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by Jeanne Mason,
Senior Specialist Engineer,
Engine Performance and Operability,
Propulsion Systems Division
High-altitude ice crystals in convective weather are now recognized
as a cause of engine damage and engine power loss that affects
multiple models of commercial airplanes and engines. These events
typically have occurred in conditions that appear benign to pilots,
including an absence of airframe icing and only light turbulence.
The engines in all events have recovered to normal thrust response
quickly. Research is being conducted to further understand these
events. Normal thunderstorm avoidance procedures may help
pilots avoid regions of high ice crystal content.
Since 1990, there have been at least 100 jet
engine power-loss events on both commuter and
large transport airplanes, mostly at altitudes higher
than 22,000 feet, the highest altitude where airframe
icing is expected to exist. Power loss is dened
as engine instability such as a surge, stall, ame-
out, or rollback that results in a sub-idle operating
condition. High-altitude ice crystals are believed
to have caused most or all of these events.
This article explains the ice crystal phenomenon,
how ice crystals cause power loss, the types of
power-loss events, where and when engine power-
loss events have occurred, conditions associated
with ice crystal formation, and recommendations
for ight near convective weather. It also discusses
the importance of pilot reporting of ice crystal
power-loss events.
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Several engine power-loss and damage events
have occurred in convective weather above the
altitudes typically associated with icing conditions.
Research has shown that strong convective
weather (thunderstorm activity) can lift high
concentrations of moisture to high altitudes where
it can freeze into very small ice crystals, perhaps
Engine Power Loss in
Ice Crystal Conditions
ICE CRYSTAL ICING
CAN OCCUR DEEP
IN THE ENGINE,
WHERE SURFACES
ARE WARMER
THAN FREEZING.
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as small as 40 microns (the size of our grains).
These are the crystals that can affect an engine
when ying through convective weather. The
industry is using the phrase ice crystal icing to
describe these icing conditions, and to differentiate
it from icing conditions due to supercooled liquid.
Ice crystals do not adhere to cold airframe
surfaces because the ice crystals bounce off.
However, the crystals can partially melt and stick
to relatively warm engine surfaces.
Glaciated conditions refers to atmospheric
conditions containing only ice crystals and no
supercooled liquid. Mixed phase conditions
refers to atmospheric conditions containing both
ice crystals and supercooled liquid. Both glaciated
and mixed phase conditions occur in convective
clouds and have been present during engine
power-loss and damage events.
On-board weather radar can detect large
particles such as hail, rain, and large ice crystal
masses (snowakes). Small particles, such as ice
crystals in high concentrations near thunderstorms,
are invisible to on-board weather radar, even
though they may comprise the majority of the total
mass of a cloud (see g. 1).
Sophisticated satellite radar technology has
been used to detect crystals smaller than the lower
limit of on-board weather radar. Above the freezing
level, where icing can occur in a deep convective
cloud, satellite radar has conrmed that large
particles, which can be detected by on-board
weather radar, are only found near the convective
precipitation core. Away from the convective
precipitation core, satellite radar has conrmed
that small ice crystals, which are invisible to
on-board weather radar, exist.
For this reason, ight in visible moisture
near deep convective weather, even without
radar returns, and at temperatures below freezing,
is very likely to be in ice crystal conditions.
Ice building up on the inlet, fan, or spinner
would likely shed outward into the fan bypass duct
without causing a power loss. Therefore, in these
power-loss events, it is reasonable to conclude that
ice must have been building up in the engine core.
It is now believed that ice crystal icing can occur
deep in the engine where surfaces are warmer
than freezing (see g. 2). Both older generation
jet engines and the new generation of jet engines
(high bypass ratio engines with electronic engine
controls) can be affected by ice crystal icing.
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The actual mechanism for ice crystal-related
engine power loss takes many forms, depending
on the design characteristics of each particular
engine type (see table below).
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About 60 percent of recorded ice crystal power-
loss events have occurred in Asia. Researchers
speculate that this may be due to the fact that the
highest sea surface temperatures are also found
SATELLITE/RADAR IMAGE OF A HURRICANE CONVECTIVE STORM
Figure 1
This NASA Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) combined satellite radar image shows
a vertical cross-section of a convective storm. The image shows the freezing level clearly by the
bright band where ice particles become coated with melted water and are excellent reectors
of radar energy. Below the freezing level, liquid water is highly reective. Above the freezing
level, while the concentration of moisture may still be high, the cloud is mostly composed of
frozen ice particles with radar reectivity below 20dBZ (units of radar energy). Small ice crystals
are irregular in shape and poor reectors of radar energy. These small ice crystals are believed
to be associated with engine power-loss events.
Photo Credit: NASA TRMM
image by Hal Pierce (SSAI/GSFC)
POWER-LOSS TYPE DESCRIPTION EFFECT RECOVERY
Surge/Stall* Ice shed into compressor
drives engine to surge,
then stall causes rotor
speeds to decay, and
reducing airow while
combustor remains lit.
