaking or the connections between the receiver and the check valve are leaking. Motor temperature: High motor temperatures on the milk pump may indicate a motor or supply voltage problem.

Variable Speed Milk Pumps In addition to the checks detailed above, variable speed milk pumps should be checked to confirm that is milk flowing at the lowest speed. One indication that the pump has stalled at the lowest speed is the audible click or thump of the check valve closing when the pump drops to the low speed. A milk pump that continues to run at the low speed, even after a long pause between groups of cows also indicates that the pump is in a stalled condition and is not pumping milk.

(return to top of section: Milk_Cooling)

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Glossary of Milk Cooling Terms

Blend Temperature: Mass average temperature of milk in the bulk tank as warm milk is added to cool milk. Bulk Milk Tank: An insulated sanitary container or vat, usually located I the milkroom, used to cool and/or store milk from harvest until pickup. Chiller: Chilled water system where cooling medium (generally water and propylene glycol) is circulated through a heat exchanger where refrigerant cools the chilled water and then pumps it through an in-line cooler. Compressor: That part of the refrigeration unit in which the vapor from the evaporator is compressed and delivered to the condenser. Condenser: That part of the refrigeration unit in which the refrigerant changes from a vapor to a liquid giving up heat. The condenser may be air or water-cooled. Cooling Capacity: The rate of heat removal in Btu/hour. Direct Expansion: A single-wall heat exchange method of cooling milk by a direct transfer of heat from the milk to the refrigerant contained in the evaporator. Evaporator: That part of the refrigeration system in which refrigerant absorbs heat from the milk an changes from a liquid to vapor. In a bulk milk tank, the evaporator is part of the liner of the tank, which holds the milk. Expansion Valve: Part of a direct expansion refrigeration system between the condenser and evaporator where refrigerant pressure is reduced. In modern systems, the direct expansion valve has been replaced with other flow control devices. Heat Exchanger: A device providing thermal exchange between two fluids.

Heat Recovery Unit: That part of a refrigeration system that allows recovery of heat from the refrigeration process for a useful purpose. In-Line Cooler: A cooling device placed in the milk transfer system between the milk receiver and milk tank, which either partially or fully cools milk before it enters the tank. Plate Heat Exchanger: An in-line heat exchanger that uses plates to separate milk and coolant, which flow through alternate spaces between the series of plates. Pre-Cooling: Partially or fully cooling the milk before it reaches the bulk tank Refrigerant: Any substance used in a refrigeration process that transfers heat from the evaporator to the condenser, creating a cooling effect. These fluids generally exhibit a phase change during this process.

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3-A Standards: Sanitary standards for farm milk cooling developed by sanitarians, federal administrators and manufacturers.

Return to top of section: Milk_Cooling Return to Table of Contents: Table_of_Contents

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(return to: Table_of_Contents)

3. Lighting

Section Contents

Purpose Dairy Farm Task Lighting Livestock Handling Lighting General Lighting Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs) Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs) Operator Level Checks Glossary

Purpose - Lighting
Although often overlooked and taken for granted, the application of electric lighting is a substantial energy input in the operation of a modern California dairy farm. Lighting represents 16% of total electric energy used on California dairies. The cumulative magnitude of energy use by a broad range of lighting equipment in all areas of the farm complex is somehow perceived to not be as significant as it really is. The use of supplement lighting in every facet of our daily lives tends to lessen our perception of its existence and not consider the full impact on total farm energy consumption. Lighting sources found on the dairy include: Incandescent Tungsten Halogen Fluorescent Mercury Vapor Metal Halide High Pressure Sodium.

The common theme behind the use of all these sources is the basic need for supplemental light to provide people the visual acuity to perform required functions accurately, efficiently and safely. As the continuing trend toward larger dairies operating around the clock continues the necessity of efficient, well designed and maintained lighting systems becomes even more crucial to successful operation of the farm. The available energy conservation options for improving lighting efficiency and efficacy on the farm are enormous. New and improved lighting technology is being developed continually. The choices available range from simple lamp replacements to installing new hi-efficiency lighting systems with programmable logic controllers and other computer based control systems. An integral step to improving lighting on dairy farms is the performance of a specific lighting design for that area or facility. Clearly using an efficient light source in a poor design does not provide optimal lighting. This design should satisfy established criteria for light level,
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color rendering, efficacy, selection of fixtures suitable for the ambient environment, controls, and proper wiring and circuit protection. A recent development in the application of lighting technology on dairy farms may involve photoperiod manipulation, or long-day lighting, of dairy cows to increase milk production. This management practice uses an increased light intensity over a defined time interval to stimulate increased milk production. An efficient lighting design and control system must be implemented to obtain the benefits of long-day lighting. Lighting for a Dairy Facility Having a good working environment in a modern dairy is an important factor in the optimization of animal and worker efficiency, safety, and comfort. Lighting is an environmental factor that should be given careful consideration throughout a dairy facility, but it is often considered only as an afterthought during the design, construction and maintenance of a dairy facility. Various work tasks on a dairy farm require differing light considerations, as do animal feeding and resting areas. On average, lighting consumes about 16% of the total electric energy used on a typical California dairy farm. Important factors in developing effective lighting systems include the selection of appropriate luminaires designed for the task lighting required and the room environment where the lighting equipment is installed. The very best lighting systems perform poorly in dark colored, dingy rooms. Many areas within dairy facilities cannot be kept pristinely clean and bright, but where possible, walls and ceilings of lighted areas should be painted or covered with a bright, matte finish that is highly reflective without producing glare. This is especially important in visually intensive work areas such as milking parlors, milkrooms, cow treatment areas, and equipment repair areas. Quality lighting is very much a factor in improving and maintaining productivity. (return to top of section: Lighting)

Dairy Farm Task Lighting

There are three levels of work area or task lighting systems on dairy farms: Visually intensive task lighting (generally requires highest lighting levels) 1. milking parlors and holding areas 2. equipment washing 3. equipment maintenance and repair 4. office lighting 5. maternity and veterinary treatment area 6. utility room Lighting for livestock handling and equipment operation (high to moderate lighting levels) 1. Holding area lighting 2. Feeding area lighting
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3. Animal sorting and observation 4. General cleanup General lighting (low to moderate lighting levels.) 1. Livestock resting areas 2. Passageway lighting 3. General room lighting 4. Security lighting (indoor and outdoor)

Table 3-1 provides recommended lighting requirement in footcandles (fc) for various areas within a dairy facility. To assist in determining the lights (wattage) needed for a specific area, Table 3-1 gives an estimated coefficient of utilization, the percent of the Table 3-1: Suggested Dairy Facility Illumination Levels
Work Area Recommend Illumination Level 1 fc Coefficient Lamp(s) Utilization 2 Output Estimate % lm/sq ft 3 Lamp Output (lm/W) 4 Power Required W/sq ft 5 Fixture 6 Suggested

Milking Center Parlor, general lighting 20 fc 35 57 94 0.61 Operator pit (cows 50 fc 30 167 96 1.7 udder) Cow return alleys 20 fc 35 57 92 0.62 Cow holding area 10 fc 35 29 92 0.31 Milk Room General lighting 20 fc 35 57 89 0.64 Equipment washing area 100 fc 40 250 89 2.8 Bulk tank/silo interior 100 fc 80 125 82 1.5 Utility/Equipment Room General lighting 20 fc 30 67 89 0.75 Equipment repair and 100 fc 45 220 25 8.9 maintenance Maternity/Treatment areas General lighting 20 fc 30 67 96 0.69 Treatment or surgery 100 fc 50 200 25 8.0 20 fc 30 67 96 0.69 Cattle confinement areas (indoor) 1 fc 20 3.3 115 0.03 Cattle confinement areas (outdoor) Feed Storage areas Grain bin areas 5 fc 20 25 115 0.22 Commodity buildings 10 fc 25 40 115 0.35 1. Source: ASAE Lighting Systems for Agriculture Facilities (draft) 2. Coefficient of utilization given for luminaries direct at least 65 percent of light down 3. Lamp output needed to meet recommended lighting level, lumens/sq ft 4. Lumen output of selected lamp, lumens per Watt (rated) 5. Wattage required for selected lamp per sq ft 6. psmh pulse start metal halide, fluor 8 fluorescent T8, hps high pressure sodium

psmh psmh psmh psmh Fluor 8 Fluor 8

Fluor 8 halogen

psmh halogen psmh hps

hps hps

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lumen output from the lamp(s) that actually reaches the work plane. With this information, the lumen output needed to achieve the correct light level can be calculated. The light fixture (luminaire) selected will have a lumen output per rated Watt, see Table 3-2. Combining the lumens required and the lumen output yields the wattage required per sq ft. The energy consumed by the fixture(s) will include both the lamp and the ballast, if one is present. Only incandescent and halogen do not use ballasts. This table is not to be used for designing a lighting system but to highlight the design concepts. Example: Select the lighting fixtures needed for a milking parlor operator pit that is 8 ft x 45 ft. Referring to Table 3-1, light intensity must be 50 fc or 50 lumens per sq ft and the coefficient of utilization will be 35%. Pulse start metal halide lights will be used.
Area to be lighted at 50 fc: Lumen output needed: Lamp rated output for psmh: Lamp Watts required:

8 ft 45 ft = 360sqft 50lumens 166lumens 0.35 = sqft sqft 96 lumens/W 166lumens W 1.7W = 96lumens sqft sqft 1.7W 360sqft = 612W sqft

Lamp Watts required for job:

The lumen output [96 l/W] for the psmh lamp is the initial lumen output. As with all lamps, lumen output decreases with time. Therefore, when selecting fixtures for a particular project the installed wattage should be increases by 20 percent in order to maintain the required light levels over a period of years. Possible selection of fixtures for this milking parlor: 3 250 W psmh [low bay]. All the lamps listed in Table 3-1 and Table 3-2 (except incandescent and halogen) use a ballast. This ballast consumes energy. To estimate the power consumed by a fixture with a ballast, multiply the lamp wattage by 1.13. Assuming these lights will operate 15 hours per day, what will be the annual energy consumption for lighting system? kWh / yr = (3 250)W 1.13 kWh 15hr 365days = 4,600kWh 1000W day yr

Selecting Luminaires Choosing appropriate luminaires and lamps for a specific lighting task requires an understanding of the relative performance, efficiencies and color rendition of various light types. Table 3-2 provides representative information about lamps commonly used in dairy facilities.

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Table 3-2. Lamp types and selection data Lamp Type Efficiency* Lm/Watt Color Rendering Index (CRI) Rated Life (Hours)
750-2000 2000-3000 12,000-20,000 15,000-20,000 10,000-20,000 18,000-24,000 12,000-20,000 15,000-30,000 24,000

Incandescent 12-20 100 Halogen 18-25 100 Fluorescent, T12, CW, MB** 60-71 60-80 Fluorescent, T8, CW, EB** 84-94 78-86 Fluorescent, compact 50-79 82 Mercury Vapor 38-46 15-50 Metal Halide, standard 82-90 65-75 Metal Halide, pulse start 92-106 65-70 High Pressure Sodium 95-125 20 * Initial lumens per rated Watt ** MB Magnetic ballast, EB Electronic ballast

(return to top of section: Lighting)

Visually-Intensive Task Lighting

Milking The milking operation on a dairy farm is a critical, repetitive task that requires excellent visual observations of equipment operations, udder prepping, udder health and cleanliness, and post-milking teat treatment. Inadequate lighting can accelerate fatigue and greatly diminish the performance of the milking staff. Poor milker performance leads quickly to herd health problems and significant drops in milk production. In the milking parlor, lighting levels in the pit area and near the cows udder (the work plane) should be 50 footcandles (fc) or more, as recommended by the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) and the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE). See Table 3-3. Moisture resistant fluorescent or metal halide luminaires provide the most effective and comfortable lighting. See Table 3-3. If the ceiling is 12 feet or less above the pit, fluorescent luminaires are generally more effective. If the ceiling is higher, metal halide luminaires are very effective. Luminaire layout will vary depending on the parlor design. If fluorescent luminaires are used, generally two rows of continuous (end to end) double tube luminaires mounted over the outer edges of the pit will provide uniform lighting with little or no shadows. (See Figure 3-1). If metal halide luminaires, a single row of luminaires over the center of the pit will work nicely, assuming there is adequate mounting height (12 feet or more). Luminaire spacing is dependent on the wattage and luminaire design selected. See Figure 3-2.

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Figure 3-1. Example of fluorescent milking parlor pit lighting

Figure 3-2. Example of metal halide milking parlor pit lighting

Parlor Stalls and Holding Area It is important to have reasonably good, uniform levels of illumination in the holding area, parlor stall area, and the cow return lane areas in the milking center. The IES and ASAE recommend a uniform lighting level of 20 fc in the parlor stall area and return lanes. It is recommended that the holding area have a uniform 10 fc illumination level. If the holding area is illuminated at a lower level than the parlor cow traffic area, it will facilitate cow traffic flow. Cows are more comfortable traveling from areas of lower illumination toward areas of
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higher illumination. See Figure 3-3. If it is important to have color rendition like the parlor pit area, then it would be prudent to use fluorescent or metal halide lighting in the cow traffic areas. If color rendition is not deemed critical in the cow traffic areas, high-pressure sodium (HPS) luminaires are a good choice. They offer a higher level of lighting efficiency, and are often less expensive to install and maintain. Cow return lanes can often be effectively lighted with wall pack luminaires, which are rectangular lighting fixtures that are mounted, at proper spacing, high up on the sidewalls. The lenses on these fixtures aim the light onto the traffic areas.

Figure 3-3. Lighting in parlor stalls, return lane lighting, and holding area lighting Table 3-3. Milking parlor pit, stall, return lanes and holding area lighting
Milking Parlor Pit at udder Parlor General Lighting Stalls and Return Lanes Holding Area 50 fc 20 fc Fluorescent, 2 lamp, moisture resistant Metal Halide, moisture resistant Fluorescent, moisture resistant Metal Halide, moisture resistant High pressure sodium, moisture resistant High pressure sodium, moisture resistant Metal Halide, moisture resistant Fluorescent, moisture resistant

10 fc

Equipment Washing Milking center equipment washing areas, such as the wash sink in the milkroom, require high levels of illumination. Inspecting equipment for proper cleanliness is important in
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maintaining low bacteria count and high quality milk. The IES and ASAE recommend lighting levels of 75 100 fc in equipment cleaning areas. See Table 3-4. Since much of the milking system is now cleaned in place, this recommendation only applies to those areas where equipment is disassembled and manually cleaned. Generally, fluorescent, moisture resistant luminaires are appropriate to illuminate equipment wash areas. Luminaires should be mounted above work areas to provide shadow-free light at the work surface. See Figure 3-4. The interiors of bulk tanks or milk storage silos need to be visually inspected for cleanliness. This is best accomplished with a portable moisture resistant luminaire. For some situations a fluorescent wand-type may be appropriate. The luminaire should have a protective sleeve over the lamp to contain any glass pieces, should the lamp break. It is recommended that 100 fc be provided for inspection of the interior or bulk tanks and silos. General lighting in the milkroom should provide a uniform 20 fc illumination level. Like the equipment washing area, fluorescent luminaires are most common. However, if ceilings are high (12 feet or more), metal halide luminaires work well.

Figure 3-4. Milkroom lighting Table 3-4. Milkroom and equipment wash area lighting Task area Illumination Requirement
Milkroom (General Lighting) Equipment washing (Wash sink area) Bulk Tank/Silo Interior Cleaning and inspection 20 fc

Recommended Luminaire

100 fc

100 fc

Fluorescent, 2 lamp, moisture resistant Metal Halide, moisture resistant Fluorescent, 2 lamp, moisture resistant Metal Halide, moisture resistant Fluorescent portable wand light, insulated and moisture resistant
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Office Lighting Most milking centers include the farm office space. Proper, glare-free lighting is essential in an office to facilitate the daily activities of record keeping, computer operations, and general office work. Farm office general illumination levels should be at least 50 fc with specific task lighting on the desk surface of 100 fc or more. See Table 3-5. Once again, fluorescent lighting is most suitable to provide glare-free lighting with few shadows. Table 3-5. Dairy office lighting Task Area
General Office lighting Reading, writing, keyboard and other desk tasks

Illumination Requirement
50 fc 50 100 fc

Recommended Luminaire
Fluorescent with prismatic lens Fluorescent with prismatic lens

Maternity and Veterinary Treatment Area The maternity and veterinary treatment area in a dairy facility requires general lighting levels of 20 fc to facilitate observations of sick cattle and cows ready to calve. Intense visual and often delicate tasks such as operating procedures or other animal treatment require minimum lighting levels of 100 fc. See Table 3-6. Fluorescent or metal halide luminaires are most appropriate for these areas. For surgery, portable halogen spotlights may be required to provide adequate task lighting. In the treatment/operating area, the luminaires need to be more concentrated and arranged to minimize any shadows. Table 3-6: Maternity and treatment area lighting (indoors) Task Area
Maternity/treatment area (general lighting) Veterinary Treatment and Surgery area

Required Illumination
20 fc 100 fc

Recommended Luminaire
Fluorescent or Metal Halide moisture resistant Fluorescent or Metal Halide moisture resistant Portable halogen spot lights for lighting surgical area

Utility Room Lighting The utility room in a modern milking center houses most of the key operating systems that makes the milking parlor/milkroom area function. Vacuum pumps, refrigeration compressors, condensers, air compressors, electrical distribution panels, and, often, the standby power system are all found in the utility room. It is recommended that a uniform general illumination level of 20 fc be provided in the utility room. See Table 3-7. Portable
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task lighting is also required to raise local illumination levels to 100 fc when maintenance and repair is conducted on individual pieces of equipment. General lighting is commonly provided by fluorescent luminaires. If ceilings are 12 feet or more in height, metal halide luminaires will also provide excellent, uniform lighting.

Figure 3-5. Fluorescent lighting in a utility room Table 3-7. Utility room lighting Task Area
General lighting Equipment Maintenance and repair

Illumination Requirement
20 fc 100 fc

Recommended Luminaire
Fluorescent with prismatic lens Metal Halide, low bay Portable incandescent or halogen trouble light

(return to top of section: Lighting)

Livestock Handling Lighting

Lighting for Dairy Cattle Confinement Structures General lighting systems for dairy cattle confinement structures, whether freestall barns or simple loafing shelters, should provide 10 fc of light. See Table 3-8. This is important for the performance of general work tasks such as separating cattle, observing cattle for illness or heat detection, and performing general maintenance and cleanup operations. This lighting level is also necessary to provide safe operator movement throughout the facility. High pressure sodium luminaires provide the most effective and efficient illumination for this
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lighting need. If good color rendition is desired, metal halide luminaires are commonly used. See Figure 3-6. If the structure has a very low ceiling (less than 12 feet), fluorescent luminaires may be more appropriate. If ambient temperatures are likely to dip below 50 F., the fluorescent fixtures should have high output ballasts and lamps to reduce cold temperature light degradation. Illumination levels in feeding areas within confinement structures should be 20 fc. This facilitates the operation of feeding wagons or trucks and encourages cows to move to the feeding area and eat. A heavier concentration of the same type of fixtures used for general lighting can be used to provide the higher illumination level.

Figure 3-6. Example of metal halide lighting in a dairy cattle confinement feeding barn Long-day Lighting Numerous university studies suggest that supplemental lighting that provides lactating dairy cows with a uniform light level of 15 to 20 footcandles for 16 to 18 hours per day will increase milk production. Generally, in freestall resting barns, long day lighting systems utilize high-pressure sodium or metal halide light fixtures. These high efficiency fixtures provide sufficient lighting while using less energy than other fixture types. To gain the full benefit of this supplemental lighting, the dairy cows must have a 6 to 8 hour dark period every 24 hours. When herds are on 3x milking schedules, it is often difficult to achieve the required dark period. When considering a long day lighting system, it is important to note that 2 to 3 times as many light fixtures are required compared to conventional freestall barn lighting recommendations. See Figure 3-7.

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Figure 3-7. Freestall resting barn with supplemental long day lighting Open Corral Confinement Systems Open corral confinement systems present a special lighting challenge. It is difficult to provide effective, uniform lighting in large open areas. A low level (less than 1 fc) of general lighting can be achieved by locating high pressure sodium HID luminaires around the perimeter of the corral. The luminaires would have to be weather-proof with wide beam angle reflectors to aim the light over a broad area of the corral. See Figure 3-8. Lighting at feeding areas in corrals should be 3 fc. Again, this facilitates nighttime feeding operations and encourages animal movement to the feeding area. Corral lighting can best be accomplished by mounting luminaires on very tall poles, which would allow luminaire mounting heights of at least 40 to 50 feet. Taller poles allow wider beam spread and the use of higher wattage, more efficient luminaires, thus reducing the total energy requirement for the lighting task.

