Sarra Marta Corso di Laurea Magistrale in Traduzione specialistica e Interpretariato di conferenza / cv.

. Interpretariato di conferenza Conference interpreting vs Media interpreting. The aim of this presentation is to effect a comparison between conference and media interpreting. I will try to identify analogies and differences so as to better understand interpreting in these two settings. Bross-Brann (1994: 26-29) it takes a very special sort of person to be a conference interpreter in the first place, but () it takes an even more special type of person to work on TV The first goal is therefore an introduction to this special sort of person, who is neither a linguistic tap nor a universal genius, but rather a flexible individual who is capable of adapting to a variety of situations, which may even extend to a new job profile: the interpreter/journalist [] who performs both journalistic and language tasks (Kurz, 1990: 173). One of the aims of this dissertation is to more specifically identify this profile.

Before focusing on the similarities between conference and media interpreting it may be worth defining their common denominator, namely interpreting. Omitting for now all the social and psychological processes involved, interpreting could be simply described as follows: Intendiamo per interpretazione sia lattivit (professionale), sia il prodotto della mediazione orale svolta da almeno un individuo poliglotta tra almeno due persone (interlocutori primari) che non conoscono (a sufficienza) la lingua dellaltro interlocutore primario. (Mack, 1999: 1) Conference interpreting is a particular form of interpreting that dates back to the negotiations following the first World War and which derives its name from the particular setting in which it is held (Riccardi, 2003: Chapter 3). Under this label come two different modes of interpreting: Simultaneous (SI) and Consecutive (CI). Whereas the former consists in overlapped production by the speaker and the interpreter, the latter is made up of two separate productions, one afer the another. In simultaneous interpretation the audience can hear a translation of a speech while it is being delivered. The interpreters are placed in more or less sound-proof booths where they receive the speech through earphones; they transmit it in another language through microphones to wireless or telephone sets in the hall, which the audience can tune in to the booth (i.e. the language) of their choice.

(Paneth, 2002: 32) The consecutive interpreting process, on the other hand, can be divided into two separate moments: listening and reproducing. It involves listening to a speech and arrangements for its retention in notes and/or the memory and reproduction in another language after it is finished (Paneth, 2002: 36). both simultaneous and consecutive interpreting feature two texts, the Source Text produced by the speaker (ST) and the Target Text produced by the interpreter (TT). Their main differences concern the time in which they need to be accomplished and the processes of comprehension, memorization and production involved. Given that speeches interpreted in CI take more time than in SI, TV programmers generally prefer the latter (Cappello, 2004: 91). This is why our comparison between conference and media interpreting will be mainly made in reference to the simultaneous mode. More and more often TV broadcasters make use of hybrid modes of interpretation, mixing for instance SI with CI, chuchotage (the interpreter sitting next to the guest whispers the translation) and voiceover (a pre-prepared translation of the source text, read by a professional speaker and synchronized with the original), cfr. Cappello, 2004:Chapter 4. Generally speaking, TV interpreting is used in news programmes, talk-shows and in so-called media events. However, these three categories can be subdivided into a wide range of subcategories with peculiar characteristics. Interpreting for the media differs from interpreting at a conference, and working for live news programs brings into play critical factors that must be taken into account. As far as news is concerned, interpreters can be asked, for instance, to translate live news from other TV channels. During the Iraq war La7 often broadcast briefings, press conferences and interviews from CNN, which were interpreted by Italian professional interpreters Live interpreting on television only works for the audience if the delivery is exceptionally fluent, the voice trained and steady, the message clear, and the final rendition very much like dubbing. Talking about talk-shows, Katan and Straniero Sergio focus on the ethic of entertainment and talk show interpreting, noting factors that can also be applied to many news and media events. Success for this new model will be based on the three C factor (comfort, capacity and culture). First, all participants will need to work within their comfort zones. Second, interpreters will need a particular professional capacity, which includes the ability to perform in public, and to be respected as full-fledged professional participants. Finally, the interpreters behaviour should be coherent with the particular context of television and national culture.