Thrust loss and
high exhaust gas
temperature.
Throttle to idle. Cycling
of the fuel switch may
be required to clear
some stalls.
Flameout* Ice shed into the
combustor quenches
the ame.
Thrust loss and all
parameters dropping.
Ignition. Many events
self-recover due to
auto-relight or having
the ignition already on.
Engine Damage Engine blades become
damaged as shed ice
impacts them.
Typically no effect
at time of initial
damage, but damaged
blades may fail later
causing vibration
or engine stall.
As appropriate refer
to Quick Reference
Handbook.
*In every large transport power-loss event occurring due to stall and ameout that has been tracked to date, the engines
were successfully restarted.
Freezing Level
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AERO QUARTERLY QTR_04 | 07
HOW ICE CRYSTALS
ACCRETE IN A
JET ENGINE
Figure 2
Researchers hypothesize that
ice particles enter the engine
and bounce off surfaces
colder than freezing (inlet,
fan, and spinner). Once
reaching surfaces warmer
than freezing in the core,
some of the small particles
can melt and create a lm
of water on the surface to
which additional incoming
ice crystals can stick. This
process gradually reduces
the temperature of the
surface until ice can begin
to build up.
LOCATIONS OF ICE
CRYSTAL POWER-
LOSS EVENTS
Figure 3
While most ice crystal
power-loss events that have
been studied to date have
occurred in Asia, events have
been noted in most parts of
the world. Note: Latitude and
longitude information is not
available for all 100 events.
This chart actually shows
67 events, some of which
are overlaid. Not all events
are Boeing airplanes.
0 30 60 90 120 150 -30 -60 -90 -120 -150
Intercompressor Bleed
Core air travels
downstream
to the
combustion
High-Pressure Compressor
Low-Pressure Compressor
Fan
Core Inlet Stator
Potential ice particle
accretion areas
Supercooled liquid water accretion areas
(inlet, spinner, fan, and rst stages of the core)
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-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000
in this region. Higher temperature air can hold
more water. There is a heavy concentration of
ice crystal power-loss events between 20 and
40 degrees north latitude with a few events farther
than 45 degrees from the equator (see g. 3).
Engine power-loss events have occurred in
three phases of ight: climb, cruise, and descent.
However, most events occur during the descent
phase, most likely because of a combination of
two factors. First, for icing to occur, the ambient
temperature must be below the freezing level, and
therefore icing tends to occur at the higher altitude
associated with the descent phase. Second, the
engine is least tolerant to ice shedding at idle
power, which occurs in the descent phase. Icing
at high power and high altitude is possible due to
the existence of high concentrations of ice crystals
for long distances, such as in the anvil of a large
convective storm, and the fact that ice can build
up on warm engine surfaces.
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Researchers have identied several conditions that
are connected to engine ice crystal icing events.
The most important factors are:
N
High altitudes and cold temperatures.
Commercial airplane power-loss events
associated with ice crystals have occurred
at altitudes of 9,000 to 39,000 feet, with
a median of 26,800 feet, and at ambient
temperatures of 5 to 55 degrees C with a
median of 27 degrees C. The engine power-
loss events generally occur on days when
the ambient temperature is warmer than the
standard atmosphere (see g. 4).
N
The presence of convective clouds. Convective
weather of all sizes, from isolated cumulo-
nimbus or thunderstorms to squall lines
and tropical storms, can contain ice crystals.
Convective clouds can contain deep updraft
cores that can lift high concentrations of water
thousands of feet into the atmosphere, during
which water vapor is continually condensed
and frozen as the temperature drops. In doing
so, these updraft cores may produce localized
regions of high ice water content which spread
downwind. Researchers believe these clouds
can contain up to 8 grams per cubic meter
of ice water content; by contrast, the design
standard for supercooled liquid water for
engines is 2 grams per cubic meter.
N
Areas of visible moisture above the altitudes
typically associated with icing conditions.
This is indicated by an absence of signicant
airframe icing and the ice detector (when
installed) not detecting ice, due to its ability to
detect only supercooled liquid, not ice crystals.
These additional conditions are also typically
found during engine ice crystal power-loss events.
N
No pilot reports of weather radar returns at
the event location.
N
Temperature signicantly warmer than
standard atmosphere.
N
Light-to-moderate turbulence.
N
Areas of heavy rain below the freezing level.
N
The appearance of precipitation on heated
windshield, often reported as rain, due to
tiny ice crystals melting.
N
Airplane total air temperature (TAT) anomaly-
reading zero, or in error, due to ice crystal
buildup at the sensing element (see case
study on following page).
N
Lack of observations of signicant airframe icing.