Figure 3-8. Example of 1,000 W floodlight for feeding corral lighting

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Table 3-8. Cattle Confinement and Feeding Area Lighting Task Area
Confinement Structures (General Lighting)

Required Illumination
10 fc

Recommended Luminaire
High pressure sodium, Metal halide Fluorescent (All moisture resistant) High pressure sodium Metal halide Fluorescent (All moisture resistant) High pressure sodium (weatherproof with wide beam angle reflectors) on tall poles High pressure sodium, (weatherproof with wide beam angle reflectors) on tall poles. High pressure sodium High pressure sodium (provided from several directions to reduce shadows)

Feeding areas (in confinement buildings)

20 fc

Corrals (general lighting)

0.25 fc

Corral Feeding areas

3 fc

Special Pens and Chutes General (outdoors) Sick Animal Treatment (outdoors)

10 fc 50 fc

(return to top of section: Lighting)

General Lighting
Feed Storage and Processing Areas Feed storage areas such as commodity storage buildings and grain bins generally require less light than other areas because little work is done within the storage areas. Table 3-9 provides recommended light levels for these areas. Grain bins should have 2 5 fc of light around them to facilitate safe walking and equipment operations around them at night. Commodity storage buildings should have up to 10 fc of light in front of and within the storage facility to facilitate commodity removal and mixing operations at night. High pressure sodium luminaires will provide the most efficient light source for these areas. See Figure 3-9. These lighting systems can be set up on dusk to dawn timers or photoelectric controls, since they are only needed for nighttime operations.

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Figure 3-9. High pressure sodium fixture in commodity storage shed Table 3-9. Feed and grain storage area lighting Task Area
Grain Bin area

Required Illumination
2-5 fc

Recommended Luminaire
High pressure sodium, weatherproof, with dusk to dawn control High pressure sodium, weatherproof with dusk to dawn control

Commodity Storage

10 fc

(return to top of section: Lighting)

Lighting Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs)

The largest portion of all electrical energy used for lighting on the dairy farm occurs within the milking center and mainly in the milking parlor. Maintenance of acceptable lighting levels in this area is crucial to providing operators visual acuity to perform their tasks. The energy use to provide lighting on a dairy farm is driven by a number of factors. These include:

Illumination levels required Proper design, selection, placement and installation of lighting system Duration of time period lighting is used Energy efficiency (lumens per watt) of lighting system selected Maintenance of lighting system.

The kilowatt-hours used per cow-year for operating all lighting equipment on the dairy establish the EUI for lighting. A reasonable range for lighting EUIs on California dairies would be from 30 to 75 kWh per cow-year.
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The advent of photoperiod manipulation or long day lighting (LDL) to increase milk production can significantly increase the EUI for lighting. Dairies utilizing LDL technology in their freestall barns would be expected to have lighting EUIs range from 100 to 175 kWh per cow-year. Although lighting EUIs will increase appreciably on those dairies adopting LDL, relatively modest increases in milk production make the supplementary lighting very cost-effective. (return to top of section: Lighting)

Lighting Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs)

The most effective energy conservation measure for dairy lighting systems is to replace inefficient

luminaires with higher efficiency types. For example, if lighting for outdoor corrals and feeding areas is provided by incandescent or halogen flood lights, converting to high pressure sodium lighting at the same lighting level would save a significant amount of energy. High-pressure sodium lamps produce 5 to 6 times more lumens/watt of energy used compared to incandescent or halogen lamps. Table 10 below illustrates energy conservation measures for lighting and the percentage savings each measure will provide. Table 3-10. Lighting Energy Conservation Measures and Savings Lighting Type
Incandescent Incandescent Incandescent Fluorescent T-12 Magnetic ballasts Mercury vapor Mercury Vapor

% Energy Conservation Measure Energy Savings

Convert to halogen lamps Convert to compact fluorescent, if appropriate Convert to fluorescent tube luminaires Convert to fluorescent T-8 with energy efficient ballasts Convert to Metal Halide, if appropriate Convert to High Pressure Sodium, if appropriate 20-38% 75% 80-85% 25% 43-54% 44-59%

Converting to higher efficiency luminaires may not always be cost effective. Buying and installing new higher efficiency luminaires may cost more than is saved in energy costs. For example, it may not pay to replace existing fluorescent T-12 luminaires with new T-8 luminaires with high efficiency ballasts. However, it would pay to convert the existing ballasts and lamps from T-12 to T-8 while keeping the existing fixture. The most important point to make about lighting energy conservation is to install the most appropriate, most efficient luminaire for the task. Purchasing high quality, energy efficient luminaires generally results in better lighting with continued energy savings over the life of the luminaire. (return to top of section: Lighting)

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Operator Level Checks - Lighting

In a dairy farm environment, even the best lighting systems lose their effectiveness quite rapidly if not properly maintained. There are many factors that influence the coefficient of utilization. Dust and dirt accumulation on lamps and luminaire refractors will significantly reduce the effective light output of the fixture. This is known as luminaire dirt depreciation (LDD). Luminaires in very dirty locations should be cleaned monthly. Luminaires in less dirty environments should be thoroughly cleaned at least twice per year. Since light reflectance of ceilings and walls is an important factor in lighting system performance, it is important to keep reflective surfaces clean. As dirt accumulates on these surfaces, they will absorb light rather than reflect it, thus reducing the quality of light in the task area. This is known as room surface dirt depreciation (RSDD). In lighted dairy facilities, it is important to keep walls and ceilings cleaned. They should be painted or covered with bright white or other reflective colors. The light output for all common lamps diminishes over the life of the lamp. This loss of light output over time is known as lamp lumen depreciation (LLD). For example, a typical incandescent lamp will produce 89% of its initial lumen output at 70% of its normal life. A metal halide lamp may only produce 60% or less of its initial lumen output at 70% of its life. To maintain proper light levels, it is appropriate to replace lamps before they burn out. Some will say that a HID lamp will never burn out. This is not true but the light output will be a fraction of the original lumen output. While a depreciated lamp will still work, less light will be received and the energy consumed remains nearly unchanged. As lighting system output diminishes due to dirt depreciation factors and lamp lumen depreciation factors, it may be difficult to sense the light loss with the naked eye. This is because the light loss is gradual, and the operator tends to get used to diminished levels until the light levels are far too low. To monitor lighting system performance, use a light meter to measure footcandle levels in each lighted area when the system is new. Then check footcandle levels in the same areas on a monthly basis to determine diminished system performance. The light meter readings will indicate when cleaning and relamping should occur. Best to make these measurements at night when ambient light will not interfere with the readings. Adequate lighting is not always a priority on dairy farms, but a well designed and maintained lighting system pays dividends in improved employee and animal performance. (return to top of section: Lighting)

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Glossary of Lighting Terms

Ballast: A device used with an electric-discharge lamp to obtain the necessary conditions (voltage, current and waveform) for starting and operating the lamp. Ceiling Cavity Ratio (CCR): A number indicating ceiling cavity proportions calculated from length, width and height. Coefficient of Utilization: The ratio [percent] of the lumens emitted from the luminaire(s) to the lumens received on the work plane. Color Rendering Index (of a light source) (CRI): A measure of the degree of color shift objects undergo when illuminated by the light source as compared with those same objects when illuminated by a reference source of comparable color temperature. The higher the CRI, the more natural colors appear when illuminated by the light source. Diffuser: A device to redirect the illumination of a lamp. Footcandle: A measure of the level of illumination on a surface. One footcandle is light intensity produced by one lumen of light per square foot. General lighting: Lighting designed to provide a uniform level of illumination throughout the area involved exclusive of any provision for special localized lighting requirements. Glare: The effect of brightness or brightness differences within the visual field sufficiently high to cause annoyance, discomfort, or loss in visual performance. High-bay Lighting: Interior lighting where the roof truss or ceiling is more than 25 ft. above the floor. High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamp: An electric-discharge lamp using a temperature stabilized light producing arc. Common HID lamps include mercury vapor, metal halide and high pressure sodium. High Pressure Sodium (HPS) Lamp: A high intensity discharge (HID) lamp in which light is produced by radiation from sodium vapor operating under partial pressure. Incandescent Filament Lamp: A lamp in which light is produced by a filament heated by an electric current. Lens: A glass or plastic element used in luminaries to change the direction and control the distribution of light rays. Light: Radiant energy that is capable of exciting the retina and creating a visual sensation. Light Loss factor (Maintenance Factor): A ratio comparing the amount of light on the task surface provided by a lamp to the value if the lamp operated at its initial (rated) lumen output and if no appreciable variation or depreciation had occurred.
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Localized General Lighting: Lighting utilizing luminaires above the visual task and contributing also to the illumination of the surrounding area. Low-bay Lighting: Interior lighting where the roof truss or ceiling height is 25 ft or less above the floor. Lumen: A unit of measure of the quantity of light emitted from a lamp. One lumen impinging on an area one foot square will produce a light intensity of one footcandle. Luminaire: (light fixture) A complete lighting unit consisting of a lamp (or lamps), ballasting (when applicable), together with the parts designed to distribute the light, to position and protect the lamps and to connect the lamps to the power supply. Luminous Efficacy of a Source of Light (Luminous Efficiency): The total radiant power emitted by a lamp divided by the total lamp power (watts) input. It is expressed in lumens per watt. Mercury Vapor Lamp: A high intensity discharge (HID) lamp in which the major portion of the light is produced by radiation from mercury operating at a partial pressure. Metal Halide Lamp: A high intensity discharge lamp in which the major portion of the light is produced by radiation of metal halides possible in combination with metallic vapors such as mercury. Photoperiod: The environmental (natural or artificial) light-dark cycle to which living organisms may be exposed. Portable Lighting: Lighting involving equipment designed for manual portability. Rated Life: Standard HID and most lamps number of operating hours at which 50 percent will still be operating. For pulse start metal halide, the value is set at 70. Room Cavity: The cavity formed by the plane of the luminaires, the workplane, and the wall surfaces between these two planes. Room Cavity Ratio: A number indicating room cavity proportions calculated from length, width and height. Task Lighting: Lighting directed to a specific surface or area that provides illumination for visual tasks. Work Plane: The plane at which work usually is done or at which the illuminance (fc) is specified. For example, the cows udder for milking parlors or the cows eye for long-day lighting would locate the work plane. (return to top of section: Lighting) (return to Table of Contents: Table_of_Contents)

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(return to: Table_of_Contents)

4. Air Circulation & Ventilation

Purpose and Design Heat Stress Reduction Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs) Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs) Operator Level Checks Glossary

Section Contents

Purpose and Design Air Circulation And Ventilation

Air circulation and ventilation systems on California dairies provide fresh air to dairy cows and diminish heat stress. The value and importance of providing a comfortable environment for the high producing dairy cow is demonstrated by the expanding use of air circulation and other cooling methods. The effects of heat stress on dairy cows has been well documented and includes:

Reduction of feed intake Drop in milk production by 20-30% Increased susceptibility to mastitis and other diseases Reduced conception rates and other reproductive problems

Figure 4-1 on the following page provides a graphic illustration of the impact of temperature and humidity on stress levels for dairy cows. Numbers within the graph are wet bulb temperatures, F.

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Figure 4-1. Temperature Humidity Indexes (THI)

(Smith, John, J.P. Harner, D. Dunham, J. Stephenson, J. Shirley, G. Stokker, M. Myer. Coping With Sumnmer Weather Strategies to Control Heat Stress, Publication MF-2319 Kansas State Universituy Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension, March 1998)

To maintain and increase milk production levels, greater numbers of dairy farms are implementing options to mitigate the effects of heat stress. The energy used by these systems to provide air circulation, ventilation and evaporative cooling effects represents an increasing portion of the aggregate electrical energy consumed. However, in California, ventilation continues to be one of the smaller energy consuming functions on dairy farms. The rapid growth of cow comfort systems on dairy farms has occurred because of the magnitude of economic benefit that can be achieved. It is worthwhile to consider the energy management opportunities that exist for these systems. (return to top of section: Air Circulation & Ventilation)

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Heat Stress Reduction Air Circulation & Ventilation

Freestall Resting Areas To reduce the effects of heat stress on dairy cows a variety of measures have been developed that include: Natural ventilation
Shading

Circulation fans basket, box, cyclone, high volume low speed fans Circulation fans with evaporative cooling - low pressure sprinkler & high pressure mister applications

Shading Shading is a common method of heat stress reduction on Southern California dairies. Very simple structures with flat roofs or shade cloth covers provide a place for dairy cattle to get out of the direct sun. The shade structure casts a shadow in response to the movement of the sun throughout the day, and the cows are free to move with the shaded zone as the day progresses. Shading systems, like natural ventilation systems, do not require any input energy unless they are supplemented with mechanical air moving systems and/or misting systems to facilitate cooling.

Natural Ventilation Natural ventilation of dairy housing structures is accomplished by building high-sided, open facilities oriented to take advantage of prevailing winds. If the building has a peaked roof, an open ridge provides a natural outlet to allow warm air to rapidly exit the building. Proper orientation of the building so that prevailing winds blow through the structure from one side to the other helps reduce temperatures for the livestock housed within. The advantage of natural ventilation systems is that there is no energy input. The major disadvantage is that when there is no wind, there is little or no air circulation or cooling effect within the structure. In large resting barn structures, an open ridge is required to facilitate natural ventilation. The open ridge allows rising warm air in the building to quickly flow out of the structure. There are two types of open ridges. Conventional open ridges are wide open at the peak, with the opening as much as 3 feet wide. California style roof design features a high roof cap that covers a very wide open ridge. The roof cap edge overlaps the primary roof to help keep out rainwater. Warm air escapes out of the opening between the primary roof and the higher roof cap (see Figure 4-2). Studies have shown that the conventional open ridge design exhausts warm air more effectively than the California design.

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Figure 4-2. Typical Ridge Vent Designs

Circulation Fan Systems The major users of electrical energy in circulation fan systems are electric motors used to drive various configurations of fans. Experts agree that heat stress in dairy cows begins when ambient temperatures reach 65F to 70F and relative humidity is 40% or higher. It is normally recommended that circulation fans should be turned on when temperatures reach 70F in order to keep cows within their comfort zone. Circulation fan systems include several different types of fans as shown in Table 4-1. All circulation fans common to dairy housing systems are axial flow propeller fans. They have flat, teardrop or airfoil shaped blades attached directly to a motor or to a motor and belt drive system. Most circulator fans (except the basket style) are mounted in a circular ring or an orifice panel to help control air flow through the fan. Overall fan efficiencies vary greatly, and performance is affected by numerous factors including:

type of blades clearance between the blade tip and the fan housing or orifice the design of the fan housing and orifice panel speed at which the fan operates any obstructions to air flow including fan screens, guards, shutters, motor drive, etc.

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Table 4-1. Common types of circulator fans and their characteristics Fan Type Typical Blade Design
Flat Stamped Flat stamped Or airfoil Airfoil

Typical Housing Design

Metal Basket guard Simple circular orifice Metal, wood or plastic box with orifice panel Round, tubal Housing None None

Type of Drive
Direct drive Direct or Belt drive Direct or Belt drive Direct drive Direct drive Direct drive

General Operating Efficiency

Low Moderate Moderate To high Moderate Moderate High

Basket fan Panel fan Box fan

Cyclone/Funnel Low volume Low speed High volume Low speed

Flat stamped or airfoil Flat stamped or airfoil Airfoil

Basket fan
High volume, low speed fan Low Volume, low speed fan (Northwest Envirofan)

Figure 4-3 Six types of fans

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Circulator fans generally operate at 0.0 static pressure or in free air. Thus, these fans will produce their highest airflow rate as determined by testing labs or the manufacturer. Circulation fan placement in a livestock resting area is dependent on the type and size fan used. Panel and box type circulator fans are usually placed in rows above the feed alley and the freestall area and are spaced at ten times the diameter of the fan. Thus 3-foot diameter fans are spaced 30 feet apart, while 4-foot diameter fans are spaced 40 feet apart. Generally, about ten 4-foot circulator fans are required for each 100 cows in a freestall or resting barn. It is important to have air flow over feed alleys and each row of freestalls in a resting barn. In some instances, circulator fans are mounted under the eaves along exterior walls and aimed into the resting barn in the direction of prevailing winds

Figure 4-4. Example of circulator fans mounted over cows backs over the feed alley

Figure 4-5. Circulator fans mounted under the eaves and taking advantage of prevailing winds.

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If ceiling mounted fans are considered (low volume, low speed [LVLS] or high volume, low speed fans [HVLS]), fan spacing is based on the size of the air pattern below the fan. Since HVLS fans are generally 10 to 20 feet in diameter, they are often located only down through the center of the building. In some cases this may be over the drive-through feed alley. Although research has shown that LVLS and HVLS circulation fan systems will save energy, it has not been shown that they provide proper air circulation at a high enough velocity to cool cows effectively, especially those cows that are not directly beneath a fan. The energy used by these systems can be substantial because of the long hours of operation when warm temperatures occur. In southern California, circulation fans will operate 4000 hours or more annually. Energy conservation measures center on the selection of high efficiency fans and motors, carefully planned designs, implementing timely cleaning and maintenance programs and appropriate controls to operate only when conditions warrant. Circulation Fan Systems with Evaporative Cooling A dairy cow produces a large amount of heat, but she is not very efficient at dissipating that heat at temperatures above 70 F. If ambient temperatures are 60 F or below, a cow can dissipate excess body heat through convective, conductive and radiant heat transfers from the skin. However, at higher ambient temperatures (above 70F), cows have to increase heat dissipation by panting. As a cow pants, she increases her breathing rate thus increasing of air flow through her lungs. Evaporative and convective heat transfer moves heat from her body in the exhaled air. However, only about 20% of the excess body heat can be dissipated this way. At high ambient temperatures (above 90 F), common much of the year in southern California, air circulation needs to be supplemented with evaporative cooling to keep cows comfortable. Evaporative cooling in dairy resting barns uses the cooling effects of rapid air flow from circulator fans along with the cooling effects of evaporating water. There are two common types of systems used to provide cooling water:

low pressure sprinklers and high-pressure misters

Low-pressure sprinkler or soaker systems spray water onto the cows backs until the hair coat is wet. The spray is then turned off and air moved over the hair coat by the circulator fans, which will cause the water to evaporate, thus cooling the skin of the cow. This cooling effect allows excess body heat to migrate to the cooler skin surface where it is dissipated by convection. The sprinkler systems are generally cycled so that water is sprayed onto cows backs for 3 minutes and then allowed to air dry for 12 minutes. High-pressure misters provide cooling in a different way. Water is forced through special nozzles at high pressure (100 to 900 psi). The nozzle emits the water in the form of very fine droplets. These droplets will quickly evaporate in the air stream of the circulator fans, thus lowering air temperature in the building. The cows will be able to dissipate heat more effectively to the cooler air. Higher-pressure misters are not recommended because the water droplets are so quickly vaporized that their effects on cooling cows are minimized. At
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the lower end of high pressures (200 psi), the droplets are larger and provide a greater opportunity for cooling the air around the cow. High-pressure misters are not recommended when the humidity is high, because little evaporation takes place and the air can become damp and foggy. Spray or soaker systems on a proper on/off cycle are generally most effective in providing evaporative cooling. Care must be taken to locate sprinklers over areas where cows normally stand, and never over areas where cows lie down. The feed alley is a good place to install soakers because it will encourage cows to stand and eat longer, thus improving daily feed intake. Care must be taken to observe cycle times and evaporation rates to ensure that not too much water is sprayed. If excess water collects on the floor, too much water is being sprayed, and the excess moisture can provide a place for mastitis causing organisms to proliferate. Nozzles should be located 8 to 9 feet high and so that the majority of the water falls onto the middle of the cows backs. Use nozzles that emit large drops of water at a rate of 0.1 to 0.5 gpm. Thus each nozzle will deliver 1.2 to 6 gallons of water during each 12 minute spray cycle.