(Katan & Straniero Sergio, 2001: 234) one of the main challenges to address in this particular setting is the visibility of the interpreter, who is often physically on camera. Another striking feature of many talk shows is their frequent use of irony, which must be passed on by interpreters. Interpreters have to be aware of these peculiarities in order to meet the needs of TV broadcasters. Otherwise they run the risk of being fiercely criticised, as happened, for instance, on the occasion of the funeral of Princess Diana. The day after, La Stampa published an article where the journalist accused the interpreter of speaking con il respiro affannoso di una hot-line (see Bassanese, 2002: 11). The TV viewers and radio listeners expectations are so high that an interpreter ought to become a performer rather than just a linguistic/cultural mediator. Paramount importance is attached to factors such as: voice quality, a cohesive and coherent language and a lively selfconfident performance often to the detriment, if necessary, of the fidelity or completeness of the original message. (Russo, 1995: 343) media interpreting is generally perceived as more difficult and more stressful than conference interpreting. TV settings often ask interpreters to play roles they may not have been trained for in conference interpreting schools. In Kurzs words Interpreters working in the media should not only be capable of interpreting (simultaneously or consecutively) but should also be able to moderate a live transmission in a foreign language or to edit an interview for the evening news. Consequently, they must know how to work with television or video equipment, and they must be able to write and speak their own texts. (1990: 173) La televisione inizia ad avanzare nuove richieste allinterprete televisivo perch sia in grado di dare un proprio contributo attivo allimpaginazione della notizia. [] Nel corso della copertura della Guerra del Golfo si assiste a uno dei primi esempi documentati di interpreti che svolgono funzioni assimilabili a quelle di un giornalista, vale a dire il compito di riferire la notizia. (Cappello, 2004: 159) Interpreters capacity to take on journalistic roles has been investigated for some years in the literature. For instance, Straniero Sergio (2003: 135) stresses the similarities between journalism and interpreting, two gatekeeping activities that are increasingly often condensed in a single professional. A partire dalla fine degli anni 80, ha inizio un processo di cambiamento, poi rivelatosi inarrestabile, ove si evidenzia un crescente ibridismo del ruolo dellinterprete televisivo, il quale, in cambio della maggiore visibilit concessagli (ma forse mai chiesta), anche

chiamato, oppure costretto, a scavalcare il muro che separa la professione dellinterprete da altri domini professionali. (Cappello 2004: 263) Interpreters capacity to take on journalistic roles has been investigated for some years in the literature. For instance, Straniero Sergio (2003: 135) stresses the similarities between journalism and interpreting, two gatekeeping activities that are increasingly often condensed in a single professional. However, nobody has yet explained what it actually means for the interpreter to be a journalist. Analogies Having introduced the two objects of analysis, namely conference and media interpreting, we can now compare them in order to identify analogies and differences. Similarly to a conference interpreter, the media interpreter is Al contempo ricevente/fruitore di un messaggio/testo (primario), ricevuto mediante il canale acustico e visuale, e produttore di un messaggio/testo (secondario), trasmesso tramite il solo canale acustico. (Mack, 2000: 124) As Straniero Sergio puts it: La prevalenza del formato monologico su quello dialogico ha portato, negli anni settanta e ottanta, alla definizione di modelli influenzati dalla teoria dellinformazione, secondo la quale la comunicazione, essendo essenzialmente trasmissione di informazione (meccanica, sonora, verbale) riconducibile ad un processo alternato di codifica e decodifica. (2004: 131) Both conference and media interpreting fanno parte di un preciso contesto/ipertesto semiotico, la conferenza o la diretta televisiva di un evento (Mack, 2000: 124). Within this context, participants try to achieve their own 25 ends, through linguistic and non-linguistic means. By ends we here refer to both outcomes and goals, and therefore account for every single purpose, partial or total, that speakers may have. both conference and media interpreters have to be aware of the context in which they work, so as to understand and pass on what is happening, its purposes and hence the function of what is being said. Here, however, the analogy between conference and media settings ends. As we will see, the media context is more complex than the conference one, as it involves two planes of communication (see 1.2.2.3 below), and an anonymous and heterogeneous audience, whose needs and ends may differ widely. As Mack notes (2000: 124-125), conference interpreters depend on a source text they can rarely influence. In the same way, the audience receiving their production can do very little to control it. In conduit metaphor terms, both interpreters and addressees receive messages which they cannot negotiate, other than by a volume control. In addition to this, interpreters often have to deal with difficult inputs. The degree of complexity can depend on many variables, such as for example topic, text type and building strategies, speaker type and so on. This implies that a read-aloud or rehearsed text, where the processes of ideation and expression are not concomitant, is more difficult to process. it is clear that interpreters have to deal with language from various sections of the continuum, which may involve lower or higher processing effort.

