Comparing Learning Theories using the Dent-Read and Zukow-Goldring Learner/Environment Matrix

Gardner Multiple Intelligences

Theorist
Howard Gardner, psychologist at Harvard University, USA, first presented his theory of Multiple Intelligences in 1983. The theory has since been modified.

Vygotsky Social Development Theory

Lev Vygotsky 1896-1934 was a psychologist who lived in Russia during the revolution. His work only became known to the Western world after his death when it was published in 1962. Most of his work was based around language development in children. The key principles of Vygotskys theory are: 1.Social development precedes and facilitates cognitive development 2. Cognitive development is limited to a particular range at any age. His theory is based on 3 themes: -Social learning is fundamental to cognitive development and occurs twice, once between people at an interpsychological level and again inside the individual at an

Skinner Operant Conditioning

Burrhus Fredrick Skinner 1904-1990 was an American psychologist and was the Professor of Psychology at Harvard. His theory of operant conditioning was heavily influenced by Pavlovs classical conditioning theory.

Gesell Maturation Theory

Arnold Luciu Gesell 1880-1961 was an American paediatrician and psychologist and considered by many as the father of the field of child development.

Key concepts of the theory

People understand their world in 7 different ways, the 7 intelligences. - Verbal-Linguistic: the ability to use spoken or written words, a strength in writers, poets, lawyers, speakers - Logical-Mathematical: inductive, deductive thinking and reasoning, uses logic, numbers and abstract patterns, a strength in scientists and mathematicians - Visual-spatial: ability to mentally visualise objects and spatial

Operant conditioning theory is driven by the principle that behaviour is a response to environmental stimuli. Therefore it can be altered in frequency, strength or form by applying different stimuli or consequences. In operant conditioning a voluntary response is followed by a consequence. Skinner described 4 types of consequences: -positive reinforcers, when a favourable event follows desired behaviour

Gesell created a scale of child development known as the Gesell Development Schedule. The scale describes milestones in child development and followed extensive studies to establish developmental norms. Gesells roots were firmly in genetics and evolution and although he acknowledged the advantage of a stable environment the outcome of this stability was to allow children to develop naturally as predisposed by their genetic make-up. This theory is known as

relationships - Body-Kinesthetic: ability to control physical motion, a strength in sports people - Musical-Rhythm: ability in music, rhythm, tone and beat, a strength in musicians, dancers -Interpersonal: ability to communicate effectively with others and to develop relationships, a strength in educators, salespersons, counsellors -Intrapersonal: understanding of ones own emotions and inner state and the ability to self-reflect Gardner theorised that children learn, remember, understand and perform in a variety of different ways, celebrating the diversity of learners. Over the years Gardner added 3 more intelligences to his model: naturalistic, spiritual and existential and is considering another, moral intelligence. He also identified 5 aspects of thinking that he felt crucial for coping with a rapidly changing world: disciplined mind, synthesising mind, creating mind, respectful mind and ethical mind.

intrapsychological level. - The More knowledge Other (MKO) or someone who has more knowledge, skill or understanding than the individual doing the learning. This could be a teacher, parent, peer or computer. - Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) or the gap between the childs ability to solve a problem by themselves and to solve it with support from a MKO. This process is known as scaffolding. Vygotsky also identified another zone, that of actual development, representing what the individual can do independently. Vygotsky viewed connections between people as being social to begin with and later the same language tools are used for higher level thinking.

-negative reinforcers, when an unfavourable event is removed following desired behaviour -positive punishment, when an unfavourable event is given following undesirable behaviour -negative punishment when a favourable event is removed following undesirable behaviour Reinforcers act to increase the frequency of desirable behaviour whereas punishments act to decrease the frequency of undesired behaviour. Intermittent reinforcement has been shown to be highly effective. Reinforcement may generalise across similar stimuli. Operant conditioning is scientifically validated by extensive research.

Gesells Maturation Theory.

Critics

There is a lack of empirical evidence to support this theory.

The theory does not take gender into account.

Chomsky, one of Skinners main critics, argued that Skinners

Gesells Maturation Theory has become less prominent in recent

Intelligence tests suggest a high correlation between different intelligences, but these tests are often focused on linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence. The 7 intelligences are simply a reflection of personality types.

Research is informal. A focus weighted towards language and literature. Requires 1-1 teaching (I would challenge this).

laboratory work could not be generalised to humans. Other critics have taken an ethical stand point arguing that operant conditioning is taking away an individuals free will.

years due to the growing interest in the effect of environment on childrens development and learning. The Gesell Development Schedule originally claimed to measure intelligence but insufficient proof led to this claim being withdrawn.