Figure 4-6. Schematic diagram of sprinkler system components

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Figure 4-7. Recommended size of pipe based on required flow rate and length
(Source: Private Water Systems Handbook, MidWest Plan Service, Iowa State Univ.)

Circulator fans provide the airflow to enhance air circulation and cooling with the evaporative cooling systems. Fans should be arranged in the same pattern and with the same airflow rates as circulator systems without evaporative cooling.

Milking Center Ventilation Milking centers require special considerations when designing ventilation systems. The challenge is that human operators, milking cows for 8 hours or more each day, have an entirely different comfort requirement than the cows passing through the holding area and milking parlor for their scheduled milking. Operator comfort is an important factor in maintaining productivity and a high level of job performance. However, ventilation in the milking parlor and holding area has to meet livestock comfort needs first. Holding Area Ventilation and Cooling The holding area has a critical cooling need. Large groups of cows stand in crowded conditions for as much as 30 to 60 minutes or more. Without cooling, cows internal body temperatures can increase to levels of great discomfort quite rapidly. Thus, it is important to move large volumes of cooling air over the cows. Additionally, sprinklers (or misters in very arid climates) mounted over the cows in the holding area, coupled with airflow from fans will greatly improve cooling in very warm weather. Care must be taken not to use more water than will normally evaporate so that excessively wet conditions dont develop in the holding area. Cooling fans should be mounted over the cows in the holding area and direct airflow away from the milking parlor. The fans should be tilted about 10 to blow air downward and over the cows backs. As with any circulation system, the fans should not be spaced more than 10 times their diameter. Thus, 36-inch fans should be spaced no more than 30 feet apart.
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Fans should be placed in rows 6 to 8 feet apart, starting at the milking parlor entrance and continuing over the entire length of the holding area. (see diagram below). If the ceiling height is limited so that fans cannot be placed above the cows, fans should be placed 6 to 8 feet apart in the holding area sidewalls and positioned to blow air across the holding area in the direction of prevailing winds.

Figure 4-8. Preferred placement of fans for cooling cows within a holding area
(Source: Building Freestall Barns and Milking Centers: Methods and Materials (NRAES-148))

Figure 4-9. Compromised option for locating cooling fans when ceiling heights prohibit preferred arrangement
(Source: Building Freestall Barns and Milking Centers: Methods and Materials (NRAES-148))

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Figure 4-10. Example of panel fans for cooling holding area Milking Parlor Cooling Generally, milking parlors can be cooled in the same manner as the holding area. If ceiling heights allow, fans can be placed in rows 6 to 8 feet apart facing the holding area. If ceiling height is limited, then cooling fans can be placed along the outside parlor wall, blowing across the parlor in the direction of prevailing winds. No sprinklers or misters can be used in the parlor because of sanitary concerns.

Figure 4-11. Example of panel fans for cooling milking parlor

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Cooling Employee Break Areas and Offices Offices and break areas in the milking center are best cooled by window-type airconditioning units. This allows for a refreshingly cool environment totally separate from the environment in the rest of the milking center. (return to top of section: Air Circulation & Ventilation)

Air Circulation & Ventilation Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs)

The majority of electrical energy used for air circulation will occur in the freestall barn where cows spend a majority of their time feeding and resting. Circulating fans are also employed in the holding area and in the milking parlor. The kilowatt-hours used per cow-year for operating circulation fans and evaporative cooling equipment establishes the air circulation EUI. A practical range for air circulation EUIs on California dairies that have freestall barns and circulating fans would be from 100 to 175 kWh per cow-year. The overall level of the air circulation EUI is linked to the climate where the dairy is located and the extent to which circulating fans are used to counter the consequences of heat stress on dairy cows. Examination of this EUI can be interpreted from a different perspective. A very low circulation EUI may not indicate a high level of efficiency, but more likely denote a lack adequate air movement to counter the effects of heat stress. A relatively high EUI level may suggest that the dairy has instituted an aggressive approach to maintain cow comfort and controlling heat stress. Climate and microclimate will also dictate the particular level of air circulation EUI as level and duration of heat stress increases. Factors that will help reduce this EUI, while maintaining adequate air circulation include:

Careful air circulation system design Selection of efficient fan blade design Use of high efficiency motors to power fans Application of an effective fan control system. Implementation of a scheduled cleaning and maintenance program.

Another indicator of general level of effectiveness for an air circulation system can be derived from the baseline recommendation of ten 4-foot circulator fans for each 100 cows in a freestall resting barn. These 10 fans would have a total connected load of 9325 watts (746 watt/hp, 80% motor efficiency) or an installed fan capacity of 93 watts per cow. Based on this guideline, a freestall barn housing 500 cows will require 50 fans with a connected load of 46.6 kW. Parlor & Holding Area Air Circulation EUI Electrical energy use for parlor & holding area air circulation typically falls in the range of 10-20 kWh per cow-year. Achieving the most effective air circulation EUI for these areas will also be influenced by the above factors.
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Since the milking operation may occur almost around the clock the total hours of use will exceed that in the freestall. (return to top of section: Air Circulation & Ventilation)

Air Circulation & Ventilation Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs)

Fan Selection Criteria The Bioenvironmental and Structural Systems (BESS) Laboratory, Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Illinois provides extensive fan test data to assist in the selection of efficient fans for dairy ventilation and circulation systems. They have identified important fan selection criteria: Quantity of air that must be moved at different static pressures Energy efficiency comparisons among fans Quality of dealer service and support Reliability and life of fans Suitability for intended application Cost The quality of dealer service and support is best judged by the farm operator based on his/her experience with local suppliers. Reliability and life expectations of equipment are dependent on many factors such as quality of construction, how the equipment is installed and used, and maintenance. Information provided at the beginning of this section will help identify suitable fans for the intended application. Fans vary significantly in energy efficiency and air moving performance. BESS Lab tests of commercially available 36 inch diameter fans indicate that air delivery can vary by as much as 100% when comparing low performance fans to high performance fans. When selecting 36 inch diameter fans, look for efficiencies in the 16 to 18 cfm/watt range. When 48 inch diameter fans are compared, the variation from low to high performance fans can be as much as 600%. When selecting 48 inch diameter or larger fans, look for efficiencies in the 21 to 23 cfm/watt range. It is important to compare uniform fan test results from the same test facility (either the BESS Lab or the Air Movement and Control Association International, Inc. (AMCA). If inefficient fans are purchased and installed, the excess operating costs in just 2 to 3 years could exceed the extra cost of a high efficiency fan. The cost of a fan is not a good selection criteria on its own. The old adage, you get what you pay for is very appropriate when choosing fans. After you identify fans of different manufacturers that meet your performance and efficiency criteria, then cost comparison makes sense. Because fans run long hours over a period of years, the excess energy costs of a low efficiency, low cost fan will far exceed any initial purchase cost savings. Consider all fan purchases as an investment that deserves careful selection considerations and performance comparisons. (return to top of section: Air Circulation & Ventilation)
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Operator Level Checks - Air Circulation & Ventilation

Fan Maintenance Dairy ventilation/circulation systems require scheduled maintenance. Poor maintenance can reduce fan efficiency by as much as 40%. Cleaning of fan parts, especially the blades, can improve long-term efficiency. Accumulation of as little as 1/8 of dirt on the fan blades can significantly reduce fan performance. Proper lubrication of bearings and other moving parts will keep performance levels high and reduce energy costs. Bent, damaged or misaligned fan blades should be repaired or replaced. Bent or damaged blades will cause rotational imbalances that reduce fan life and performance. Repairing or replacing the blade is far less costly than purchasing a new fan. The following fan maintenance procedures should be performed at least monthly to maintain peak fan performance:

Disconnect power to the fan before performing maintenance. Remove all dust accumulated on controls and motors using a small blower, vacuum, or stiff paint brush. Remove all dust and dirt build-up from fan blades, fan housing, shutters and guards with a warm detergent solution. Thoroughly dry the fan parts after cleaning. Lubricate all pivot points of shutters with a fine grade machine oil. If motor does not have sealed bearings, lubricate the bearings following manufacturers recommendations. Check all wiring from the service panel to each fan to make sure there are no damaged wiring components. Make sure the service entrance ground is adequate. Have a qualified electrician repair or replace any damaged wiring components. For belt-drive fans, make sure that pulleys are properly aligned and that the belt has proper tension. Replace any worn belts. Reattach all guards before turning power back on. If fans are thermostatically controlled, compare the thermostat with a reliable thermometer.

As a measure of long-term fan system performance of circulator systems, use an air velocity meter to determine initial performance of a new installation. A periodic check of air velocity with the same meter is a good way to establish a maintenance schedule and to detect reductions in overall system performance. (return to top of section: Air Circulation & Ventilation)
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Glossary of Air Circulation and Ventilation Terms

AMCA: (Air Movement and Control Association International, Inc.) A trade association of fan manufacturers. AMCA does testing of fans and associated equipment for its members and publishes the results. Airflow Rate: Air movement or delivery rate generally expressed as cubic feet per minute (cfm). Also know as air velocity. BESS Lab: (Bioenvironmental and Structural Systems Laboratory) An independent public university operated laboratory that provides testing of fans and publishes the resulting performance data. The BESS Lab is located at the University of Illinois, Department of Agricultural Engineering. Btu: (British thermal unit) The quantity if heat energy required to raise 1 pound of water 1F. Cfm: Cubic feet per minute. A term used to express airflow rate. Conductive Heat Transfer: The process by which heat is transferred from one location to another in a body due to a temperature gradient. Heat flows from the warmer area to the cooler area of the body. Convective Heat Transfer: The process by which heat is transferred from a body to a fluid by passing the fluid over the body. Degree Of Saturation: The ratio of the weight of water vapor to the saturated weight of water vapor per pound of dry air at the same temperature and barometric pressure. The ratio is also known as relative humidity. Dewpoint Temperature: The temperature at which moisture begins to condense from air cooled at constant barometric pressure and humidity ratio. Draft: Combination of air temperature and velocity, which cause thermal stress in livestock. Effects of draft vary with the weight and age of the livestock. Younger animals are more adversely affected by drafts. Dry-Bulb Temperature: Temperature of air or a body measured with a conventional thermometer. Evaporate: Process of transforming a liquid to a vapor, such as transforming water to steam. Evaporative Heat Transfer: Heat energy exchange, which occurs during evaporation. Example is the cooling of warm livestock as water evaporates from the skin. Fahrenheit (F): Temperature scale with the freezing point of water at 32 and the boiling point at 212.
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Fan: A mechanical device used to move air. Fan Efficiency: The measure of a fans output (airflow or cfm) divided by its energy input (electrical energy or watts). Fan efficiency is measured in cfm per watt, which indicates how much air can be moved in one minute by one watt of electric energy input. Heat: A form of energy, which can be transferred from a body of higher temperature to one of lower temperature. Heat Transfer: The process of heat energy transport by means of conduction, convection, radiation, evaporative heat transfer or condensation. Humidity: Moisture contained in the air. Inlet: Structural opening through which ventilation air enters. Insulation: Any material that reduces heat transfer from one body to another. Insulation under the rood of a livestock shelter will reduce the transfer of heat from the roof into the cooler area within the shelter. Mechanical Ventilation: The process of forcing air through a building using mechanical equipment such as fans. Natural Ventilation: The process of forcing air through a building or shelter using prevailing winds and the thermal buoyancy of air. Negative Pressure Ventilation: A mechanical ventilation system where fans are used to pull air out of a building, which creates a negative pressure inside the building, thus facilitating the entry of fresh air through an inlet system. Positive Pressure Ventilating System: A mechanical ventilating system where fans blow air into a structure creating a positive pressure. Radiant Heat Transfer: The process by which heat is transferred from one body to another by electromagnetic waves such as an animal radiating heat to a cool wall surface. Relative Humidity: The ratio (expressed as a percent) of actual water vapor pressure in the air to the vapor pressure at saturation at the same temperature and pressure. Saturated Air: A condition where air can hold no additional water vapor (expressed as 100% relative humidity). Sensible Heat: Energy absorbed or released by a material that results in a temperature change. For example, an animal losing heat to a cooler surface with which it is in contact. Sling Psychrometer: A temperature-sensing instrument containing a wet bulb and dry bulb thermometer. By measuring the wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures simultaneously, a psychrometric chart can be used to obtain the humidity ratio, relative humidity, and dewpoint temperature.
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Spread: The width of the air pattern at specific distances away from the discharge of the fan. Static Pressure: The difference in pressure between inside and outside of a building, ventilation fan or air inlet. Static pressure is measured in inches of water. Temperature: A measure of a bodys ability to give up or receive heat. Thermal Buoyancy: The effect of warm, less dense air being buoyed up by cool, moredense air. Naturally ventilated buildings depend on thermal buoyancy to remove warm air. Thermostat: An electro-mechanical device for controlling the operation of heating or cooling equipment to regulate air temperature within an area. Throw: The velocity of the air at specific distances away from the discharge of a fan. Ventilating Rate: Airflow rate passing through a building measured in cubic feet per minute (cfm). The airflow rate is usually controlled by fans in a mechanically ventilated building. Ventilation: The process of exchanging air. In livestock buildings, ventilation is used to control temperature, moisture, odors, pathogenic organisms and dust. Wet Bulb Temperature: The temperature measured by a thermometer whose bulb is covered by a wet wick and exposed to an air stream with a velocity of 1000 ft./min. The wet bulb temperature is a function of the rate of water evaporation from the wet wick and its resultant cooling which is dependent on the water vapor content in the air. (return to top of section: Air Circulation & Ventilation) (return to Table of Contents: Table_of_Contents)

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(return to: Table_of_Contents)

5. Washing and Water Heating

Purpose, Requirements Equipment Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs) Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs) Vacuum Level Required for Washing Operator Level Checks Glossary

Section Contents

Purpose, Requirements (gallons and temperature)

An adequate and reliable supply of hot water is an essential element in the production of high quality milk on any dairy farm. Water used for cleaning milking systems including milking units, pipelines, receivers, and bulk milk storage tanks must be available in adequate quantities and at required temperatures for each cycle in the cleaning process. Failure to have adequate supplies of hot water at required temperatures can lead to rapid increases in bacterial contamination and subsequent reduction in milk quality. Milk quality reductions can lead to a loss of quality premiums or, in the worst case, an outright refusal to accept the contaminated milk at the processing plant. Hot water requirements vary from farm to farm and are directly related to number of milking units, pipeline sizes and lengths, and system accessories (receivers, weigh jars or milk meters, plate coolers, etc.). Generally, a minimum hot water requirement is 4 gallons of 170F (77C) water per milking unit for each rinse/wash/rinse cycle. Water temperatures required for various milking equipment rinsing, washing, and sanitizing cycles are as follows:

Pre-rinse cycle Wash cycle Acid rinse cycle Sanitize cycle

95F - 110F 155F - 170F 95F - 110F 75F (minimum depending on sanitizer directions)

Hot water is commonly produced by water heaters using one of three energy sources: 1. Fuel oil 2. Natural or propane gas 3. Electricity Fuel oil or gas fired water heaters are more popular on large dairy farms because they are easily sized for rapid production of hot water. Typical input rates for oil fired water heaters are between 138,000 and 150,000 Btu/hr (about 1 to 1.25 gallons of fuel oil per hour). The
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recovery rate for oil fired water heaters is about 100 to 120 gallons of hot water (@ 170F) per hour. Typical input rates for gas fired water heaters range from 75,000 to 150,000 Btu/hr. (about 75 to 150 cu. Ft. of natural gas per hour or 0.8 to 1.6 gal. propane per hour). The recovery rate for natural gas water heaters is 54 to 108 gallons per hour (@ 170F). Electric water heaters have some advantages over water heaters using fossil fuels. They are more efficient, there are no flues, they can easily be heavily insulated to reduce heat losses, their first cost is often lower and they are easily located near the point of heaviest hot water use to minimize water line heat losses. The disadvantages of electric water heaters include slower recovery rates and increases in peak electrical demand and the associated higher demand charges on the farm. Larger volumes of storage for heated water are required to meet the hot water requirement for cleanup if electric water heaters are used. A minimum electric water heater storage capacity is at least 30% higher than the total hot water requirement for a complete system rinse/wash/rinse cycle. Residential electric water heaters should not be used on dairy farms because they are thermostatically limited to a peak temperature of about 140F (60C) to meet federal safety guidelines. Thus, commercial electric water heaters would be required for dairy farm applications. Commercial electric water heaters can be configured with multiple, higher wattage heating elements that provide faster heat recovery. For example, a 120-gallon commercial electric water heater with three 6,000-watt elements operating simultaneously can heat about 62 gallons per hour to 170F (77C). Although such a recovery rate might be adequate for many dairies, the additional 18 kW demand could be quite costly. (return to top of section: Washing and Water Heating)

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Equipment Washing & Water Heating

Types of Water Heaters Direct Water Heater, Conventional with Integral Storage Conventional water heaters incorporate a storage tank with either electric heating elements or a burner into a single unit. Fuel sources for storage water heaters include electricity, natural gas, propane and fuel oil. Overall efficiency of a storage water heater is a combination of the combustion efficiency of the fuel source and standby losses from the tank. Storage water heaters range in size from 30 to 120 gallon (with larger sizes available). Fossil fuel units have heating inputs from 80 600,000 Btu-Hr and recovery rates of up to 600 gallons per hour. They are commonly connected via a circulating pump to larger insulated storage tanks to provide greater capacity. Useable water passes through the water heater.

Figure 5-1. Storage Water Heater

Indirect Water Heater Indirect water heating utilizes separate water heating (usually a boiler), a heat exchanger in storage tank to transfer heat to the water in separate insulated storage tank. The boiler can be natural gas, propane or oil fired. The heat exchanger may be remotely located, but is generally placed within the storage tank. With this arrangement the useable water does not pass through the boiler. This reduces scaling in the boiler. Also, cold water in the storage tank will not be come in contact with the boiler that causes stress in the boiler. The
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combination of a complete condensing hi-efficiency boiler with a well-insulated storage tank makes indirect water heating very economical.

Figure 5-2. Indirect water heater and cross section of storage tank with heat exchanger (Crown)

Heat Pump Water Heater Heat pump water heaters use electricity as an indirect energy source to move excess heat from another source and transfers that heat to water. See Figure 5-3.

Figure 5-3. Heat pump water heater

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They operate like the bulk milk cooling system, but in a reverse manner. Heat is removed from ambient air [evaporator] and transferred through the refrigeration system into water [condenser] in the storage tank. (return to top of section: Washing & Water Systems)

Washing and Water Heating Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs)

Total hot water use for CIP cleaning is driven by size of milking parlor(s) and size and number of milk tanks or silos. Accepted guidelines for hot water use on smaller dairies may be as high as 2 to 3 gallons per cow per day. However, on large California dairies with a high degree of automation, the number of cows being milked has reduced the volume of hot water used to one half gallon per cow per day. Factors that will optimize the level of hot water use, while maintaining adequate cleaning performance include:

Optimization of air injected slug flow cleaning Careful design of vacuum pump capacity and vacuum level for washing Accurate determination of wash water volumes needed and appropriate settings of water levels in wash sinks. Limiting milker unit wash draw rates to 0.8 to 1.0 gpm with appropriate flow restrictors.

The EUI developed as a point of reference for washing and water heating is the commonly used quantity of fuel source (Therms, gallons, kWh) used per cow-year. Table 5-1. Washing and Water Heating EUI Fuel Source
Natural Gas Propane Fuel Oil Electricity

Quantity per cow-year

1.3 Therms 1.4 Gallons 0.7 Gallons 33.5 kWh

Typical Range
0.8 2.0 Therms 0.9 2.2 Gallons 0.9 1.7 Gallons 22 44 kWh

Fossil fuel water heaters are used almost exclusively for water heating on California dairy farms. They provide high recovery rates and adequate storage capacity. Overall energy use for water heating can be minimized by:

Utilizing waste heat recovery for pre-heating water. Selecting high efficiency water heaters. Providing adequately sized piping with shortest possible distances from heater to wash sink. Periodically maintaining and cleaning the water heater.
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Figure 5-4. Conventional water heater with storage (return to top of section: Washing & Water Systems)

Washing and Water Heating Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs)

Heat Recovery Systems A refrigeration heat recovery system links two common functions found on dairy farms to reduce energy consumption and costs. Heat recovery equipment harvests heat that would normally be rejected by the milk cooling condenser and applies that heat energy to preheat the water that will be used for washing the milking system prior to final heating. This heat is normally rejected to air or water. Refrigeration heat recovery equipment economically recovers and transfers this heat to water for a useful purpose. The heat recovery equipment falls into two basic categories: desuperheating units and full condensing units.