In SI, interpreters have to listen and speak at the same time, which causes cognitive management problems. Gile (1985) and his effort model, Gran (1999) and her neurolinguistic approach, Paradis (1994) and the threshold hypothesis are just a few examples from a wide literature on the Subject. Furthermore, in SI feedback is extremely limited and in some circumstances totally absent. this is also true of much media interpreting, where there is little way of using feedback as a resource enabling interpreters to adjust, remedy or fine-tune their interpretation (Amato, 2002: 271). Outside those situations where a studio audience is present, media interpreters can rarely check the effect of what they say on hearers. Grazie a un artificio tecnico, la sua voce si sovrappone a o sostituisce quella del parlante primario, visibile e spesso almeno parzialmente udibile dal pubblico. Linterprete si mette per cos dire la maschera delloratore e parla in sua vece a un sottoinsieme di potenziali destinatari; usa la prima persona singolare, ma lascia implicitamente al parlante la responsabilit di quanto viene detto, assumendo cos un ruolo non scevro di una certa dose di ambiguit. (2000: 125) Like actors, interpreters thus need to be good performers. However, A differenza dellattore che fa credere di essere o di diventare unaltra persona, linterprete fa credere di credere in quello che dice loratore mettendosi dalla sua parte e cercando di vedere le cose dal suo punto di vista. (Bertone, 1983 cited by Straniero Sergio, 1999: 133) This becomes even more important in those media settings where the interpreters low profile is turned into a visible participation, and where it would be perhaps more accurate to affirm that being-seen-can-be-bliss. The being-ignored-can-be-bliss principle [] no longer works, if it ever did. What is needed is a new awareness of the interpreters social competence. (Straniero Sergio, 1999: 323)1 TV Interpreters usually work in the studio where the programme is broadcast, and as a consequence, may be distracted by other visual and acoustic inputs. Booths are in Italy generally poorly equipped, poorly soundproofed, and allow the interpreter neither to regulate the volume nor to switch it off. Often the incoming speech cannot be perceived properly because of interference, blackouts, technical problems and acoustic feedback As in remote interpreting, interpreters often cannot see the speaker, and thus have no direct access to non-vocal features like lip- and eye-movement, gesture, facial expression and posture, making it more difficult to process the nformation. According to AIIC, ideally interpreters should be able to see the set and all the people on it Case reports describing live TV interpreting indicate that media interpreting is generally perceived as being even more stressful than simultaneous interpreting in other settings. (Kurz, 2002: 195) From her study of physiological stress responses during media and conference interpreting, Kurz concludes that TV interpreting involves special stress factors stemming from three main sources: physical environment; work-related factors; psycho-emotional stress factors. The physical environment and work-related factors are clearly potentially stressful. As regards psycho-emotional stress factors, Kurz sees these as linked to mass audiences and high quality expectations:

Knowing that s/he is interpreting for an audience of hundreds of thousands or even millions, the TV interpreter is more keenly afraid of failure than during ordinary conferences. Newspapers will not hesitate to report critically, and TV viewers do not understand or appreciate the difficulties the interpreter may be facing. Empirical evidence has shown that the expectations of the quality of media interpreting are particularly high. The media interpreters performance is frequently judged against that of the TV moderator or newsreader, and the standards regarding voice and diction are very high. (Kurz, 2002:196) In order to measure physiological stress levels in media and conference settings, Kurz focuses on stressors, responses and other intervening variables. By stressors she means environmental, mental and social factors (she cites noise, heat, lack of sleep and alcohol as environmental stressors; long tasks, decision-making and monotony as mental stressors; and changes of social status and competition as social stressors). Responses are changes in individual performances which may be linked to intake of information, information processing and information output. Other intervening variables include personality factors, subjective evaluation of the situation, anxiety, motivation and helplessness. Not surprisingly, Kurzs results confirm interpreters subjective impressions of greater stress during TV interpreting (Kurz, 2002: 202). Indirectly, they support what has been said so far about the added requirements and greater complexity of TV interpreting compared to conference interpreting. 1.2.3.4. Frustrations Linterprtation la tlvision, a ne pardonne pas dixit la responsable du service linguistique. [] limpossible nul nest tenu, mais nos sprinters, qui aiment flirter avec les limites, sont parfois combls au-del de leurs esprances. (Moreau, 1996: 227-228) In the light of all we have mentioned so far, Macks claim that TV interpreting is a sfida al limite delle possibilit (Mack, 1999) seems largely justified. According to Viaggio (2001: 30), not only do media interpreters have to tackle any subject and any speaker, any dialect, any sociolect and any idiolect, at a time (see 1.2.1.2), but they also have to carry out a twice-constrained translation, one that presents additional requirements if compared to conference interpreting. In addition to the set of competing efforts involved in traditional conference interpreting, media interpreters are subject to specific social and psychological constraints. To mention the most prominent ones, media interpreters must provide immediate intelligibility of content and immediate acceptability of form, they must accept mass consumption and scrutiny, they must complete their utterance not later than the speaker, and they must also incarnate the profession before the general public (Viaggio, 34 2001: 28-29). Last but not least, in media settings interpreters have no choice but to go on interpreting, even in situations that would be unacceptable in conferences. As Monacelli points out: The communicative role of the interpreter is active in a conference setting in that the interpreter can usually say, unless the speaker provides me with a written copy of the report he is reading, I will not interpret his speech [] during a film the interpreter will not be able to interact with the text because should he or she decide to stop working for a bit, the show will go on. (Monacelli, 2000: 140-141) This all makes it extremely stressful to work on TV. According to the interpreters interviewed by Mack in her exploratory enquiry: Working for TV is often frustrating because of the impossibility to meet their interiorised quality standards, mainly related to sense consistency and completeness. For most of them, the sum of these aspects make TV interpreting an experience completely different from traditional conference interpreting, abiding to its own rules which each of them has had to learn on the job at her/his own risk.