ALTITUDE AND
TEMPERATURE
OCCURRENCE OF
ENGINE POWER LOSS
Figure 4
Temperatures for the majority
of the events for which data
is available are signicantly
warmer than standard day
temperatures, and also
fall outside of the current
icing design envelopes for
supercooled liquid water.
U = Power-Loss Event
= Standard Atmosphere
= Standard Atmosphere +10C
= Standard Atmosphere 10C
= Continuous Maximum
Stratiform Clouds
= Intermittent Maximum
Cumuliform Clouds
ALTITUDE
A
M
B
I
E
N
T

T
E
M
P
E
R
A
T
U
R
E

(
d
e
g
r
e
e
s

C
)
AERO QUARTERLY QTR_04 | 07
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INFRARED IMAGE WITH AIRPLANE TRACK
In this infrared satellite image from about the time of an
engine event, bright white indicates colder cloud, and therefore
at high altitude. The airplane penetrated the upper altitudes
of a fully developed typhoon, yet the pilot did not see any ight
level radar returns.
The asterisks represent the aircraft path from left to right on
descent into Taipei, with the event noted in purple.
N
A commercial airplane on descent, ying in convection conditions, experienced a TAT anomaly. (The
anomaly is due to ice crystals building up in the area in which the sensing element resides, where
they are partly melted by the heater, causing a 0 degrees C reading. In some cases, TAT has stabilized
at 0 degrees C during a descent, and may be noticeable to pilots. In other cases, the error is more
subtle, and not a reliable-enough indicator to provide early warning to pilots of high concentrations
of ice crystals.)
N
At 38,000 feet (42 degrees C), the pilot encountered moderate turbulence and noted some lightning
in the vicinity.
N
A brief power-loss event occurred at 30,000 feet the engines restarted quickly.
N
There were no radar echoes at the altitude and location of the airplane.
N
An absence of a response from the ice detector indicated that no supercooled liquid was present.
N
The pilot reported heavy rain at 25 degrees C.
N
Initial report of rain on the windscreen was later determined to be ice crystals, and conrmed
by the pilot to have a unique sound.

To view enhanced media associated with this article, visit AERO online
at www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine.
WWW. BOEI NG. COM/ COMMERCI AL/ AEROMAGAZI NE
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Even when there are no radar returns, there may
be signicant moisture in the form of ice crystals
at high altitudes. These are not visible to airborne
radar. As a result, it is not possible to avoid all ice
crystal conditions. However, normal thunderstorm
avoidance procedures may help pilots avoid
regions of high ice crystal content.
These avoidance procedures include:
N
Avoiding ying in visible moisture over storm
cells. Visible moisture at high altitude must
be considered a threat since intense storm
cells may produce high concentrations of ice
crystals at cruise altitude.
N
Flying upwind of storms when possible.
N
Using the radar antenna tilt function to scan
the reectivity of storms ahead. Assess the
height of the storms. Recognize that heavy rain
below the freezing level typically indicates high
concentrations of ice crystals above.
N
Avoiding storm reectivity by 20 nautical miles
has been commonly used as a recommended
distance from convection. This may not be
sufcient for avoidance of high concentrations
of ice crystals, as they are not visible on
airborne radar.
These recommendations are included in ight
operations technical bulletins Nos. 707-06-1,
727-06-1, 737-06-1, 747-15, 747-400-55,
757-75, 767-75, 777-21, 787-1 issued by Boeing
on August 1, 2006: Convective Weather Containing
Ice Crystals Associated with Engine Power Loss
and Damage.
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Today, knowledge of the nature of convective
weather and the exact mechanism of ice crystal
buildup and shedding in the engine is limited. A
research program is being developed by an industry
icing group to address these needs. It involves
ights into convective clouds to measure their
prop erties, as well as ground-based engine testing.
Most of what is currently understood about the
environment associated with engine events is
based on pilot reports and ight data. Additional
pilot reports of high-altitude ice crystal encounters
(with or without engine events) will help researchers
understand the conditions associated with engine
events, ensure that the ight program is directed
into the appropriate ight conditions, and help
develop cues for these ight conditions.
Pilots encountering conditions such as those
described in this article are encouraged to provide
as many details about the conditions as possible to
their airlines for subsequent use by researchers.
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Ice crystal icing conditions have been recognized
as a hazard to turbofan engines. Ice can build up
deep in the engine core.
Pilots are advised to familiarize themselves
with the conditions under which ice crystal icing
typically occurs and follow the recommendations
in related technical bulletins.
Airline awareness of the potential for ice
crystal icing on all engine models/airplane types
may provide additional information that will
help Boeing and the industry better understand
this phenomenon.
For more information, please contact Jeanne
Mason at [email protected].
Material for this article has been drawn from AIAA 2006-0206
Ice Particle Threat to Engines in Flight, Mason, Strapp
and Chow.
Pilots are advised to familiarize
themselves with the conditions under
which ice crystal icing typically occurs
and follow the recommendations
in related technical bulletins.