Desuperheating Units Superheat refers to the sensible heat stored in the refrigerant gas when heated above the condensing temperature at a given pressure. A desuperheating heat recovery unit, so called, removes this superheat as the refrigerant gas is cooled to the saturation temperature. The desuperheating unit will also remove some of the heat of condensation. The desuperheater is simply a refrigerant-to-water heat exchanger installed between the milk cooling refrigeration compressor and conventional condenser. See Figure 5-5. Today, the superheated usually consists of a stainless steel plate spot welded and expanded forming internal refrigerant passages wrapped tightly around a glass lined tank
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with insulation and an outer wrapper of steel or fiberglass. The refrigerant gas passes thru this expanded plate before going to the condenser. Heat transfers from the hot gas to the water inside the tank. This tank is plumbed ahead of the conventional water heater. The water is typically preheated to 95-115F. When hot water is drawn from the water heater cold water will enter the heat recovery tank. The water heater heats the water to achieve CIP wash temperature of 160-180F. Under typical conditions a desuperheater can remove 30% of the total heat that would have been rejected by the condenser. Desuperheating heat recovery systems: Can be added to existing milk cooling systems at less cost. Supply significant quantities of medium temperature water. Allow for greater recovery rates in water heating equipment because of a reduced temperature rise. Offer a substantial reduction of water heating costs. Fully Condensing Units Fully condensing heat recovery systems are designed to remove both the superheat and all the heat from condensation of the refrigerant vapor to a liquid. They replace the condenser found in an ordinary refrigeration system. The ability to utilize all available waste heat means fully condensing systems can supply more and higher temperature (120-140F) water than a desuperheater. Because all waste heat must be transferred to water, adequate storage must be provided or excess hot water will be discharged from the system and benefits of recovery reduced. For these reasons, full condensing heat recovery units are not widely used. Since the amount of heat removed from milk on large dairies greatly exceeds the corresponding need for water heating, add-on desuperheaters have more commonly been adopted. They have been able to reduce water heating costs and more reliably than fully condensing units.

Figure 5-5. Desuperheater heat recovery units (5a Paul Mueller Co.; 5b WestfaliaSurge)

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High-Efficiency Water Heaters The application of high-efficiency water heaters instead of a conventional efficiency unit offers dairy farm operators a high return on investment when constructing new facilities or when replacing water heating systems. Energy savings can repay the incremental additional cost of the higher efficiency water heater quickly. Given that the service life of a water heating system can exceed ten years, the accumulation of energy savings can pay the added cost many times over. See Figure 5-6. An important tool for evaluating and comparing the overall efficiencies of water heating equipment is available from the Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association (GAMA). GAMAs Consumers Directory of Certified Efficiency Ratings For Heating and Water Heating Equipment publishes an Energy Factor rating that allows comparison of tested efficiency for participating manufactures. The Energy Factor provides a measure of a water heaters overall efficiency, based on the recovery efficiency, standby loss, and energy input. GAMA October, 2003 Energy Factor ratings for commercial water heating equipment:

Gas Water Heaters Oil Water Heaters Electric Water Heaters

are available thru the following link. To view these tables, please click on the file below: Commercial Heaters - GAMA.pdf If you have a hard copy of this guide, please refer to the blue pages at the end of the section. Examples of high-efficiency water heaters are given in Figure 5-6. Recent advancements in water heater technology have lead to significantly improved efficiencies. Features to consider when evaluating fossil fueled hi-efficiency water heating equipment include:

Hi-efficiency atmospheric burners Advancements in burner design technology have improved combustion efficiency in conventional storage water heaters. Forced combustion (Power burner) Forced combustion or power burners are used to attain greater input capacity and efficiency. A blower or fan maintains positive pressure and promotes turbulent flow thru the combustion chamber and flue. This improves mixing of air and fuel, improves combustion efficiency, and enhances heat transfer to water in flue passages.

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Hi-efficiency natural Gas-fired boiler (Weil-McLain)

Hi-efficiency Oil water heater (Bock Water Heater)

Hi-efficiency storage tank natural gas or propane water heater (Bradford White)

(Weil-McLain) Figure 5-6 High efficiency water heaters.

Complete condensing conventional burner design does not allow flue gases to drop below 212 F when moisture in combustion products condenses to liquid form. Complete condensing systems continue to extract heat below this temperature and transfer to water. A forced combustion burner is required to ensure adequate exhaust flow and a drain for condensate must be provided. Plastic pipe may be used for venting since fuel gases are so cool. Pulse combustion Pulse combustion technology uses a power burner with a specially designed resonant combustion chamber and intermittent spark ignition of fuel air mixture. Combustion takes place in rapid pulses instead of a continuous flame and resonant pressure waves in the combustion chamber promote exhaust gas scavenging, heat transfer and increase efficiency. Complete condensing of exhaust gas products occurs and can be vented with plastic pipe.
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Pilotless ignition - The pilot is lit by an electronic spark on a signal from the thermostat, instead of burning continuously. The pilot lights the main burner and is extinguished at the end of the heating cycle. Vent damper An automatic vent damper minimizes standby losses thru the water heater when combustion is not taking place.

Heat Pump Water Heaters A heat pump water heater (HPWH) uses a reverse application of the standard vapor compression refrigeration cycle. An electrically driven refrigeration compressor is used to remove heat energy from a lower temperature source (usually ambient air) via the evaporator and transfers the heat to a higher temperature heat sink (water in a storage tank) via the condenser. Greater efficiency than resistance electric water heating is achieved because HPWHs are able to move more energy than they consume by taking advantage of the large amount of heat absorbed and released when the refrigerant evaporates and condenses, respectively. The efficiency of a heat pump water heater can be given in terms of Coefficient of Performance (COP), the ratio of energy output [Btu/hr] to energy input [Btu/hr]. EER [energy efficiency ratio] is a current means of expressing efficiency. EER is the ratio of the cooling or heating output and the watt input to the motor [Btu/hr, W]. The EER is going to depend on the operating conditions. The temperature of the heat source [air], higher air temperatures give higher efficiency and the temperature of the heated water, higher water temperature give lower efficiency. HPWH will not heat water to the temperatures needed for CIP washing. The milk cooling system with heat recovery could be considered a HPWH where the milk is the heat source and the water is the heat sink. The first priority for such a heat pump is to cool milk while a HPWH is to heat water. A supplemental benefit of an air source HPWH is the cooling and dehumidification of the heat source air. Heat pump water heaters can be three to five times more efficient than resistive electric water heaters, but do suffer from the following drawbacks:

High initial equipment expense, Modest recovery rates, Greater mechanical complexity and associated maintenance costs, Require appropriate environment to extract heat from, Will not heat water to CIP wash temperatures and Are not applicable where a heat recovery is installed.

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(Calmac Coil HPWH)

Figure 5-7. Diagram and picture of a heat pump water heater

Alternative Sources Of Water Heating

Gas fired absorption heat pumps Solar water heating Combined Heat and Power options

Wash System Analysis Wash Cycle (CIP) Tuning for energy efficiency Washing Basics of Milking Systems The network of equipment used to extract, collect, and transfer milk from the cows to the storage tank requires thorough cleaning between uses. A considerable amount of energy is used to clean and sanitize the milking system. Optimizing the wash cycle can improve effectiveness and reduce energy use by the cleaning process. Washing must be performed without disassembling the equipment (clean in place or CIP). Cleaning is performed through a combination of chemical and mechanical action. Chemical action is achieved through the use of detergents, acids, sanitizing agents, and the proper water temperature. Mechanical action is provided by passing the cleaning solution through the equipment at an appropriate velocity to create adequate sheer stresses on the sides of the equipment. All surfaces must be subjected to both chemical and mechanical action of sufficient duration to ensure adequate cleaning. The milk pipeline is washed by drawing a solution of water and cleaning agents from the wash sink or vat into the pipe. See Figure 5-8. This is followed by admission of a specific volume of air by the air injector to create a slug of cleaning solution. Flooding each unit with cleaning solution and allowing water to be drawn though them typically clean individual milking units. Air bleeds cause small slugs to form thereby increasing the velocity and coverage of the wash solution. A key objective is to have uniform flow to all the units.

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Figure 5-8. Wash sink on California dairy

Vacuum Pump Sizing for Washing To assure proper washing, the vacuum pump must be capable of supplying enough vacuum to draw the wash solution through the system. Sizing the vacuum pump for wash is similar to sizing the vacuum pump for milking. The required size for each function should be similar but the pump should be the larger of the two. The vacuum required to wash is the sum of:

Vacuum needed to create slug flow in each simultaneous air injected loop. Amount of vacuum each unit requires to wash (2 cfm per unit). Any extra air admitted by jetter or milk meter air bleeds. Wash jetter air bleeds can add up to 2 cfm per jetter.

The amount of vacuum needed to develop a slug flow of different velocities in different size milk lines is shown in Table 5-2. This amount of air does not change regardless of line length. Table 5-2. Air injection rate for slug flow Slug Speed ft/sec 23 25 27 29 31 33
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Air injection rate (scfm) for various milk line sizes 2.5 inch 3 inch 4 inch 20 28 49 24 33 55 29 39 65 34 46 76 39 54 88 46 63 102
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Example of vacuum pump sizing for washing:

Consider a double 27 parlor with 2 loops of 4 inch milk line milk lines are air injected simultaneously slug velocity will be 25 fpm.

The vacuum pump capacity required is calculated as follows: 2 loops X 55 cfm per loop (from Table 5-2) Plus 54 units X 2 cfm per unit Total vacuum pump capacity = 110 cfm = 108 cfm = 218 cfm

A 25 hp vacuum pump would be required to wash this parlor because both milk lines are air injected at the same time. Sequencing the air injection so that only one line is injected at a time would reduce the vacuum requirements as follows: 1 loop X 55 cfm per loop (from Table 5-2) Plus 54 units X 2 cfm per unit Total vacuum pump capacity = 55 cfm = 108 cfm = 163 cfm

The required vacuum is reduced by 55 cfm and the vacuum pump downsized to 20 hp. The 5 hp reduction of vacuum pump capacity lowers initial cost of pump and motor. The largest savings is reduced energy costs, by not operating 5 hp of motor load for the milking parlors lifetime. A 20 hp vacuum pump producing 200 cfm will meet the effective reserve requirement for milking for this parlor: 35 cfm base + 3 cfm per unit X 54 units = 197 cfm (return to top of section: Washing & Water Systems)

Vacuum Level Required for Washing

Vacuum systems are quite commonly set at higher vacuum levels during wash than for milking. The perception is that higher vacuum levels will wash the system better. This may be true in isolated instances but higher vacuum levels are not a sound corrective measure for wash system problems. When the wash system has been properly tuned cleaning will be thorough and complete, even with vacuum levels as low as 9 inches of mercury. Reduced vacuum levels during washing creates a number of advantages including: Increased milk pump capacity. Increased vacuum pump capacity.
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The increase in capacity is due to reduced head across each milk pump. The load on each pump is also reduced at reduced vacuum levels. Water drawn from the wash sink during the closed period of air injector cycle will be reduced and the amount of air admission or leakage is also reduced at lower vacuum. Individual restrictors at each unit need to be larger at reduced vacuum. Larger restrictors reduce the likelihood that they will become plugged with debris. Air Injected, Slug Flow Cleaning of Milking Systems Research has been performed at the University of Wisconsin - Madison to identify optimal characteristics of slug formation. These findings indicate a slug of cleaning solution to be approximately 10 feet in length and travel at a speed of between 23 and 33 feet per second. At the instant the slug completes a trip through the pipeline and reaches the receiver, the air injector closes to initiate the formation of the next slug. The slug must travel the entire loop of pipeline before the air injector is closed or the slug will decelerate and break apart. Each separate loop of pipeline should have an air injector so that slug formation and acceleration are controlled independently in each loop. Multiple air injectors should be sequenced such that only one air injector is open at one time to reduce vacuum demand. Slug action should be checked with a multiple channel vacuum recorder.

Figure 5-9. Air Injectors A sample vacuum trace of slug action in a pipeline is shown in Figure 5-10. Each channel represents a measurement point along the pipeline. To find the slug velocity between two measurement point represented by channels 0 [red] and 1 [green] divide the distance between the measurement points by the time denoted by a in the Figure. The time is approximately 1 second. The time denoted by a starts when the channel 0 experiences a vacuum drop and ends when the channel 1 experiences a vacuum drop. If the distance between the location of channels 0 and 1 is 30 feet,

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V AC UUM LE VE L vs T IM E
16

S lug m ea surem e nts

Vacuum Level, inches Hg

14 12

Ch 0
10 8 6 4 2

a a

Ch 1 Ch 2 S ystem vac

b
6 7 8

b Tim e, sec o nd s

b
9 10

Figure 5-10. Vacuum measurements of slug travel then the slug is traveling at an acceptable velocity of 30 feet per second (fps). The velocity between points 1 and 2 would be computed in like manner. The time interval denoted by b represents the time it takes for the slug to pass by the transducer. The time interval, b starts when a channel experiences a vacuum drop and ends when the vacuum has reached the lowest point. By multiplying the average velocity obtained above, by this time an estimate of the slug length is attained. If the length of time interval b is 0.33 seconds, then the estimated slug length will be 30 fps multiplied by 0.33 seconds, or 10 ft. One important point should be made about interpreting slug flow vacuum traces. When equal vacuum levels are measured at two different points at the same time, there is a direct air passage between those points. At around 8.5 seconds Ch 0 and Ch 1 approach the same vacuum. This is because the slug has passed Ch 1 and there is now no slug between Ch 0 and Ch 1. Figure 5-11 shows a slug flow vacuum trace from a farm. Observe in Figure 5-11 that around 39 - 41 seconds the vacuum level at channels 0 and 1 are the same as the system vacuum. This denotes that there is no slug present and a direct air passage exists between the two channels. This indicates that either the slug that has passed channels 0 and 1 has broken apart or there is a short circuit of air through the milk/wash valve behind the slug. Corrective steps include checking the milk/wash valve or increasing the amount of water in the slug.

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VACUUM LEVEL vs TIME

Thompson Farm Wash Cycle 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 25 27 29 31 33 35 Time, seconds 37 39 41 43 45 ch 0 ch 1 ch 2 ch 3 system vac

Figure 5-11. Farm Slug Measurement

ECM Tuning of Wash Cycle Energy conservation measures for the wash cycle involve tuning the operation of the cycle for optimum performance. The following can summarize optimum performance for a CIP system:

Vacuum Level, inches Hg

Adjustment of air injector close time to form a slug approximately 10 feet long. Maintaining slug velocity throughout the milk line between 23 and 33 fps. By admitting a sufficient rate of air to keep the slug moving and cohesive, but not excessive amounts of air to blast right through the slug. Ensuring the slug travels the entire length of the milk line, and the air injector closes before the slug has fully entered receiver thereby minimizing direct air admission from air injector to receiver. Utilizing 0.8 to 1.0 gallons per minute to each milking unit.

Operating with the parameters above will then minimize water use and vacuum pump energy use. There are several control points involved with tuning the mechanical action of a CIP cycle and each control point exerts a different effect on the system. Table 5-3 details those control points and the corresponding effect.

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Table 5-3. CIP Control Points Control Point

Air injector open time Air admission rate Air injector close time Water flow restrictor on wash line Water flow restrictors at units Water Volume Wash vacuum level

Effect
Slug travel distance Slug velocity Water draw per slug and initial slug size Slows water intake to allow milk pump to keep up Even water flow distribution to each unit Prevent draining of sink and unintended air admission Air admission rate, water draw rate, milk and vacuum pump capacity

Tuning Guidelines: 1. Sketch and measure the system 2. Eliminate dual loops on single air injector controls. Each separate loop should have an independently controlled air injector to prevent more than one air injector from opening at the same time. 3. Set air injector open time to set travel distance 4. Set air injector admission rate to set slug speed 5. Select unit restrictors to give even flow to each milker unit between 0.8 and 1.0 gpm. Do not restrict manifold line, as this will make it very difficult to balance flow. 6. Select a combination of air injector closed time and proper size water draw restrictor on air injected wash draw line to achieve 10 foot slugs without exceeding milk pump capacity to evacuate water from receiver. 7. Set wash sink level high enough to prevent sink running empty and unintended air admission at the sink. 8. Fine tune the system using vacuum analysis to evaluate Sketching and measuring the system is a very good place to start. In addition to determining how far the slug must travel, the size and layout of the system will be needed to determine how much water is needed to properly wash. Tuning of Air Injector The existence of any dual loops controlled by the same air injector will also be found during the sketch and measure phase. Each separate loop in the system must be sequenced such that no two air injectors are open at the same time. This causes a much lower peak vacuum demand and a smaller vacuum pump can be employed for washing. The sketch will reveal how far the slug must travel. Then the air injector open time can be set, so the slug will travel that distance at 23 to 33 fps. Set the air injector air admission rate so that enough air is introduced behind the slug to continue travel at the appropriate speed between 23 and 33 feet per second. Air injection admission of approximately 35 cfm is ideal for a 3-inch milk line. Higher velocities are not advantageous when dealing with
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wash slugs. Slug stability suffers at higher velocities and performance of the slug becomes erratic throughout the milk line. Cleaning performance declines substantially at slug velocities higher than 33 feet per second. Excessive air admission will blast right through the slug, reduces washing effectiveness and forcing the vacuum pump to move excessive amounts of air through the system. This extra air may cool pipeline surfaces, allowing suspended particles to be redeposit. Milking Unit Washing Individual milking units should be flow measured using a water trap to determine the actual amount of wash water passing through each unit. Between 0.8 and 1.0 gallons per minute is required for every unit. Restrictors should be used to regulate and balance water flow at each unit. There should be no restriction at the wash sink end of the wash manifold line. Restricting the wash manifold at the sink reduces the capability of the wash manifold line to deliver the required 0.8 to 1.0 gpm to each unit. Air injecting the wash manifold can result in increased velocity in the units but is usually not required. Care should be taken if air injecting the wash manifold. Timing of wash manifold air injection is different than air injection for the milk line. Wash manifold air injection can cause milk line slugging problems if the timing of the air injection is not correct Air injection on the wash manifold should move the water from the wash line, through the manifold or jetters, through the milking units, and then into the milk line. Once the wash water has passed into the milk line, the manifold air injector should close. The milk line air injector should then open to push the slug around the milk line. In addition to requiring less vacuum capacity, sequencing the manifold and milk line air injector to not open at the same time prevents disruption of slug travel. Other Considerations The capacity of the milk pump to remove water from the receiver acts as a limit on how quickly slugs can be formed. It is necessary to select the correct combination of air injector closed time, restrictor size on the main draw line, and wash vacuum level such that slugs are the appropriate size and sequenced far enough apart that the receiver does not flood and trap over. Increasing the air injector closed time increases the size of the slug and increases the total flow of water into the receiver. Decreasing the water draw restrictor size causes each water draw period to draw less water, causing smaller slugs and lower total flow of water to the receiver. Reducing the vacuum level both reduces the amount of water drawn in during each injection cycle, and increases the milk pump capacity to evacuate the receiver. The wash sink level should not be depleted during the course of a wash cycle. Depleting the water level in the wash sink causes the wash line to draw air in an uncontrolled fashion. When this happens air injector control of slug formation is lost. The level of water in the sink needs to be adjusted so that wash lines do not draw air.

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Vacuum Analysis At this point the wash system will function and perform adequately. Vacuum analysis and keen observation are needed when fine-tuning the air injection to optimize system performance. If the air injector is open too long, too much air passes directly into the receiver. This extra air causes higher vacuum demand and higher energy use for variable speed vacuum systems. As well as rapid temperature drops of the wash water. This temperature drop is particularly pronounced in cool or very dry climates. This extra air can also cause significant water carry over into the trap. Figure 5-12 shows a CIP vacuum trace with the air injector open too long. The air injector and vacuum pump speed signals were fed into the data acquisition system and plotted on the graph. Notice that the air injector is opened for about 3.5 seconds. By the time the air injector closes, the system vacuum has dropped sharply nearly a second earlier. The vacuum pump speed rose sharply as well, indicating air passing directly into the receiver. Figure 5-13 shows the same system with the air injector closed after about 2 seconds open. Notice that the system vacuum does not drop sharply as the slug enters the receiver and the vacuum pump does not experience a sharp rise in speed indicating that excess air has not been admitted into the system.