The focus on observable Focus on language may not be equally effective across all cultures. behaviours rather than the causes of the behaviours led to the emergence of Developmental Learning movement. Vygotskys Social Development Theory is situated in the Interactive quadrant of the matrix. It recognises the learner as having an influence on the environment and that they may also have difficulty in relation to a specific task. Activities are planned to allow for meaning to be co-constructed. This theory moves away from the traditional teaching methods of transmission towards the student having an active role, collaborating with a MKO, be it teacher, computer, parent helper, peer or older buddy, in a reciprocal learning environment. This is a method actively employed in Mori educational pedagogy in the form of tuakana/teina, with older children helping the younger ones. It also promotes collaborative learning and mixed ability learning groups. Skinners theory of Operant Conditioning is situated in the Environment Active quadrant of the matrix, based on environmental influences on the learner producing change in behaviour. Learning occurs through exposure to the environment.

Learner Environmen t relationship Matrix Quadrant

Multiple Intelligence Theory is situated in the Learner Active quadrant of the matrix. It considers how the learner chooses to interact with the environment. The learner needs to construct meaning from the environment in order to acquire knowledge.

Gesells Maturation Theory is situated in the Passive quadrant of the matrix being firmly grounded in genetic determination. It claims that a childs development is wholly determined by genetics and environment plays little or no part.

Educational The curriculum in New Zealand Implications primary schools is, as a result of

National Standards, becoming increasingly biased towards verbal--linguistic and logical-mathematical thinking. Gardners theory offers a more balanced approach considering a range of learning styles, methodologies and activities. It also demands a broader approach to assessment moving away from a purely mathematical and linguistic focus.

Operant Learning Theory is used in many classrooms Some examples of the 4 types of consequences are: positive reinforcers: reward stickers given for working cooperatively with a peer. -negative reinforcers: shared kai as a result of the whole class performing well in assembly. -positive punishment: removal from group table to a thinking spot after scribbling on a peers

The Gesell Institute in America provides resources and information for teachers and families around child development. Gesells stages of development are applied in educational settings. However no references to Gesells Theory of Maturation in relation to education were found.

Vygotskys theory considers the strengths of the child, what they already know and the steps needed to progress from there. He looked at the specific developmental compensations that occur in disabled children. He believed that the psychological life of a child is determined by social consequences rather than the disability itself. He saw the role of educators as helping every child to achieve their full social esteem.

book. -negative punishment: having to stay inside during part of break time for being disrespectful to others.

Relevance to Autism Spectrum Disorder

The verbal-linguistic approach to learning dominant in many classrooms is inaccessible to most children with autism due to impairments in their communication. Some may be able to access a mathematical-logical approach, but often only at a surface level. The interpersonal approach to learning, group work etc, is often very challenging. Gardners theory helps identify those intelligences which present a barrier to the learning of children with ASD and those which could act as enablers. There is no one intelligence that is suited to all children with ASD although visual-spatial is a common strength, as explained by Temple Grandin in her book Thinking in Pictures. The design of programs drawing on spatial, kinaesthetic, musical and other diverse learning approaches may well offer

Vygotskys concept of scaffolding to support children in the ZPD works well with students in the Autism Spectrum. Providing a bridge between what they know and what they are trying to learn. The teacher or peer adds new chunks of information to what the child already knows. The focus on strengths as opposed to deficits makes releasing the potential of a child with ASD a real possibility. It views each child as an individual developing along a personal social and cognitive pathway at their own rate. Vygotsky argued against special schools on the grounds they were anti-social and promoted what we now refer to as inclusive schooling, enabling full social participation for all children. This is highly relevant with the increasing number of

Operant Conditioning theory underpins ASD interventions of Applied Behaviour Analysis and Functional Behaviour Assessment. It is used with children on the Autistic Spectrum across a wide range of situations e.g. teaching reading, toilet training, speech acquisition, social skills, self-regulation, and engagement in tasks. Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) and contemporary ABA interventions are continually emerging e.g. Pivotal Response Training and Picture Exchange Communication System.

The Gesell Developmental Schedules and Observations are used to assess infants intellectual development following such events as exposure to mercury, abnormal brain development, and utero diagnoses of hyperthyroidism, all of which may be associated with autism. The scales are also used in assessing intellectual development in children with a diagnosis of autism.

ABA is advocated globally by parents and educators of children with ASD. The ABA method has given us the tool we need to teach Hannah in a way that she can learn.

increased opportunities for children with ASD as supported by the following quote from a parent of a child with ASD. My son has a high musical and bodily-kinesthetic intelligenceonce we started connecting with him that way in the learning environment, at an early age, consistently, he developed his other intelligences (G. Walker, 2012)

children with ASD now in mainstream classes. The value of Vygotskys social learning theory is shared in this quote from the parent of an autistic child: Vygotskys premise that children learn and are socialized through their relationships with the competent adults in their world is critical to understanding what our child needs. (L Kelley, 2011) Vygotsky in the Classroom: an entertaining role play explaining the ZPD in teaching. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v =I9CnZoFUlT0 Charlie demonstrates Vygotsky 0001: the ZPD in practice http://www.youtube.com/watch?v =ibEP4xBdJco

(Intentional Parents, n.d.)