(2001: 130) The frustration may increase because of difficult speakers rarely encountered in conference settings. Viaggio gives as examples the man in the street, semiverbal adolescents, illiterate peasants, distraught victims, incoherent junkies, which often require interpreters to intervene on the ST in order to provide a TT which complies with television standards (2001: 29). 1.2.3.5. Special requirements Rather than meeting conference standards of consistency and completeness, interpreters working on television are expected to comply with the standards for TV speakers. Their voice quality should be as good as that of professional announcers, and hesitations, pauses or peculiar inflections are banned. In Macks words: The very first priority for television producers seems to be a natural sounding, continuous speech flow, produced by the interpreter under any given circumstances, not leaving any room for hesitations, let alone interruptions or self-corrections. Completeness and even sense consistency with the original seem to be considered as fairly secondary aspects, as long as the interpreters output sounds coherent and plausible. (2001: 130) 35 This would seem an unfair expectation, since interpreters are not talking freely or reading from a teleprompter as newsreaders and commentators do when working with a previously determined text. Both audience and programmers are often unaware of the difficulties that interpreters have to overcome to sound as natural as possible. TV speakers often have a fast rate of delivery and engage in conversations rather than monologues. As a consequence, interpreters must reduce their dcalage to synchronize with the original as far as possible. Il faut donc coller au plus prs lorateur, car la tlvision ne tolre aucun blanc; questions et rponses doivent se faire du tac au tac (Kurz & Bros-Bran 1996: 209). This is also a requisite from the viewers perspective. Lorsque linterprtation simultane est utilise dans un programme tlvis, elle est, en gnral, superpose la bande sonore originale, cest--dire que le son original est encore audible larrire-plan. Cest un compromis conu pour satisfaire autant de tlspectateurs que possible. Il y a bien des gens en effet qui, parce quils comprennent la langue trangre, prfreraient entendre loriginal, ressentant la voix de linterprte comme gnante, tant donn quelle dtourne lattention de lvnement proprement dit. [] Par ailleurs, les personnes qui dpendent entirement de linterprtation aimeraient tre mme de dbrancher compltement le son original. (Kurz & Bros-Brann, 1996: 208) TV interpreting is thus a compromise between the needs of people who understand the ST and those of people who depend on the TT. In order to meet the requirements of both groups, interpreters can sometimes be asked to let the audience hear the initial part of the original (Mack, 2001: 128) and start translating after a few seconds. An example is given by Katan and Straniero Sergio (2003: 141): on the occasion of a speech given by Queen Elizabeth, the interpreter was asked to wait a little before starting the delivery, so that viewers could follow the original and listen to its pathos. This obviously requires greater memory effort, together with a greater speed of delivery and, in some circumstances, summarizing techniques. A different kind of requirement, which does not affect the interpreters performance but rather their hiring, is voice-matching: TV anchormen and journalists insist on having male voices for male speakers, as this goes back to a notion that interpretation and dubbing are similar beasts. (Bros-Brann, 2002) In view of all these requirements, Laine (1985) thinks that TV

interpreters should be A hybrid someone who is successfully translator, interpreter, and editor all in one. Prerequisite qualities will be flexibility, speed, a wide general knowledge and a complete lack of fear when it comes to using new equipment. (1985: 212 Working on TV seems to require a higher degree of flexibility than does conference interpreting. The ability to adapt to new situations as they occur is fundamental in almost every aspect: interactional space, working conditions, stressing factors, voice, speed, synchrony, voice-matching, audience. Paraphrasing Viaggio6, a good interpreter is like a good cook, one who can adjust the service to the changing needs of the clients. S/he is so flexible that s/he can produce longer, shorter, more formal or less formal versions, just like the cook who serves rare, medium or well done steaks to suit the customer. Unlike conference interpreting, media interpreting features a different balance between cognitive and affective elements, one which clearly favours entertainment and shared feelings. Interpreters need to intertwine affective and cognitive components, bearing in mind that viewers are more interested in being entertained than in being instructed, and with as little effort as possible in either case. Unlike conference interpreting, media interpreting features a different balance between cognitive and affective elements, one which clearly favours entertainment and shared feelings. Interpreters need to intertwine affective and cognitive components, bearing in mind that viewers are more interested in being entertained than in being instructed, and with as little effort as possible in either case.

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