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VACUUM LEVEL and PUM P SPEED vs T IM E

15 200

180 12 160

Vacuum Level, inches Hg

Pump Speed, %

Drop in system vacuum and pump running at full speed indicates that the air injector is open too long and is passing air directly into the receiver

140 ch 0 120 ch 1 ch 2 ch 3 system vac air injector pump speed 60

100 6 80

40

20 0 22 23 24 25 26 27 Time, seconds 28 29 30 31 32 0

Figure 5-12. Air injector open too long

VACUUM LEVEL and PUM P SPEED vs T IM E

15 200

180 12 160 140 Vacuum Level, inches Hg ch 0 9 120 ch 1 ch 2 100 6 80 ch 3 system vac air inje vac spd

60 3 40 20 0 20 21 22 23 24 25 Time, seconds 26 27 28 29 30 0

Figure 5-13. Air injector closing appropriately (return to top of section: Washing & Water Systems)
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Operator Level Checks Washing & Water Heating

Heat Recovery

Add a small amount of oil to compressor ID leaks from oil stains. Leak detector (TIF or dye method) detect leaks to and from, and in heat recovery unit. If compressor is operating, check for temperature differential between in-flow and out-flow of refrigerant to heat recovery. If access is available to heat recovery water output, check temperature differential between water supply temperature and temperature out of unit. Should have temperatures of at least 90 F (100 -120F after milking, before washing starts.) Electronic sight glass check system refrigerant levels.

Wash cycle

Slug action during the wash cycle can be observed at the receiver. At the end of each air injection cycle, there should be a forceful entry of water into the receiver. The force should be sufficient to splash sheets of water over the lid. The air injector should not remain open after this slug of water begins to enter the receiver. Unit cleaning can be observed by the shaking of the units. Units that do not shake when wash water passes through are not likely to be receiving enough high-speed water flow to clean effectively. The wash sink should not run out of water during the wash cycle. Only wash water should be drawn into the pick up tubes at the sink. Wash water temperature should be checked periodically to ensure that the temperature is correct for each cycle. Prerinse water that is too hot not only uses more energy, but also increases the risk of a cleaning failure. Infrared thermometers do not accurately measure water temperature.

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Water Heating Common Water Heater Conditions and Solutions Table 5-4. Common Water Heater Conditions & Solutions
SYMPTOMS Lime deposits in tank; Scale; Popping sounds. Rust staining; bad taste and odor in water Hydrogen Sulfide Rotten egg odor; Flush tank with Chlorine solution & Install Aluminum anode rods. CONDITIONS SOLUTIONS

Water Hardness Above 7 grains Water treatment; Softener; etc. Iron Deposits Filtration

Electrolysis (Stray Current) or Air Properly ground heater & replace Air from hot water fixtures introduced by water supply anode rods. Check well pump system. Dip Tube Reduction in recovery Inlet / Outlet fitting corrosion Temperature & Pressure gushing water Temperature & Pressure dripping
(Bock Water Heating, Inc.)

Replace, dip tube Install dielectric unions

Galvanic corrosion Dissimilar metals Excessive water temp. - 200 F deg. Excessive pressure (above 150 psi)

Adjust or replace Aquastat & T/P valve Check Incoming supply press.; Closed system requires expansion device.

Reduction of Hot Water Leaks and Waste A leak as small as one quart per hour can waste 2200 gallons of hot water and 1.3 million Btu per year. Identifying and elimination of leaks is can be done with minimal effort, simply repaired at minimal costs and offer real energy savings.

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Reduction of Standby Heat Loss Standby heat loss occurs in storage tanks and piping and can be reduced with: Additional insulation to storage tanks if appropriate Insulation of hot and cold water piping within three to five feet of water heater. Install heat traps on storage tank hot and cold piping connections. Corrosion Protection Corrosion in water heating equipment is inevitable. High water temperatures, dissolved oxygen in water, use of dissimilar metals in plumping, softened water, and poor maintenance increase corrosion problems. Periodic inspection and replacement of anode rods can dramatically extend the life of a water heater. Scale and Sludge Formation When water is heated, calcium carbonate and other minerals are forced out of solution and accumulate as sludge on the tank bottom or scale on tank and piping surfaces. The insulating effects of scale and sludge reduces heat transfer to water, decreases efficiency and capacity. The following method can be used for removal. Tank Flushing Procedure 1. 2. 3. Shut off electrical power to the heater and disconnect the cold water supply. Completely drain the heater and remove the drain valve. Install a 3/4" x 6" nipple with a garden hose adapter into the drain valve spud (opening) and run it to the floor drain, a bucket, or another method of removing water from the work area.

4. Use a straight adjustable spray nozzle (set for wide angle) attached to a garden hose. Insert the nozzle into the cold water inlet spud and wash down the interior sides of the tank. This will remove any particles that have adhered to the sides of the tank. Slowly begin to lower the nozzle into the tank until it reaches the bottom. Repeat this process several times to be sure the interior walls are clean. 5. Close the drain valve, refill the heater, and return it to service.
(From: Bock Water Heating, Inc.)

Periodic Burner Maintenance Fossil fuel combustion burners should be inspected, cleaned, serviced, adjusted and performance tested annually to maintain system efficiency. (return to top of section: Washing & Water Systems)
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Glossary of Washing and Water Heating Terms

Anode Protection A means of protecting a surface from corrosion using a naturally occurring current, derived from an anode of more reactive material to maintain the surface at a negative potential. The anode acts as a sacrificial element to protect the surface. Aquastat A thermostat which senses water temperature. British Thermal Unit (Btu) The amount of heat [energy] required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one (1) degree Fahrenheit, ie from 62 to 63F. Coefficient of Performance (COP) The ratio of total useful work output by a machine to the net energy input. Units must be consistent. Conduction The transmission of heat energy through solids and liquids by interaction of adjacent molecules. Convection The transfer heat by the motion of a liquid or gas. This motion may occur naturally or it may be forced by mechanical means such as pumps or fans. Desuperheater A refrigeration heat reclaim device designed to heat water using heat recovered from a refrigerant stream which is superheated above the saturated vapor temperature. Energy Factor A rating for water heater efficiency defined by U.S.D.O.E. and published in the GAMA Consumers Directory of Certified Water Heater Efficiency Ratings. A measure of a water heaters overall efficiency, based on the recovery efficiency, standby loss, and energy input. Energy Efficiency Ration (EER) The ratio of cooling effect [Btu/hr] to the power input [Watts]. The units are Btu/W-hr. Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association (GAMA) is a national trade association whose members manufacture appliances, components and related products used in connection with space heating, water heating and commercial food service. Hard Water Water that has a high concentration of dissolved minerals. Heat Pump Water Heater (HPWH) A device that uses the vapor compression refrigeration cycle to extract heat form a source and deliver it to the domestic hot water system at a higher temperature. Pressure Relief Valve A safety valve that opens when pressure exceeds a preset level. Recovery Rate The amount of water in gallons per hour that can be heated by a water heater based on a specified temperature rise (usually 80 or 100 F).

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Resistance Heating - A heating process that involves conversion of electricity into heat energy by a resistance element, and the subsequent transfer of that heat into a target object or fluid Scaling The formation of mineral deposits, primarily calcium carbonate, in a water heating system. Scale reduces the efficiency of fossil fuel-fired water heaters by insulating the heat transfer surfaces in the tank. Standby Loss The heat loss from a water heating system that results from maintaining water at a require temperature. Temperature and Pressure Relief Valve - A safety valve that opens when pressure or temperature exceeds preset limits. Thermostat Adjustable temperature actuated switch. (return to top of section: Washing & Water Systems) (return to Table of Contents: Table_of_Contents)

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(return to: Table_of_Contents)

6. Water Systems
Purpose Water Supply Water Usage System Design Intermediate Water Storage Equipment Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs) Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs) Operator Level Checks Glossary

Section Contents:

Purpose - Water Systems

The availability of an adequate water supply is critical to the operation of any dairy farm. Pumping of water constitutes a major end user of energy on California dairy farms. A milking dairy cow may consume 35 to 50 gallons of water per day. Coupled with all the auxiliary uses, total water consumption can exceed 175 gallons per cow per day. Overall water consumption is comprised of the following end uses:

Potable water for direct consumption by dairy animals in all stages of growth and lactation and environmental conditions. Cleaning water for CIP washing of parlor and milking system equipment. Washdown water for cleaning of milking parlor surfaces and general sanitation. Partial cooling (pre-cooling) of milk with well water. Water supply to water-cooled refrigeration equipment. Water supply to water ring vacuum pumps. Wash pen water use to clean cows prior to entering the milking parlor. Evaporative cooling sprays [misting] for the dairy cow to reduce heat stress during hot weather and increase cow comfort. Flush water for manure removal in confinement areas, holding area and milking parlor. Fire protection

(return to top of section: Water Systems)

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Water Supply
Water sources must provide an adequate supply of potable and palatable water to the dairy farm on a continual uninterrupted basis. The competitive pressures for adequate water supplies from agricultural, residential, municipal and industrial water users that currently exist and are projected to increase in the future must be addressed when planning for dairy water needs. As herd sizes continue to grow, and other water uses are expanded, the total gallons of water needed to be pumped continues to increase. Adequate planning for the water system on a modern dairy must incorporate added capacity for future growth. This forecast of future use should be partially reflected in present capacity (cushion of 10-30% excess capacity) and a strategy in place to secure additional supply for expansion of the dairy herd. Water supplies are generally secured from the following sources;

Individual groundwater wells plus backup wells Municipal water supply systems Surface water supplies Rural water supply districts

An important design consideration is the implementation of on farm intermediate water storage. Intermediate water storage extends low volume supplies, provides sufficient water flow during peak water use periods, offers flexibility during instances of water supply restriction or drought and is a source of water for fire protection. An integral step for determining capacity of intermediate water storage is evaluating the total volume (gallons) of water used in a day and the peak flow rate in gallons per minute (gpm) that will be used in a 1 to 5 minute interval during the day. (return to top of section: Water Systems)

Water Usage
Actual water use can vary significantly from dairy to dairy and reflect seasonal changes to water consumption but reasonable engineering estimates are available to calculate daily water requirements. Satisfying drinking water requirements for dairy animals in all stages of growth and lactation is the primary component of water supply. Milking cows will consume 4.5 5 pounds of water per pound of milk produced. Adequate water supply must be maintained to all lactating animals or production will suffer. A cow producing 100 pounds of milk per day could consume 50 gallons of water depending upon moisture levels in feed consumed. Having water meter to monitor water consumed by the milking herd is a recommended practice. The following table provides information to estimate daily water use for a dairy herd.
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Table 6-1, Water Requirements, MWPS-7 Water Consumption Animals

Calves (1 to 1.5 gal per 100 lb) Heifers Dry cows Milking cows Sprinkler systems

Gal/head -day
6-10 10-15 20-30 35-50 10-20

*During periods of heat stress (hot weather) drink water intake can easily reach twice the highest amount in each size category *Cows drinking from a water trough may consume at the rate of 6 to 7 gpm.
(Source: Private Water Systems Handbook, Midwest Plan Service, Iowa State University)

Wash pens are one of the next larger consumers of water on open-lot dairies. Water use can range from 18-30 gallons per cow per wash. Most wash pens utilize a three-stage cycle to clean cows for milking. First a soak cycle of one minute is used to wet the udder and loosen debris from the cow. This is followed by a stand time for two minutes to allow material to soften, loosen and drain. The third cycle is a three-minute wash stage where water is applied and any remaining matter is rinsed away. All discarded wash pen water is reused as flush water for the removal of waste in animal confinement and holding areas.

Figure 6-1. Wash pen on California dairy The cyclical nature of wash pen usage contributes to the large peak flow requirements imposed on the water supply system. Estimates of usage, peak flow, and booster pump sizing can be made from Table 6-2.

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Table 6-2. Estimates of usage, peak flow, and booster pump sizing Wash pen Capacity
50-86 cows 86-118 cows 118-161 cows 161-214 cows

# of Wash heads
24-40 40-55 55-75 75-100

GPM Required
125-200 200-275 275-375 375-500

Booster Pump Size

7.5 H.P 10 H.P. 15 H.P. 20 H.P

*Based on 30 sq. ft. spacing of wash heads and 14 sq. ft. of wash pen space per cow. An example of estimating total daily water requirements (gallons) and flow rate (gpm) is provided in Table 6-3 below. Table 6-3. Estimate of daily water requirements and demand for dairy farm Average Flow rate* GPM
30 5 6 10 3 5 17 76 GPM 95

Number
Drinking Water 800 200 500 Lactating cows Dry Cows Calves / Heifers Milking Parlor Plate Cooler** Wash Water Parlor Flush water Cooling sprinkler systems Total Future Capacity Total * based on 20 hours pumping ** based on 80 # milk/cow-day

Average Daily Usage

(gal / day) 45 30 15 1.5 lb. water per lb milk 5 7.5 20 122.5 (gal / day) 153.1

Total Daily Use

(gallons) 36,000 6,000 7,500 11,511 4,000 6,000 20,000 91,011 (gallons) 113,763

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Figure 6-2. Parlor flush cleaning (return to top of section: Water Systems)

System Design
Piping System The water supply distribution system links the water supply source to the water consuming end use. Primary factors affecting design of the water distribution system are based on volume of water required and the peak flow rate that must be delivered thru the system. Other factors that must also be evaluated are frictional losses that occur due to overall pipe length and size, number, type and size of fittings and valves used and head losses due to differences in elevation. There are three basic components in the water supply distribution system. These include the following:

Main line (or water main) that carries water from the supply source thru any intermediate storage and into the dairy complex. Ample capacity for growth within the dairy complex should be anticipated in sizing the main line. Distribution lines transfer water from the main line to a specific building (parlor, freestall, wash pen, etc) where the water will be utilized. Distribution lines need to be sized to include capacity for anticipated additions to water use in that building or area. Consideration should also be given to include some capacity for unforeseen future water uses. Branch line brings water from the distribution line to the final end use (waterers, wash heads, flush tanks, CIP functions, cow cooling sprinkler systems). Branch lines are generally adequately designed because they are sized to handle a defined
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end use. Problems can occur when a branch line is converted into a distribution line if new end uses are added. Pressure loss considerations:
Limit pressure losses in main line to less than 1 psi per 100 feet of pipe.

Select pipe diameter from Table 6-5 to provide maximum water velocity in main and distribution lines to 4 fps to prevent water hammer. Limit pressure losses in branch lines to less than 5 psi Limit maximum water velocity in branch lines to 5 fps.

Table 6-4. Frictional losses from pipe fittings and valves Fitting Type
90 long sweep elbow 90 standard elbow 45 elbow Gate valve, wide open Gate valve, half open Flow meter

Pressure loss (psi)

0.05 0.8 0.03 0.02 0.41 0.14

Equivalent pipe length (ft)

14 20 8 5 130 32

(Source: Martin, J.G., Water System Design Considerations for Modern Dairies, Western Dairy Management Conference, 2001)

Table 6-5. Recommended maximum flow rate through pipe using different flow velocity. Water hammering may occur at velocities greater than 5 fps [feet per second] and require special fittings Nominal Pipe Diameter (inches)
0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 6 8 10 12 16 24

Flow through Pipe (gal per min) Flow Velocity

4 fps 2 6 10 15 20 40 60 90 160 350 630 980 1,400 2,500 5,600 5 fps 3 7 12 20 30 50 80 110 200 440 780 1,200 1,800 3,100 7,000 7.5 fps 5 10 20 30 40 70 120 160 300 660 1,200 1,800 2,600 4,700 10,500

(Source: Martin, J.G., Water System Design Considerations for Modern Dairies, Western Dairy Management Conference, 2001)
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Pump Sizing and Selection Selecting the suitable centrifugal pump can be challenging because of pump performance varies depending on pressure (head). Each pump has it own set of pumping curves and the challenge is to select the pump that will operate efficiently under normal flow rates. The complexity associated with pump selection often results in a pump that is improperly sized for its application. Consequently, using a knowledgeable experienced dealer / installer is essential for selection of an efficient system. Choosing a pump that is either too large or small will reduce system performance. Too small a pump will not produce adequate flow, so pumps usually end up being oversized. Over sizing however, increase initial costs and higher energy costs because the pump is operating at a lower efficiency. One way to address over sizing pumps to meet future flows is to select a pump that can accommodate larger impellers when system capacity increases. The two fundamental factors for pump selection are total dynamic head (TDH) and desired flow rate. The capacity or flow rate (gpm) for the pump is developed from the anticipated amount of water used on a daily basis as developed in Table 6-3. Two pump systems are shown in Figures 6-3 and 6-4.

Figure 6-3. Two primary water supply

Figure 6-4. Typical well water supply pump pumps on California dairy

The THD is derived as the sum of the head pressures as follows:

Vertical lift / elevation The vertical distance (ft) between the pitless adapter and pressure tank Service pressure The average pressure maintained in the distribution system to deliver water to the point of use. (E.g. 50 psi would be equal to115.5 ft of head) Pumping level The vertical distance in feet from the well seal or pitless adapter to the water draw-down level in the well that yields the flow rate required by the pump. Friction loss Loss of head in feet due to resistance to water flow. This is based on the type, length and diameter of pipe use and the number, size and type of fittings.

Once the TDH has been calculated and the water system flow rate is determined from the worksheets above, a pump can be selected. Select an appropriate pump by matching the
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values obtained for TDH and desired flow rate as a best fit to the pump curves for various pumps. See Figure 6-5.

Figure 6-5. Pump curves

(Source: A.Y. McDonald Mfg. Co, Pump Basics, 4/98)

The previous chart shows the pump curves for five different small centrifugal submersible pumps. To illustrate the effect of THD on pump sizing and energy consumption, consider the following example.

The 1 horsepower pump will deliver a capacity of 20 gpm at a TDH of 160 feet. It will require a 5 horsepower pump to deliver the same 20 gpm at a TDH of 500 feet.

Increasing the TDH the pump must work against by slightly over 3 times, the power consumption increases fivefold. Maximum efficiency of the water pumping system is achieved thru proper selection of all subcomponents and adequate system maintenance. Items to consider for an efficient water delivery system include:

High efficiency motors. Selection of appropriate type and size of pump. Adequate storage to satisfy peak water demands. Adequate sizing of piping distribution system to reduce pressure losses. Timely maintenance to reduce leaks and other losses.

(return to top of section: Water Systems)

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Intermediate Water Storage

The use of a non-pressurized intermediate water storage reservoir provides many advantages in the dairy water system:

Supply ample water storage capacity at a low cost to meet daily water volume needs and peak flow rates. Allow supply from multiple water sources. Can serve as source for pressurized and non-pressurized uses. Provide reception point for emergency water supply. Water source for fire protection.

Figure 6-6. Intermediate water storage reservoir on California dairy

Figure 6-7. Pressure tank on California dairy

(return to top of section: Water Systems)

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Equipment - Common Pump Types

Horizontal Centrifugal Pumps Horizontal centrifugal pumps are frequently used when water supply permits the vacuum at the pump to lift water into the impeller and keep it flowing. Maximum vertical suction lift is limited to 15 feet. Common water sources for horizontal centrifugal pumps are surface supplies such as an irrigation canal or pond, stream, lake, a shallow well or intermediate surface storage. As the name implies the pump utilizes a rotating impeller within a casing that uses centrifugal force to move water from the center of the impeller and discharge the water into the piping system Axial Flow Propeller Pumps Axial flow propeller pumps are designed for pumping at low head and high volume (more than 500 gpm) typical to many irrigation or drainage applications. The pump consists of a revolving propeller contained in a bowl with guide vanes above and below the propeller. Their efficiency is high when pumping against heads of 20 ft. or less. The propeller of an axial flow pump must be completely submerged in water to operate. Deep Well Vertical Turbine Pumps Vertical turbine pumps are a form of centrifugal pump installed vertically in a well. They consist of four major components:

Bowl assembly with one or more impellers each contained in their own housing. Column and shaft assembly, which consists of the pipe to carry water to the surface with the bowl assembly, suspended at the end and a shaft centered inside to power the impellers. Discharge assembly provides a base for the column, shaft, and bowl assemblies to be suspended from, a connection point to deliver discharge water and a stand to mount the pump driver. The driver can be either an electric motor or fossil fuel engine that supplies power thru the line shaft to the impeller(s) in the bowl assembly at the bottom of the column.