Relevant links

Temple Grandin: The world needs all kinds of minds http://www.ted.com/talks/templ e_grandin_the_world_needs_all_ kinds_of_minds.html Theory of Multiple Intelligences: Howard Gardner http://www.youtube.com/watch?v =l2QtSbP4FRg&list=PLvzC42i6_rJK Ar6fyhjY-hZ74v1fO7_y_ Multiple Intelligences http://www.youtube.com/watch?v =cf6lqfNTmaM&list=PLvzC42i6_rJK Ar6fyhjY-hZ74v1fO7_y_

Positive vs Negative Reinforcement http://www.youtube.com/watch?v =wfraBsz9gX4 ABA Autism Classroom Case Study 2008: an inspirational video. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v =w9N0_7D_Re8

Gesell developmental Schedules http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesell _Developmental_Schedules Stages of Development 2-6 years http://www.gesellinstitute.org/pdf /AgesAndStagesHandout.pdf Gesell Institute Website http://www.gesellinstitute.org/

References
(n.d.). Retrieved Septemeber 2013, from Learning Theories Profile: http://www.learningtheoriesprofile.com/results/4e48e316061fe Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA). (n.d.). Retrieved September 2013, from Intentional Parents: http://intentionalparents.com/dealing-with-special-needs/hannah-therapy/applied-behavioral-analysis-aba/ Arnold Gesell. (2013). Retrieved from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Gesell Arnold Gesell Theory of Child Development. (2013). Retrieved from The Kids Cave: http://www.thekidscave.org/child-development/arnold-gesell-theory-of-child-development/ B. F. Skinner. (n.d.). Retrieved September 2013, from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner Bowler, J., Annan, J., & Mandis, M. (2007). Understanding the learner environment relationship: A matrix of perspectives. School Psychology International, 28, 387-401. Different Roads To Learning. (2007). Retrieved from The Autism Life: http://www.theautismlife.com/mommys-blog/different.roads.to.learning Feldman, D. (2007). Criticisms of Vygotskys Theory. Retrieved from Tufts OpenCourseWare: http://ocw.tufts.edu/Content/53/seminarnotes/589848/589873 Grey, A. (2010). Developmental theories in early childhood education. In B. Clark, & A. Grey (Eds.), Ata kite ate pae - scanning the horizon: Perspectives on early childhood education. North Shore, New Zealand. Harrop, J., & Green, J. (2012, May). Exploring the Impact of Vygotsky in Pre-School Autism. Retrieved from International Society For Autism Research: https://imfar.confex.com/imfar/2012/webprogram/Paper11226.html How people on the autism spectrum learn : A detailed explanation. (2010, December). Retrieved from Autism Spectrum Directory: http://blog.autismspectrumdirectory.com/2010/12/30/how-people-on-the-autism-spectrum-learn/ Kelley, L. (2011). Together: Vygotsky, connections and the tipping point. Retrieved from Thirty Days of Autism: http://30daysofautism.wordpress.com/2011/04/23/together/ Lippman, P. (2010). Evidence-Based Design of Elementary and Secondary Schools: A Responsive Approach to Creating Learning Environments. John Wiley and Sons. Retrieved from http://books.google.co.nz/books?id=AFZlmT3DWQkC&pg=PA127&lpg=PA127&dq=Dent+Read+Zukow+goldring+learner+environment+relationship+mat rix&source=bl&ots=7PEwSwzUm9&sig=hW0v-UEymQZXKCW4XtRAO2lAvI0&hl=en&sa=X&ei=mV05UuzVA4WziAeC0YHwDQ&ved=0CC8Q6AEwA

McLeod, S. (2013). Lev Vygotsky. Retrieved from Simple Psychology: http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html Multiple Intelligences (H. Gardner). (n.d.). Retrieved September 2013, from Instructional Design: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/multiple-intelligences.html Multiple Intelligences Theory (Gardner). (n.d.). Retrieved September 2013, from Learning-Theories.com: http://www.learning-theories.com/gardners-multiple-intelligences-theory.html Nadesan, M. H. (2013). In Constructing Autism: Unravelling the 'Truth' and Understanding the Social. Routledge. Retrieved from http://books.google.co.nz/books?id=Za6dE4jBHeIC&pg=PT47&lpg=PT47&dq=Gesell+autism&source=bl&ots=qvIDn4UpT8&sig=qBpW7ea41I5wunnlHhnc 39deLmc&hl=en&sa=X&ei=24I5UrrhHKiZiQfHjIDgBQ&ved=0CFAQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage Operant Conditioning ( B.F. Skinner). (n.d.). Retrieved September 2013, from Instructional Design: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/operant-conditioning.html Operant Conditioning (Skinner). (n.d.). Retrieved September 2013, from Learning-Theories.com: http://www.learning-theories.com/operant-conditioning-skinner.html Social Development Theory (Vygotsky). (n.d.). Retrieved September 2013, from Learning-Theories.com: http://www.learning-theories.com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory.html Walker, G. (2012). Multiple-intelligence theory & autism: comments. Retrieved from YourPsychology Blog: http://yourpsychology.wordpress.com/2009/06/01/multiple-intelligence-theory-autism-2/#comments