To supply increased amounts of pumping head several impellers on a common shaft are stacked in series so that the discharge from the first passes to the next impeller. The total head delivered is the sum of head developed by each stage. Submersible Pumps The submersible pump consists of a multistage vertical turbine bowl connected directly to the electric drive motor. The complete assembly is suspended below the water line by a pipe that carries water to the surface. Surrounding water cools the pump motor. (return to top of section: Water Systems)
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Water Systems Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs)

Delivery of a continuous ample supply of potable water to the dairy is a vital component in the production of milk. Energy used in this function focuses solely on operation of pumping equipment. Careful design, selection and operation of water systems play an important role in determining their overall energy efficiency. The electrical energy consumed on California dairies to supply water is driven by a number of factors that include:

Total daily water volumes needed. Distribution system pressures required. Proper design, sizing & selection of water system components.

The development of a water systems energy utilization index (EUI) provides a benchmark for the efficient delivery of this essential commodity. Typical annual kWh consumption per cow-year on California dairies ranges from 35 to 75 kWh per cow-year. Water conservation measures are key to managing this energy usage. Conservation, reuse, and sound water management practices reduce total water demands and electrical costs. (return to top of section: Water Systems)

Water Systems Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs)

To help identify potential energy savings in a farmstead water supply system consider the following questions:

Is the pump or system absolutely necessary or do alternatives exist? Is the pump properly sized or has the system been over designed with too much excess capacity for potential future use? Was an efficient pump, motor and control system selected? Do the head pressures used for design agree with actual pressures utilized? Can a variable speed drive (VSD) or improved control package be used to better match actual system requirements

Pump Selection The process of selecting the appropriate pump for a particular application is crucial in determining the overall efficiency of the water delivery system. There are a large number of variables that must be addressed when configuring the best pumping equipment to meet the dairies need. These variables may include:

flow rates and pressures well depth and vertical lift requirements
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frictional losses environmental factors operating and duty cycles and numerous others

The effectiveness of the final selection process depends on complete communication of all needed parameters between the end user and equipment supplier. Equally important is the careful choice of an experienced, knowledgeable, and reputable pumping equipment supplier who can integrate all design parameters and configure the optimum pumping solution.

Motor Selection In selecting a pump, there are two components to consider: the pump and the motor. In some applications, the pump and the motor are sold as a package. Often, however, the buyer can select one of several motors to be installed with a pump. Long-term energy savings can be locked in for the life of the equipment by selecting the most efficient motor available. Equally important is choosing the correct size of motor. Motors that are not large enough may have to operate above their rated load, forcing them to run at elevated temperatures, which shortens their operating lives. Motors that are much larger than required not only cost more, but also suffer efficiency loss when the operating load falls beneath about onehalf of the motors rated load. For further discussion of electric motors, see Table 8-4, Energy Efficient Motors, in the General Information Section. Pump Modification In-service pumps that are oversized and generating too much pressure may be good candidates for impeller replacement or trimming. Reducing impeller diameter by machining decreases the speed of the fluid in order to reduce the energy added [pressure] to the system.

Variable Speed Drive Pump Application Variable speed drive provides one of the best available options to improve pumping efficiency. Variable speed drives can be effective with the following situations:

To control varying flow conditions. VSDs can provide constant control for pressure, flow or fit to pump curve. As a suitable retrofit on oversized pumps to reduce speed and energy use. For providing water system pressure from an intermediate water storage.

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Although the primary benefit of a VSD is energy reduction they are also able to:

Reduce need for other pump control equipment. Eliminate bypass, throttle, and other types of valves. Provide soft start & stop, which allows a reduction in starting loads and stresses to both pump and motor, increasing wear life. Reduce incidence of water hammer.

Figure 6-8. Variable Speed Drive Pump (Gould) Water Conservation Measures Utilize water-conserving wash heads in wash pens. A new innovative design of wash head can significantly reduce water consumption for cow cleaning compared to conventional dome covered irrigation style sprinkler heads. These water-conserving wash heads offer the following benefits:

Reduced water consumption of up to 2 gallons per minute. Improved nozzle design and rotational spray pattern can reduce cleaning time by 20-50%. Gentle fan spray of large droplets less stressful to cows and dont require guards that can cause injuries to cows legs and udders.

Figure 6-8. Wash head (Cow Washer) (return to top of section: Water Systems)
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Operator Level Checks Water Systems

Water systems serving livestock can be designed to survive the abuse and daily wear animals impose. A few preventative maintenance measures can eliminate many of these situations:
1. Water source maintenance is very important. Public water sources are monitored

and provide minimal maintenance if they are available. The dairys cooperative or milk handler may be able to provide testing and information regarding water quality requirements. 2. Well Inspection - Inspect your wellhead several times a year. Check the condition of the well covering, casing and well cap to make sure all are in good repair, leaving no cracks or other entry points for potential pollutants. 3. An annual bacterial and water chemistry test is recommended to verify water quality. Furthermore, water quality should be checked anytime there is a change in taste, odor or appearance, or if the water supply system or well is serviced. 4. Have the well system, including the pump, storage tank, pipes and valves, and water flow, inspected every 3-5 years by a qualified well driller or pump installer. 5. Inspect valves, controls, fittings, pumps, storage and pressure tanks for leaks or plugging. 6. Re-evaluate total dairy water needs annually. Review existing storage tank and proper sizing of water distribution lines. (return to top of section: Water Systems)

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Glossary of Water Systems Terms

Backflow: The flow of water or other liquids, mixtures, or substances into the distribution pipes for a potable water supply from any source other than its intended source. Cross connection: non-potable supply. Any physical connection between a potable water supply and a

Elevation Head: The elevation head (vertical) is always measured relative to some other elevation, such as sea level. In pumping systems, elevation head generally refers to the difference between the pump elevation and discharge or suction elevation. Flow Rate: The volumetric flow rate (gallons per minute, GPM) at which a liquid is moved. Non-Potable Water: Water that is not safe for human consumption, that is of questionable potabilty for farm use. [see potable water below] Negative Pressure: A vacuum or reduced pressure [in Hg].

Plumbing System: Includes the water supply and distribution pipes, plumbing fixtures, and traps, soil, waste and vent pipes, building drains and sewers. Potable Water: For a dairy farm water supply to be in compliance with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), US Public Health Service (USPHS) Grad A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO), the following conditions must be satisfied at point of use: 1. Bacteriologically, it must be safe and practically free of any type of bacterial contamination that may affect milk quality, 2. The chemical and physical quality of the water must be within the limits acceptable to health authorities and regulatory agencies and 3. There should be no impurities present in the water supply that might create problems in cleaning milking center equipment, corrosion in the pipeline, or undesirable milk flavor. [Source:DPC Guideline #30] Pressure: In this section, pressure refers to gauge pressure, the measure of force per unit of area (pounds per square inch, psi) relative to ambient pressure.

QH 100 where = efficiency (percent), Q = water flow in 5.31 W gal/min, H = total head (ft) and W is input Watts to motor.
Pumping Efficiency:

Total Dynamic Head: Energy per unit of weight. Hydraulic head is composed of three elements velocity, pressure, and elevation (return to top of section: Water Systems) (return to Table of Contents: Table_of_Contents)
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(return to: Table_of_Contents)

7. Compressed Air

Section Contents:

Purpose and Design Factors Equipment Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs) Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs) Operator Level Checks Glossary

Purpose & Design Factors Compressed Air

The use of compressed air in the milking center is a relatively recent addition to the array of equipment employed to harvest milk. Compressed air is able to provide the pneumatic force to operate a variety of devices that have been developed to further automate milk harvest. Its primary advantages are the ability to deliver controlled force to assist animal movement without injury and elimination of potential sources of electric shock in a wet environment. Examples of equipment that is currently utilized on California dairy farms that use compressed air as an energy source include:

Holding area crowd gates. Parlor stall entry and exit gates. Parlor stall rapid exit reels and other gang exit systems. Control indexing and positioning brisket rails in parlor stalls. Operate dairy cattle sorting gates Operate milker claw detacher systems. Operate wash valves in some CIP systems. Operate flush valves for waste removal in parlor and freestall

Electricity provides the power source to produce compressed air that is used to operate airpowered equipment in the milking center. The air compressors utilized are common commercially available systems, employing various types of compressors, storage tanks, air treatment and delivery systems and an extensive range of end-use devices. Maximum system efficiency is derived from careful selection of all air handling components. (return to top of section: Compressed Air)

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Equipment Compressed Air

Air Compressors Reciprocating Compressors Reciprocating compressors utilize a piston, crankshaft and connecting rod to transform rotary power input (from electric motor or engine) to linear motion to compress air. They can be configured in single or multiple cylinders to provide required air flow (cfm) and pressures (psi). Generally classified as single stage (95 psi or less) and two-stage compressors (100-175 psi) depending on operating pressure required. See Figure 7-1.

Figure 7-1. Reciprocating compressor (Quincy)

Rotary Screw lobe style rotor A rotary compressor uses two intermeshing rotors to compress air. As the rotor turns, their configuration compresses the air trapped between them. This simple process lowers the operating temperatures approximately 50% (as compared to reciprocating designs), increases efficiency and delivers a clean air supply. A rotary compressor uses a coolant to cool its internal components. This allows the compressor to operate in a fully loaded, continuous duty cycle. See Figure 7-2.

Figure 7-2. Rotary screw lobe style rotor (Kaeser)

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Air driers Compressed Air Treatment An essential part of any compressed air system is the air treatment equipment. Compressed air will contain water vapor, oil, dirt particles and other contaminants. If not removed these contaminants can interrupt operation, damage equipment and controls, and reduce operating life. Depending on the air quality requirements of the end use, a wide array of air treatment options is available. The amount of air treatment needed is driven by the air quality requirement of the end use device. In general contaminant removal is divided into main line and point-of-use air treatment products. Mainline air treatment usually takes place directly after compression and treats all or a major portion of air used. Typical equipment employed includes are discuss below. Air or Water-cooled Aftercooler An air cooled aftercooler is shown in Figure 7-3. These units remove 75% of the water and 70% of the oil.

Figure 7-3. Air or water-cooled aftercooler (Thermal Transfer) Refrigerated Dryer These units use mechanical refrigeration to chill the compressed air to 35 to 50F. The exit air is saturated at this dew point temperature. Up to 96% of water vapor and 40% of oil from compressed air is removed. As the air is heated the relative humidity decreases and a dry air is produced.

Figure 7-4. Refrigerated dryer (Kaeser Compressors, Inc.)

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Regenerative Desiccant Dryer Compressed air flows through beds of desiccant material, which absorbs water vapor. Produces -40F pressure dew point for ultra-dry air (removes up to 99.9% of water). Use of oil removal filter upstream is recommended to prevent contamination of desiccant material. Requires upstream aftercooler to pre-cool incoming air. A unit is shown in Figure 7-5.

Figure 7-5. Regenerative desiccant dryer (Hankison) Three-In-One Dryer The unit shown in Figure 7-6 is a refrigerated dryer that incorporates an aftercooler and reheater. It handles high inlet temperatures without the need for separate aftercooler, condensate separator and drain.

Figure 7-6. Three-in-one dryer (Speedaire) Automatic-Electric Drain Valves The unit shown in Figure 7-7 drains liquid water from air compressor receiver tank, aftercooler, and other air system components.

Figure 7-7. Automatic, Auto-electric drain valve (Wilkerson)

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Point-of-use treatment takes place immediately before the end use and treats only the air used by that device. See Figure 7-8. Options include:

Air Line Filter Removes dirt particles and some liquid from compressed air Oil Removal Filter Reduces oil content of air to very low levels for critical applications. Manual Desiccant Dryer Desiccant material absorbs any remaining water vapor in compressed air. Lubricator Provides proper amount and type of lubricant to operate air tools, motors and other pneumatic equipment requiring lubrication.

Figure 7-8. Point-of-use air treatment options (8a,d Campbell Hausfield; b Speedaire; c - Wilkerson)

Figure 7-9. Compressed air system (Westfalia Surge)

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A typical air handling system of a milking parlor is shown in Figure 7-10.

(Source: Westfalia-Surge LLC September 1999, web site www.westfaliasurge.com)

Figure 7-10. Typical Parlor Air Supply System (return to top of section: Compressed Air)

Compressed Air Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs)

The majority of electrical energy used to provide compressed air on the dairy farm occurs within the milking center, mainly in the milking parlor. The adaptation of compressed air operated equipment to the milking parlor has increased the total level of automation and allowed increased labor efficiency of milk harvest. Electric energy used to produce compressed air on California dairies is controlled by:

Air volumes (cfm) consumed by end use devices. Greatest operating pressure (psi) required by end use device. Proper design, sizing & selection of compressed air system. Pressure losses and leaks within air delivery piping. Efficiency (cfm/watt) of compressor/motor package. Operating schedule of milking parlor equipment.

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General levels for compressed air EUIs will commonly range from 15 to 50 kWh per cowyear on most California dairy farms. EUIs on the lower end of the range may suggest very efficient compressed air systems or low levels of animal handling automation. EUIs on the upper end of range can indicate milking parlor systems using a high level of air-operated equipment, or a poorly maintained leaky compressed air system. (return to top of section: Compressed Air)

Compressed Air Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs)

Motor Selection In selecting an air compressor, there are two components to consider: the air-end and the motor. In some applications, the airend and the motor are sold as a package. Often, however, the buyer can select one of several motors to be installed on the air-end. Longterm energy savings can be locked in for the life of the equipment by selecting the most efficient motor available. Equally important is choosing the correct size of motor. Motors that are not large enough may have to operate above their rated load, forcing them to run at elevated temperatures, which shortens their operating live. Motors that are much larger than required not only cost more, but also suffer efficiency loss when the operating load falls beneath about one-half of the motors rated load. For further discussion of selecting an energy efficient electric motor, see The General Information section, Energy Efficient Motors. Variable Speed Drive - Compressed Air Application Variable speed drive provides one of the newest available control options to reduce energy consumption of compressed air systems. Variable speed drives can be more efficient than conventional stop/start or load/unload control systems when:

Varying flow conditions are present. VSDs can provide constant pressure control, and vary or stop the compressor to match system use. As a suitable retrofit on oversized compressors to reduce speed and energy use.

Although the primary benefit of a VSD is energy reduction they are also able to:

Reduce need for other air compressor control equipment. Provide soft start & stop, which allows a reduction in starting loads and stresses to both compressor and motor, increasing wear life.

High Efficiency Compressors An indicator of relative energy efficiency for an air compressor is the output of air (cubic feet per minute) delivered at a specific pressure per input watt of electrical power to the motor (cfm/watt). This data will vary widely dependent on the following:
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Operating pressure Efficiency of electric motor Efficiency of compressor

These figures are not verified or published by an independent testing lab but derived from manufactures testing. Cfm per watt can provide a guide for comparing compressor performance if they are tested under equivalent conditions. When comparing the cfm/watt delivered by two compressors, the unit with the greater value provides superior energy efficiency. Some manufacturers will express the efficiency of their compressors in terms of horsepower per 100 cubic feet of air produced (Hp/100 cfm). In this instance the compressor with the lower value will be the most energy efficient. Efficient Dryer Applications Compressed air drying applications are tied to the dew point temperature requirements of end use devices. The dew point temperature is simply the temperature at which water vapor contained in the compressed air condenses to liquid form and can cause damage or operating problem in air operated equipment. To prevent liquid water from forming in air lines, the drying equipment selected should be able to produce a dew point below the lowest temperature to which your pneumatic equipment requires. As the need for higher levels of air-drying, energy requirements to achieve those levels also increase. The lower the dew point temperature needed the more expensive the dryer will be to purchase and operate. To evaluate the most cost effective compressed air drying system for your application, consider the following factors:

Determine maximum acceptable dew point temperature necessary to operate your system, and do not exceed this. Select drying equipment to meet dew point requirements. Consider dryer energy operating costs and maintenance costs. Use appropriate filters on driers to maintain efficiency and performance.

The best opportunity for energy reduction in air-drying hinges on the selection of an appropriate level of dew point reduction. A knowledgeable, experienced supplier, familiar with dairy applications, should be retained to assist in selection of this equipment. Outside Air An assessment of the ambient conditions in the utility room where the compressor draws air from should be performed. Air compressors work more efficiently and run cooler when the intake air is clean, cool and dry. Compressors that are located inside equipment utility rooms must compress warm inside air.
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Installing an outside air intake will allow the compressor to use cooler outside air, which is easier to compress. If the intake air comes from a hot, humid and or dusty utility room, consider ducting the intake to the outdoors. This measure will also reduce the noise level in the utility room. Generally a 5-6F reduction in air intake temperature will provide a 1% reduction in energy use. Reduction of System Operating Pressure The level of system operating pressure and energy consumption are directly related. Maintaining system pressures at levels greater than required to operate end use devices only serves to increase energy usage. A rule of thumb for systems operating around 100 psi is that for every 2-psi increase in operating pressure, energy costs will increase 1%. If operating pressure could be dropped 20 psi, a 10% reduction in energy costs will occur. Reducing system-operating pressures will also provide supplemental benefits such as reducing leakage rates, increasing system capacity, and longer life of components and equipment due to reduced stress at lower pressures. The majority of equipment that operates on compressed air requires an article pressure of 80 psi or less. System pressures tend to be operated at higher than the end use requirements due to a number of factors. These include:

The belief that the extra pressure provides a buffer against pressure sags. To compensate for pressure drop in the distribution system and for undersized regulators, hoses and other distribution system restrictions. Comparatively wide control band employed on most air compressors that are operating without adequate control storage capacity in the system.

Pressure drop is the loss of air pressure that occurs as air travels from the compressor, through the distribution and air treatment systems on its way to the actual end use. A properly designed system will have a pressure loss of much less that 10% of the compressors discharge pressure. Utilizing a higher system pressure than required at the end devices creates an artificial demand on the compressed air system. The best way to illustrate this concept is to consider the following. Suppose an air cylinder requires 75 psi to operate a device 1 time per minute with a displacement of 1 cubic foot. Based on these parameters, the cylinder should use 5 cfm of compressed air (1 cubic foot times 5 atmospheres of pressure). Now consider what happens when this cylinder is operated with a supply pressure is 105 psi. The cylinder will still perform adequately, but now the air consumption will be 7 cubic feet per stroke (1 cubic foot displacement times 7 atmospheres of pressure) or 7 cfm to do the same job. This represents an increase in compressed air use of 40 percent, simply because the pressure is higher than required. Undersized regulators, hoses and other distribution system restrictions may cause low working pressure at the end uses, particularly during periods of highest airflow. The wide control band found on most air compressors creates low working pressure during the tank
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pressure drop before the air compressor turns on. The typical solution to low working pressure is to raise the storage tank pressure, resulting in increased air usage, decreased compressor capacity, increased electric consumption and increased thermal and mechanical stresses on the compressed air system. Minimizing pressure drop within a compressed air system is an effective way to counter elevated operating pressures and associated energy costs. Effective measures to minimize pressure drop are as follows:

Have air distribution system properly designed instead of a hodgepodge of components that have grown and been added to over time. Operate and maintain air filters and drying equipment to keep interior of piping system clean and free of corrosion. Select air treatment components (aftercoolers, separators, dryers and filters) that produce the least possible pressure drops. Provide the shortest possible path for air to travel within the distribution system from the compressor to the end use.

When system pressures can be successfully reduced and controlled, adjustment of compressor control set points can be fine tuned to obtain greater efficiency. Through the use of control storage tanks and intermediate controllers or regulators, the pressures maintained in distribution headers can typically be reduced to approximately 85 psi. The storage tank pressure should be set such that the compressor starts before the tank pressure drops to the level of the regulated, distributed air pressure. In addition to reducing air consumption, the lower distributed pressure will reduce fatigue on cylinder and valve seals and reduce the amount of air lost through system leaks. The overall reduction in total airflow thru the system will also improve the effectiveness of air dryers. Improve End Use Device Efficiency Select individual end use components that have lowest cfm requirements to perform a particular function. Carefully evaluate and investigate air motors, cylinders, and other air consuming devices to obtain lowest possible compressed air consumption rates. Utilizing the most efficient end use devices will ensure energy savings for the entire operating life of the compressed air system. (return to top of section: Compressed Air)

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Operator Level Checks Compressed Air

Compressed Air System Leaks The existence of air leaks in a compressed air delivery system can represent a significant source of wasted energy. A very poorly maintained system may likely have a leak rate equal to 20-30% of the total compressed air production capacity. Conversely, a well maintained system with timely leak detection and repair can reduce leakage to much less than 10% of compressor output. Besides wasting input energy, air leaks can also be a factor for inefficient operation of end use devices, increased running time, shortened equipment life, and can lead to greater periods of unscheduled downtime. While leakage can occur in any part of the system, the most prevalent sources are:

Couplings, hoses, tubes, pressure regulators and fittings. Open condensate traps and shut-off valves. Pipe joints, disconnects, and thread sealants Air using equipment left in operation when not needed

There are two common methods that can be used for the detection of leaks. The more sophisticated technique utilizes an ultrasonic acoustic detector. These devices employ directional microphones, and amplifiers, to locate high frequency sounds associated with air leaks. The operator is directed to the leak location with either a visual display or thru earphones. The ultrasonic acoustic detector is fast, accurate and able to detect very small leaks, but relatively expensive to justify on small compressed air systems. The second simpler method is to apply a soapy water solution to suspected leak locations with a brush. Then observe formation of air bubbles to pinpoint leaks. Although this method is cheap and reliable, it can be time consuming when looking for generalized leaks in a system. Since small air leaks are almost impossible to see or recognize before they become so large that they are readily audible, it is important to have a systematic approach to leak detection. Leaks are usually inexpensively and easily repaired, but allowing a leak to persist can be very costly and inefficient as indicated in Figure 7-11. With energy prices at $0.10 per kWh, the energy that could be saved by reducing the cross section area of air holes (leaks) by 1/8 inch could approach $4,000.

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(Source: Compressed Air Challenge Fact Sheet #7, April 1998)

Figure 7-11. Costs of Leaks Per Year Common locations for leaks to be found in a compressed air system: Condensate traps Pipe work Fittings and flanges Flexible hoses Filters Pneumatic cylinder seals Hose connections and controls to tools Instrumentation

Estimating Amount of Leakage The following is fairly straightforward method for estimating the amount of leakage for compressors that use start/stop controls. This method can be performed during parlor down time, when compressed air is not needed.

First ensure that all air operated end-use equipment is turned off and not functioning. Make certain the air compressor itself is on and operating. Release air at a convenient location until the compressor cycles on. Record the average times the compressor is running and stopped.

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The compressor will stop and start as the pressure drops from air escaping through leaks in the system. Total leakage (percentage) can be determined as follows: Leakage (%) = [(T x 100) / (T + t)] Where: T = Ave. time compressor is running (minutes) t = Ave. time compressor is stopped (minutes)

Leakage will represent the percentage of compressor capacity that is lost. Leakage in a well-maintained system should be 10% or less. Poorly maintained systems can have losses as high as 20-30%, and represent excessive waste of air and electricity. The following example illustrates how significant these losses can be. A 20 hp air compressor is found to be running 6 minutes (T) and stopped for 24 minutes during a half hour cycle when no air is being used. Leakage (%) = [(6 x 100) / (6 + 24)] Leakage (%) = 20% This amount of unnecessary air leakage corresponds to an annual kilowatt-hour use of 13,000 kWh and cost of $1,300 just to push air through leaks.

Verify Distributed Pressure Pressure higher than 90 psi uses more air, runs compressor hotter and uses more energy, and exceeds the design operating pressure of most equipment.

Monitor Compressor and Motor Operating Temperature Check temperature of compressor and motor with self-adhesive recording strips. High temperatures can mean a drift upward in system pressure, restricted intake air filter, lubrication problem, or other compressor problem. The intermittent nature of the air compressor means higher temperatures may result from longer run times associated with air leaks or higher air consumption The following check list, Figure 7-12, is a check list that could be useful in maintaining a compressed air system.

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B Ba as siic cM Ma aiin ntte en na an nc ce eC Ch he ec ck klliis stt

Inlet Filter Cartridges. Inspect and clean or replace per manufacturer specifications. Required frequency is often related to operating conditions. Dirty filters increase energy consumption. Drain Traps. Clean out debris and check operation periodically. Compressor Lubricant Level. Inspect daily and topoff or replace per manufacturer specifications. Change lubricant filter per manufacturer specifications. Air Lubricant Separator (Lubricant-injected Rotary Screw Compressors). Change per manufacturer specifications, or when pressure drop exceeds 10 psid, whichever is less. Lubricant Selection. Select compressor and electric motor lubricant per manufacturer specifications. Belt Condition. Check belts for wear and check/adjust tension per manufacturer specifications. Operating Temperature. Verify that operating temperature is per manufacturer specifications. Air Line Filters. Replace particulate and lubricant removal elements when pressure drop exceeds 2 to 3 psid. Inspect all elements at least annually regardless of pressure drop indication. Water Cooling System. For water-cooled systems, check water quality (especially pH and total dissolved solids), flow, and temperature, and clean/replace filters and heat exchangers per manufacturer specifications. System Leaks. Check lines (especially joints), fittings, clamps, valves, hoses, disconnects, regulators, filters, lubricators, gauge connections, and end-use equipment for leaks. System Cleanliness. Check system for compressor and motor lubricant leaks and cleanliness.

Source: Compressed Air Challenge Fact Sheet #5, April 1998)

Figure 7-12. Basic Maintenance Checklist (return to top of section: Compressed Air)

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Glossary of Air Compression Terms

Air Pump (Compressor Head): The part of compressor that compresses the air. Single-stage for applications requiring operating pressures of 95 PSI or less. Two-stage for applications requiring operating pressures of 100-175 PSI. Has two or more cylinders in series. The first cylinder compresses air into the next, which compresses it further and then pumps to the air tank. Air Tank (Receiver): Stores compressed air produced for peak loads or intermittent use. Air Treatment: Removal of contaminants (water vapor, oil, dirt, other particles) contained in air produced by the compressor. Main line air treatment devices that treat all air produced by the compressor between the air tank and end use devices. Point-of-use air treatment apparatus that only treats air used by a single end use device. Automatic Tank Drain Valve: Installed at bottom of air tank; opens briefly during each pumping cycle to release moisture condensed from the air. Duty cycle: The percentage of time in an hour that the compressor should be allowed to run. E.g. If a compressor has a 50/50 duty cycle and is going to run in a 10 minute cycle, it should be run for a combined maximum of 5 minutes ON and 5 minutes OFF. CFM: Cubic feet per minute of air flow at a designated pressure that a compressor can deliver or an end use device consumes to operate. Check valve: Allows air to flow one way only, from pump to tank. When compressor stops, this valve closes, preventing loss of air from tank or damage to pump valves. PSI: Pounds per square inch of pressure that a compressor can deliver or are required by end use devices to operate properly. Relief valve: Vents the tank if excess pressure builds up to prevent damage.

(return to top of section: Compressed Air) (return to Table of Contents: Table_of_Contents)

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(return to: Table_of_Contents)

8. General Information

Energy Efficient Electric Motors Gas-Fired Absorption Heat Pumps Temperature Monitoring Understanding Pump Curves Variable Frequency Drives

Section Contents:

Energy Efficient Electric Motors

Efficiency is an important factor to consider when buying a new electric motor. Once a particular motor is selected and installed, you are locked into the energy use characteristics for the life of the motor with no option for improvement. The annual energy costs of running a motor is usually many times greater than the initial purchase price. For example a typical 20 hp motor running 18 hours a day at 12 per kWh, uses $11,700 worth of electricity annually, about 10 times its initial cost. Relatively small increases in efficiency can pay for the additional costs for higher efficiency motors quickly. Motor efficiency is the ratio of mechanical power output to the electrical power input, usually expressed as a percentage. The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) performs motor efficiency tests in accordance with standards developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The nominal efficiency published by NEMA is an average value obtained through testing of a population of motors. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT) requires that most general purpose motors manufactured for sale in the United States after October 1997 meet minimum efficiency standards. Using these standards as a benchmark, the NEMA Premium Efficiency class of motors has been established. NEMA Premium Efficiency motors must equal or exceed a higher level of nominal efficiency to be considered energy efficient.

When To Select Energy-Efficient Motors The selection of energy-efficient motors should be strongly considered in the following situations:

For all new dairy complexes. When purchasing equipment packages, such as cooling and air compressors, water and vacuum pumps, air circulation equipment, etc. When major modifications or updates are made to dairy facilities. To replace oversized and under-loaded motors.
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A general rule of thumb indicates a simple payback of two years or less for replacement of standard efficiency with Premium Efficiency motors that operate at least 4000 hour per year or slightly less than half time. Energy-efficient motors offer other benefits. Because they are constructed with improved manufacturing techniques and superior materials, energy-efficient motors have higher service factors, higher quality insulation and longer bearing life, better power factor, operate more quietly, produce lower waste heat output, and less vibration, all of which increase reliability. Many of these motors are also rated for use with variable frequency drives, which offers further savings.

How Much Can An Energy-Efficient Motor Save? The following Table 8-1 provides estimated savings for Premium Efficiency motors at 1 to 3% improvements in nominal efficiency: Table 8-1. Annual value of efficiency gains for fully loaded motor operating 8000 hours annually at an electric rate of $0.12 per kWh Motor Horsepower 5 10 20 50
Annual Savings

1% Efficiency Gain $51 $96 $183 $426

2% Efficiency Gain $102 $192 $366 $852

3% Efficiency Gain $153 $288 $549 $1278

To calculate actual Annual Energy Savings from selecting a more efficient motor, use the following formula in Table 8-2: Table 8-2. Annual Energy Savings Savings = Hp x L x 0.746 x hr x C x [100/Estd 100/Eee]
= = = = = = = motor rated horsepower Load factor (percentage of full load) annual operating hours average energy costs ($/kWh) standard motor efficiency rating, % Energy-efficient motor efficiency rating, % conversion from horsepower to kW

Hp L Hr C Estd Eee 0.746

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Factor To Consider When Choosing A New Motor:

Motor size Motors should be sized to operate with a load factor between 65% and 100%. The common practice of over sizing results in less efficient operation. The first step is to verify if the old motor was correctly sized for the application. A larger, lightly loaded motor will be less efficient than a smaller, fully loaded motor. As well as more expensive to purchase. Operating speed ensure the correct operating speed is selected and compare efficiencies for motors at the same speed. Operating voltage make sure to select motor with correct voltage. NEMA Frame Size match frame designation so replacement motor will have the same physical dimensions. Enclosure Type match enclosure type to the environment the motor will be subjected to. Typical enclosures: Open Air Over ((OAO) or Open Drip Proof (OPDP) Enclosed Either totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) Total enclosed non-ventilated (TENV) Total enclosed open air (TEOA) Hazardous Location explosion proof (XP)

Although the perception that increases in efficiency between standard and Premium Efficiency motors is comparatively small (1-3%), the benefits in energy savings and operating costs can be significant. A motor will consume 50-60 times its initial price in electric expense during a typical 10-year life. The additional costs of a Premium Efficiency motor will be returned many times during that life in lower energy costs. Careful evaluation of all motors operating 12+ hours daily (4,000 hours annually) can yield substantial opportunities for energy savings. A list of manufacturers that sell NEMA Premium motors is given in Table 8-3 along with the web site address.

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Table 8-3. NEMA Premiumtm Motor Manufacturers

COMP ANY
A.O. Smith Electrical Products Baldor Electric Co. Emerson Motors GE Motors Leeson Electric Lincoln Motors Marathon Electric RAM Industries Rockwell Automation Siemens Sterling Electric TECO-Westinghouse Toshiba International WEG Electric Motors
Rev. 5/3/02

WEB SITE

www.aosmithmotors.com www.baldor.com www.emersonmotors.com www.geindustrial.com www.leeson.com www.lincolnmotors.com www.marathonelectric.com www.ramusa.com www.reliance.com www.sea.siemens.com/motors www.sterlingelectric.com www.tecowestinghouse.com www.tic.toshiba.com www.wegelectric.com

Motor management and Selection Software. MotoMaster+ 4.0 - United States Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies. http://www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices - Software to evaluate and select energy efficient motors and estimate potential savings.

The specifications of Premium efficiency for motor 1 to 200 hp is given in Table 8-4. This table is from the Consortium for Energy Efficiency [CEE]. The table gives specification for motors open and enclosed and for 1,200, 1,800 and 3,600 rpm [theoretical speed].
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EFFICIENCY SPECIFICATIONS
CEE Specification aligned with NEMA PREMIUM on June 13, 2001

Nominal Full Load Efficiencies for EPAct covered equipment 1-200 horsepower NEMA design A and B, three phase, integral horsepower, general purpose motors (1200, 1800, 3600 RPM).

1200 RPMs NEMA EPACT NEMA EPACT NEMA EPACT NEMA EPACT NEMA

Open Drip-Proof (ODP) 1800 RPMs 3600 RPMs 1200 RPMs

Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled (TEFC) 1800 RPMs 3600 RPMs EPACT NEMA

EPACT

Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE) is a nonprofit public benefits corporation whose members are utility and other administrators and public stakeholders involved with energy-efficiency programming. The CEE specifications contained in this publication were developed by CEE members and other participants in its Initiatives, are in the form in effect as of February 1, 2004, and are subject to change or withdrawal at any time by CEE. Such specifications are copyright protected and owned by CEE, and not by Southwest Energy Efficiency Project. Information about the current status of any CEE specification may be obtained from CEE at its website [CITE] by clicking on www.cee1.org

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Efficiency Premium Efficiency Premium Efficiency Premium Standard* Efficiency Standard* Efficiency Standard* Efficiency 75.5 82.5 84 85.5 87.5 88.5 89.5 90.2 90.2 91 91 91.7 92.4 93 93 93.6 94.5 94.5 95 77.0 84.0 85.5 86.5 88.5 89.5 90.2 91.0 91.0 91.7 91.7 92.4 93.0 93.6 93.6 94.1 95.0 95.0 95.4 2003 Consortium for Energy Efficiency, Inc. All rights reserved. See next page for Terms of Usage.

Table 8-4. CEE Premium-Efficiency Motors Initiative

Efficiency Premium Efficiency Premium Efficiency Premium Standard* Efficiency Standard* Efficiency Standard* Efficiency

HP HP 80 82.5 82.5 85.5 N/A 77.0 80 82.5 82.5 85.5 1 1 84 86.5 84 86.5 82.5 84.0 85.5 87.5 84 86.5 1.5 1.5 85.5 87.5 84 86.5 84 85.5 86.5 88.5 84 86.5 2 2 86.5 88.5 86.5 89.5 84 85.5 87.5 89.5 87.5 89.5 3 3 87.5 89.5 87.5 89.5 85.5 86.5 87.5 89.5 87.5 89.5 5 5 88.5 90.2 88.5 91 87.5 88.5 89.5 91.0 89.5 91.7 7.5 7.5 90.2 91.7 89.5 91.7 88.5 89.5 89.5 91.0 89.5 91.7 10 10 90.2 91.7 91 93 89.5 90.2 90.2 91.7 91 92.4 15 15 91.0 92.4 91 93 90.2 91.0 90.2 91.7 91 93 20 20 91.7 93.0 91.7 93.6 91 91.7 91.7 93.0 92.4 93.6 25 25 92.4 93.6 92.4 94.1 91 91.7 91.7 93.0 92.4 93.6 30 30 93 94.1 93 94.1 91.7 92.4 93 94.1 93 94.1 40 40 93 94.1 93 94.5 92.4 93.0 93 94.1 93 94.5 50 50 93.6 94.5 93.6 95 93 93.6 93.6 94.5 93.6 95 60 60 93.6 94.5 94.1 95 93 93.6 93.6 94.5 94.1 95.4 75 75 94.1 95.0 94.1 95.4 93 93.6 94.1 95.0 94.5 95.4 100 100 94.1 95.0 94.5 95.4 93.6 94.1 94.1 95.0 94.5 95.4 125 125 94.5 95.4 95 95.8 93.6 94.1 95 95.8 95 95.8 150 150 94.5 95.4 95 95.8 94.5 95.0 95 95.8 95 96.2 200 200 *This standard, equivalent to NEMA Table 12-10, went into effect in October 1997. New motors manufactured and imported for the US market must meet or exceed these full load nominal efficiencies.

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Gas-Fired Absorption Heat Pumps

A potential future technology for water heating and space product cooling is the gas fired absorption heat pump. Primarily operating on natural gas (or bio-gas) this technology utilizes highly efficient heat pump cycles to provide both heating and cooling energy streams. The heating effect could be employed to heat water for dairy CIP washing and the cooling stream used to cool milk. Absorption heat pumps are thermally driven, which means that heat rather than mechanical energy is supplied to drive the cycle. Mechanical energy is primarily limited to pumping. Absorption systems utilize the ability of liquids or salts to absorb the vapor of the refrigerant fluid. The most common working pairs for absorption systems are: water (refrigerant) and lithium bromide (absorbent), and ammonia (refrigerant) and water (absorbent). Figure 8-1 shows a schematic diagram of a gas-fired absorption heat pump.

Heat out

Heat input: waste heat, biogas, natural gas

Refrigerant vapor

Condenser
Liquid Refrigerant

Generator
Weak solution Restrictor

Expansion Valve

Strong solution Refrigerant vapor

Pump

Evaporator

Absorber

Refrigeration/Cooling (heat input)

Heat out

Figure 8-1. Schematic diagram of an absorption refrigeration system Heat is added at the generator. The generator includes a rectifier and an analyzer. The refrigerant boils/vaporizes at a lower temperature than the absorbent. The vapor moves through the rectifier and analyzer on its way to the condenser. The absorbent [weak solution] remaining in the generator flows to the absorber. The refrigerant is condensed in the condenser by removing heat. The liquid flows through the expansion valve to the evaporator and evaporates - absorbing heat. The refrigerant vapor is drawn to the absorbent [weak solution] in the absorber. Heat is released as the refrigerant is absorbed by the absorbent. This heat must be removed to keep the temperature in the absorber low to maintain a high solubility. The strong solution is pumped back to the generator. The
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generator and condenser are at high pressure and the evaporator and absorber are at low pressure. Using an ammonia-water system the temperature in the evaporator can be below freezing. The process starts as heat is applied to the generator and ammonia is vaporized driven off to a condenser. The cooled ammonia liquid then passes through an expansion valve to the evaporator. Here the low-pressure ammonia liquid boils and vaporizes absorbing heat to provide cooling. The above portion of the absorption cycle, functions much like the standard vapor compression refrigeration cycle. In the absorption cycle, however, there is a secondary circuit around which the liquid absorbent [water] flows. The low-pressure ammonia vapor is drawn to the absorber where the ammonia recombines with the water. This absorption process releases heat, which must be removed. The low-pressure liquid absorbent/refrigerant mixture is pumped to the generator [higher pressure] to start the process again. Useful heating energy is recovered from both absorber and condensing sections. The major advantages of the absorption heat pump are:

Ability to deliver more than one unit of output energy per unit of input energy (COP greater than 1) Delivers two useful energy streams (heating and cooling) Ability to use multiple sources of input energy (natural or biogas, waste heat, steam) in place of electricity. Few moving parts or mechanical components to wear out. Use of more environmentally friendly refrigeration/absorbent in place of standard CFC refrigerants

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Temperature Monitoring
Equipment operating temperature is one of the most powerful, yet underused status indicators available to monitor the health of equipment. Excessive heat build up indicates a problem with the equipment and causes many equipment failures. Many times, the cause of the heat build up can be remedied before heat damage occurs. Excessive heat also indicates poor efficiency, as extra power is required to generate the heat. Devices that should have a periodic temperature check include motors and motor contactors, compressors, vacuum pumps, lighting ballasts, condenser coils, gearboxes, heat exchangers, water heaters and electrical panels. The equipment should be in the same portion of the operating cycle each time the temperatures are measured. The highest temperature typically occurs long after the equipment is started so the temperature measurement should be made near the end of the operating cycle. Several different devices are available for measuring equipment temperature. Infrared thermometers are a very handy temperature measurement instrument for performing spot checks. These hand-held thermometers measure the surface temperature without contacting the surface. Measurements can be made on equipment that cannot be reached such as circulation fan motors and lighting ballasts. Many infrared thermometers feature a laser-aiming device to ensure that the invisible infrared beam is properly aimed at the desired target. This aiming feature becomes important as the distance to the target increases. Infrared thermometers have a cone shaped field of view. An infrared thermometer with a distance specification of 12:1 means that at 12 feet the temperature reading will be the average temperature within a 1-foot diameter circle. Using such a thermometer to measure the temperature of a 6-inch fan motor 12 feet from the infrared thermometer, the reading would be average temperature of the motor and the background surfaces within the cone. More accurate temperatures would be read as the thermometer became closer the fan motor. At 6 feet of the motor the temperature would be the most accurate. The emissivity of the surface being measured will make a difference in the temperature reading. Some infrared thermometers have an adjustment for emissivity, others have a preset emissivity generally at 0.95. Some of the apparent inaccuracies may not be a problem since the purpose is to make enough observations of the same object so that a high temperature can be identified. Other devices useful for measuring temperature include self-adhesive temperature indicating strips that attach directly to the device being measured. These strips have several temperature zones that change color as the indicated temperature is reached. These strips are suitable for spot-checking temperatures as they indicate the current temperature of the device. Intermittent equipment such as air compressors may never reach a steady operating temperature, making spot checks unreliable. Self-adhesive temperature indicating strips are available that will show the maximum temperature. These strips record the highest temperature reached since the strip was installed, ensuring that peak temperatures will not
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be missed. These strips should be replaced periodically in response to downward trends in maximum temperature, such as seasonal changes. Another type of temperature measuring device is the thermocouple pipe clamp probe. Here a special pipe clamp holds a thermocouple firmly against a pipe surface for quick and uniform measurement of the temperature of a pipe surface. High equipment temperatures do no need to exceed the manufacturers temperature rating to indicate a problem. Regular temperature checks are needed to establish normal values so that irregularities can be identified. (return to top of section: General Information)

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Understanding Pump Curves

Applying centrifugal pumps presents some challenges that are not immediately obvious. Over estimating the system head can result in overloaded motors. Under estimating the head usually results in poor efficiency and low flow rates. Consider the pump curves in Figure 8-2. If the application requires 850 gpm at 350 feet of head, for example, then this pump will operate at point 1 with the 9 3/8 inch impeller. The pump is appropriately applied with a 100 hp motor. If the system head is reduced to 300 feet, the operating point will move to point 2 and 100 hp motor will be overloaded. If the system head is increased to 400 feet the operating area will be at point 3 and the pump will have widely varying flow between 0 and 350 gpm. Pump efficiency will be less than 60% and the motor efficiency and power factor will decline at reduced loading. Centrifugal pumps operating at fixed speed do not operate below the curve as a positive displacement pump could. The pump will operate on the curve that corresponds to the impeller size. Specifying a pump with higher head rating at the desired flow in order to provide a reserve buffer of capacity will result in performance following the curve to the point where the system flow and head matches the pump curve. For instances where the exact pump head is not known in advance, a high head estimate is only a starting point. Trimming the impeller or adjusting the driven speed of the pump will then tune the pump to match the system requirements.

Figure 8-2. 3500 RPM Pump Curves

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Figure 8-3. 1750 RPM Pump Curves

Figure 8-4. 1150 RPM Pump Curves These three curves, Figure 8-2, 3 and 4, are for the same pump at different motor speeds.
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Useful Pump Formulas

Pressure (PSI) Head (Feet) Vacuum (inches of Mercury) Horsepower (Brake) Horsepower (Water) Efficiency (Pump) NPSH (Available) Head(Feed) x Specific Gravity 2.31 Pressure (PS) x 2.31 Specific Gravity Dynamic Suction Lift (Feet) x .883 x Specific Gravity GPM x Head (Feet) x Specific Gravity 3960 x Pump Efficiency GPM x Head (Feet) x Specific Gravity Water Horsepower (Water) Horsepower (Brake) Positive Factors Negative Factors

Affinity Laws: Effect of Change of speed or impeller diameter on centrifugal pumps. GPM Capacity Impeller Diameter Change Speed Change Ft. Head BHP

Q2 = Q2 =

D2 Q1 D1 RPM 2 Q1 RPM 1

D2 H2 = D H1 1 RPM 2 H2 = RPM H 1 1
2

D2 P2 = D P1 1 RPM 2 P2 = P1 RPM 1
3

Where Q = GPM, H = Head, P = BHP, D = Impeller Diameter, RPM = Pump Speed

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Variable Frequency Drives

A variable frequency drive (VFD) is a sophisticated electronic device for regulating the speed of three phase motors. Variable frequency drives can be applied to a wide range of farm applications requiring precise speed control or soft-start characteristics. These applications include vacuum pumps, milk pumps, glycol pumps, water pumps, ventilation fans, crowd gates, and air compressors. A typical AC induction motor runs at its rated speed, based on the input power frequency of 60 Hz (Hertz). If the input frequency is reduced, the motor will run at a reduced speed. VFDs are simply a source of variable frequency three-phase power. As the speed of an induction motor is reduced, so is the back EMF. This back EMF is created by the interaction of the magnetic fields in the motor and serves to limit the current through the motor. If the frequency is reduced while holding the voltage constant, the magnetic flux and magnetizing currents increase as does the torque produced by the motor. The increased magnetizing currents result in greater stator or line currents that could cause over-current trips or destroy the motor. By holding the volts per hertz ratio constant, magnetic flux remains constant, and the motor is considered to have constant torque. The VFD produces the variable frequency output at the proper voltage through a series of conversions of the commercial input power. The VFD rectifies the incoming 60 Hz power into DC voltage through a 6-diode full wave three-phase rectifier. Large capacitors form the DC Bus and smooth the ripple. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors or IGBTs are used to pulse the power from the DC bus to the output terminals to form three-phase output. Figure 8-5 is a functional schematic of a pulse width modulated (PMW) variable frequency drive.
Pulse Width Modulation Inverter
Converter DC Link Inverter

L1 Diode IGBT

L2 L3

Control Logic

L1

C1

Motor

Figure 8-5. Pulse Width Modulated VFD From the DC bus the drive draws power to create AC voltage at the specified frequency and amplitude. Current drive technology does not produce sine wave output voltage. The drive must draw power from the DC bus in pulses such that the RMS value of the pulses is
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equivalent to a sinusoidal voltage. Figure 8-6 shows the output voltage and current of a modern VFD.

Figure 8-6. Output voltage and current of PWM VFD The width of the pulse determines the amplitude of the voltage. When the pulses are wide, the duty cycle is high and the pulses are close together, causing the output voltage to be close to the DC bus voltage. When the pulses are narrow, the duty cycle is low and the pulses are farther apart, causing the output voltage to be low. The IGBTs switch on and off at very high frequencies (upwards of 20,000 Hz) in order to create an output current that approximates a standard sinusoidal waveform. Motors and Conductors The high switching frequency of the IGBTs creates special concerns for the motor(s) driven from a VFD and the conductor(s) that connect the motor(s) to the VFD. Standard motors may not be suitable for VFD application and an inverter rated or inverter duty motor would be required. These inverter rated motors have a much higher insulation standard than regular motors. The added insulation of inverter rated motors is necessary to endure the high stresses that pulsing the voltage creates on motor insulation. Standard motors with class B insulation typically experience shortened motor life because the voltage spikes cause pinholes to form in the motor winding insulation. These pinholes can lead to frequent short circuit trips on the VFD, even if the motor runs satisfactorily on 60 Hz line power. Inverter duty motors are also more effective at self-cooling. This is necessary because at reduced motor speeds, the cooling effect of the fan is greatly reduced. Modern VFDs incorporate motor thermal protection within the control circuitry of the drive. Separate motor thermal protection for the motor is not necessary unless multiple motors are driven from the same VFD. Most VFDs act simply as a source of variable frequency three-phase power. As such, the drive will effectively power any number of connected
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motors as long as the sum of the motor power does not exceed the power rating on the drive. There is no requirement that the motors be the same power, type or even speed. The drives built in motor thermal protection is only effective for a single motor connected to the drive. The drive must also be programmed with the nameplate current rating for the connected motor. When more than one motor is connected, the drive does not know if one motor is in an overloaded state while the other motor is in a partially unloaded state. It is therefore recommended to use separate motor thermal protection for each motor and disable the drives internal motor thermal protection. Some drives use a Sensorless Flux Vector feedback from the motor to precisely regulate the motor speed. Though Sensorless Flux Vector control is not suitable for running multiple motors, most of these drives are capable of running in an open loop or volts/hertz mode. Check with your drive supplier to see if your drive is suitable for driving multiple motors. The conductor that connects the motor(s) to the VFD is subject to the same voltage spikes as the motor windings. Standard THHN building wire has very thin insulation. While this insulation does not suffer from pinholes, the thin jacket allows multiple conductors to be very close to each other. This close proximity allows capacitive and inductive coupling between the phase wires and leads to false short circuit trips of the VFD. The appropriate conductor for drive applications is either type XHHW or XLPE. Selecting the proper conductor becomes more critical as the distance between the drive and motor increases. The wiring between the drive and motor should be in metallic conduit or a metal flexible conduit. All joints in the conduit must make good electrical bonds and the conduit needs to be well grounded. This will reduce the emitted electrical noise discussed in the next section. Armored cable is also available for drive applications. This cable contains the phase and ground wires with the appropriate insulation as well as a noise suppression shield. It is essential that the proper conductor be used on submersible pumps or any other instance where the motor wiring must pass under water. Immersion in water greatly increases the capacitive coupling effect between conductors.

EMI & RFI A variable frequency drive (VFD) will generate radio frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic interference frequencies (EMI) in the range of 0.5 MHz to 30 MHz. This high frequency electrical noise is caused by the high carrier frequencies of the pulse-width modulation, the associated short rise times of the IGBT output devices, and the reflected waves from the motor terminals. This high frequency electrical noise can adversely affect cow ID systems, computers, and AM radio reception. The largest source of transmitted noise is from the conductor to the motor. This conductor acts as an antenna that broadcasts electrical noise directly through the air. Metallic conduit that is well bonded to ground greatly reduces this noise. Metallic conduit that is also insulated on the outside reduces conduction of noise onto other conduits or metallic building components.
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Special flexible conduit is available for connecting the motor to the drive. This conduit consists of a normal metal spiral wrapped in a fine copper or aluminum mesh and then sheathed with plastic to form a liquid tight conduit. This conduit is more effective at reducing noise transmission than solid metal conduit because it provides a low impedance path for the noise back to the drive. The plastic sheath also prevents noise from conducting onto other conduits or structural members and spreading to other parts of the facility. The electrical noise can also transmitted back into the power distribution system. The noise in the power distribution system can then conducted into other devices or transmitted through the air. Mitigating noise requires an EMI/RFI filter in the power supply directly in front of the drive. The filter removes the high frequency noise from the power lines and sinks it to ground. It is therefore very important to have a good ground at the filter. High frequency electricity conducts primarily on the surface of the conductors. Fine stranded wire has much lower resistance to high frequencies than solid conductors. Fine stranded ground wires should be used on EMI/RFI filters to maximize their effectiveness. A hazard exists with long motor leads that are run in parallel with other motor leads in a cable tray. When a VFD is operating, EMI/RFI will be coupled from one cable into another. As a result, when replacing a motor, the motor cable may be found to have a high potential at the end of its conductors even though the motor's drive is disconnected from the line.

Harmonics DC rectifiers used in variable frequency drives, computers, DC welders, and battery chargers, utilize current differently than other AC equipment. Instead of having a constant impedance drawing current in proportion to the sinusoidal voltage, DC rectifiers draw no current for those periods of the voltage waveform where the AC voltage is less than the DC voltage. Once the AC voltage reaches the peak of the waveform, the AC voltage is higher than the DC voltage and the current flows in one pulse per half cycle. The current stops once the AC voltage has again dropped below the DC voltage. For three phase rectifiers, the current flows when the voltage waveform peaks with respect to each of the other two phases so there are two current pulses in each half cycle. Figure 8-7 illustrates the current waveform for a variable frequency drive.

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Figure 8-8. Current Waveform For a Variable Frequency Drive Switching loads on and off during part of the waveform results in short, abrupt, nonsinusoidal current pulses during a portion of the peak voltage waveform. These abrupt pulsating current pulses introduce reflective currents (harmonics) back into the power distribution system. The harmonic currents operate at frequencies other than the fundamental 60 Hz. Harmonic currents can be likened to the vibration of water in a water line when a valve is open and closed suddenly. As these harmonic currents flow through the impedance of the electrical distribution system, they cause harmonic distortion to the system voltage. The distorted voltage waveform propagates itself through the electrical distribution system and can effect other electronic equipment. The distorted shape of the current waveform creates special problems for measurement devices like ammeters. The typical digital clamp-on meter is not suited to measuring the current in an electronic device because the meter uses a mathematical approximation to determine the RMS current in a conductor. This approximation is not suitable for electronic power devices where the error can be as high as 40%. In order to obtain an accurate current reading with a VFD, it is necessary to use a True-RMS ammeter. Harmonic Distortion and Mitigation Harmonic currents and voltage distortion can cause problems in other electrical devices. In addition to causing electrical problems, IEEE Standard 519-1992 sets a limit on total harmonic currents at the point of common coupling. Harmonic related problems are unlikely when a small percentage of the total electrical load is used by VFDs or other similar harmonic generating devices. Determining harmonic content requires sophisticated power quality monitoring equipment. A low cost remedy for harmonics exceeding the IEEE 519 standard is to install a 3% impedance reactor to the input of the drive. The reactor also serves to protect the drive from transients and imbalanced line voltages. Some variable frequency drives have built in reactors, so check with your drive supplier to see if an external reactor is necessary.

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What is True-RMS? RMS stands for Root-mean Square and comes from a mathematical formula that calculates the effective value (or heating value) of any AC wave shape. In electrical terms, the AC RMS value is equivalent to the DC heating value of a particular waveform voltage or current. For example, if a resistive heating element in an electric furnace were rated at 15 kW of heat at 240 VAC rms, then the element would supply the same amount of heat with 240 volts DC as with 240 volts AC. Electrical power system components such as fuses, bus bars, conductors, and thermal elements in circuit breakers are rated in RMS current because their main function is related to heat dissipation. In order to check an electrical circuit for overloading, measure the RMS current and compare the measured value to the rated value for the component in question. If a current clamp is labeled and specified to respond to the True-RMS value of current, it means that the clamps internal circuit calculates the heating value according to the RMS formula. This method will give the correct heating value regardless of the current wave shape. Most digital current clamps do not have True-RMS circuitry. These ammeters use a short cut method to find the RMS value and are specified to be average responding-RMS indicating. These meters capture the rectified average of an ac waveform and scale the number by 1.1 to calculate the RMS value. In other words, the value they display is not a true value, but rather is a calculated value based on an assumption about the wave shape. The average responding method works for pure sine waves but can lead to large reading errors up to 40 percent, when a waveform is distorted by nonlinear loads such as adjustable speed drives or computers. Look for the words True-RMS on the front panel to ensure accurate current readings.

Drive Maintenance Though modern variable frequency drives have very few moving parts and very limited serviceability, several maintenance items do require attention. It is very important to check that the power terminals on the drive stay tight. Loose power terminals can quickly heat and fail, damaging the terminals and possibly the entire drive. Torque the terminals per the installation manual and regularly recheck that the terminals have not loosened. . Check that the terminals are still tight after several hours of operation after startup. Then check the terminals regularly afterwards. If the terminals stay tight, then longer intervals may be used. Loose terminals can also create a fire hazard. If the terminals loosen regularly, check for excessive vibration at the terminals. Vibration could come from the wall that the drive is mounted on or through the power leads. This is more common on the output side of the drive where the power leads go directly to the motor. Drives requires clean airflow for cooling. Cooling is typically accomplished with heat sink and a fan. This heat sink assembly must be kept free of dust and dirt. Accumulations of debris in the heat sink can cause localized hot spots in the drive. This heat can contribute to premature component failure. If the heat fins require frequent cleaning then the drive is in an unsuitable environment.

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The drive should be installed in a conditioned cabinet or a ventilated enclosure. Typical VFDs have NEMA 1 enclosures which are suited for clean areas only. If delicate paperwork cannot be left in the immediate vicinity of the drive, a NEMA 1 drive should not be located there either. Check with the drive manual for other routine service requirements and environmental specifications.

(return to top of section: General Information) (return to Table of Contents: Table_of_Contents)

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9. References
Agricultural Ventilation Fans, Performance and Efficiencies. 2003. Bioenvironmental and Structural systems Laboratory. Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Illinois Agricultural Ventilation Fans: Selection and Maintenance. 1995. National Food and Energy Council, Inc. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, ASAE Standards 2003, S518.2 February 2003, Milking Machine Installations Construction and Performance Brzezinski, J.J. 1995. Variable-Speed Milk Pumps. Designing a Modern Milking Center. Proceedings of the Designing a Modern Milking Center National Conference. Rochester, NY. NRAES-73. Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service. Ithaca, NY Collar, C.A. 1995. Vacuum Technology on California Dairies. Designing a Modern Milking Center. Proceedings of the Designing a Modern Milking Center National Conference. Rochester, NY. NRAES-73. Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service. Ithaca, NY Dairy Heat Reclaimers Saving Energy Using Plate Coolers and Refrigerant Heat Recovery. 1998. National Food and Energy Council, Inc. Fan Selection and Maintenance. Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, EP 75, March 2001 Gooch, C.A. 2001. Environmental Control for Todays Milking Center. Proceedings from Milking Systems and Parlors: Planning for and Managing for Quality Milk and Profitability Conference. Camp Hill, PA. NRAES-131. Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service. Ithaca, NY Gooch, C.A., 2003. Providing a Cow-Comfortable Environment. Building Freestall Barns and Milking Centers. Proceedings from Building Freestall Barns and Milking Centers: Methods and Materials. Camp Hill, PA. NRAES-148. Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service. Ithaca, NY Hoehne, J.A., Zulocich, J. M., and Fulhage, C.D., 1994 Water System Design Considerations for Dairy Production, Proceedings of 3rd International Dairy Housing Conference, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Orlando, Florida. Kastenschmidt, K.M. 1995. Applications of Instant Cooling. Designing a Modern Milking Center. Proceedings of the Designing a Modern Milking Center National Conference. Rochester, NY. NRAES-73. Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service. Ithaca, NY
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Lighting for Dairy Farms and the Poultry Industry. 2003. ASAE Standards, EP344.2 DEC99 Ludington, D.C., Fetherland, P. Dairy Farm Energy Efficiency Demonstration in Hawaii, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA and Hawaiin Electric Company, Honolulu, HI: 2001. 1001499 Ludington, D.C., Pellerin, R.A., Potter, J.H., Farmer, G., and Sobel, T.A. Principles of Milk Cooling. 1995. Designing a Modern Milking Center. Proceedings of the Designing a Modern Milking Center National Conference. Rochester, NY. NRAES-73. Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service. Ithaca, NY Ludington, D.C., Pellerin, R.A., Potter, J.H., Farmer, G., and Sobel, T.A. Vacuum Pumps: Types and Controls. 1995. Designing a Modern Milking Center. Proceedings of the Designing a Modern Milking Center National Conference. Rochester, NY. NRAES-73. Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service. Ithaca, NY Martin, J.G., Harner, J.P., Smith, J.F., 2001. Water Systems Design Considerations for Modern Dairies Proceedings from 5Th Western Dairy Management Conference, Las Vegas, Nevada. Milking Machine Installations Construction and Performance. 2003. ASAE Standards, S518.2 FEB03. MWPS-7. 2000. Dairy Freestall Housing and Equipment, Seventh Edition. Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Department, Iowa State University. Relocation and Expansion Planning for Dairy Producers. Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, MF2424, January 2000. Stowell, R. S., 2000. Heat Stress Relief and Supplemental Cooling. Proceedings from Dairy Housing and Equipment Systems Managing and Planning for Profitability. Camp Hill, PA. NRAES-129. Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service. Ithaca, NY. The Dairy Practices Council, DPC 4. Guidelines for Installation, Cleaning, and Sanitizing of Large Parlor Milking Systems). October 1995 The Dairy Practices Council, DPC 48. Guidelines for Cooling Milk on the Farm. March 1992. The Dairy Practices Council, DPC 58. Guidelines for Sizing Dairy Farm Water Heater Systems (For Cleaning Pipeline Milker Systems). January 1991 The Dairy Practices Council, DPC 65. Installing and Operating Milk Precoolers Properly on Dairy Farms. May 1996. (return to Table of Contents: Table_of_Contents)
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