1.

Capitalization and Contractions

Chapter 1

Always follow capitalization conventions in the target language. Do not reproduce those used in the source language because the spelling rules are different. Only use contractions where appropriate for the text type. In some languages, contractions indicate colloquial language and therefore they are not appropriate in many types of written texts. They may be appropriate in contexts such as e-mails, transcriptions of spoken language____________

Uvek treba koristiti kapitalizacija konvenciju u TL. Ne reprodukovati one koriscene u SL zato sto su pravila spelovanja drugacija. Uvek koristiti kontrakcije gde je prikladno za tip teksta. U nekim jezicima, kontrakcije indikuju kolokvijalni jezik i zbog toga nisu prikladne za mnogo tipova pisanog teksta. Mogu biti prikladne za kontekste kao sto su e mejlovi, transkripcije govornog jezika...

2. Abbreviations
When a foreign abbreviation unfamiliar to readers occurs for the first time, it is usually best to write out the full term followed by the abbreviation in brackets. a) Use standard abbreviations in the target language if they exist b) If no standard abbreviation exists you should write out a translation of the term in full each time rather than improvising and abbreviation in the target language. You may use the original source language abbreviation, and upon first mention give the target language translation followed by the abbreviation in brackets (or vice versa), as long as the meaning remains clear to the reader throughout the text.______________________________

Kada se abrivijacija stranog jezika nepoznatog citaocima desi prvi put obicno je najbolje ispisati ceo izraz pracen abrivijacijom u zagradama. a) Koristiti standarde abrivijacije u TL ukoliko postoje b) Ako ne postoji standard abrivijacije treba ispisati prevod izraza u potpunosti svaki put, bolje nego improvizovati i abrivijaciju u TL. Mozete koristiti originalnu abrivijaciju SL teksta i upon the first mention dati TL prevod pracen abrivijacijom u zagradama ili obrnuto, dokle god znacenje ostaje jasno citaocu kroz tekst.

3. Omissions and Errors in the source text

Any omissions or errors in the source text should be marked in the target text either by writing the equivalent in the target language of *sic+ or *omission+ or by including translator's note. Translator's notes should be kept to a minimum and be as concise as possible. If the note is short it may be included in the main body of the text. Longer notes should appear as a footnote or marked with an asterisk * (which may be numbered if there is more than one). If the source language text contains its own footnotes, the remarks made by the translator have to be marked in a different way and clearly indicated at the bottom of the page._______________________________________________________________________

Svaka omisija ili greska u S tekstu treba biti obelezena u T tekstu ili pisuci ekvivalente u TL of *sic+ or *omission+ ili ukljucujuci prevodiocevu notu. Prevodioceva nota mora biti drzana do minimuma i biti koncizna sto je vise moguce. Ako je nota kratka moze biti ukljucena u glavno telo teksta. Duga nota treba da se pojavi kao fusnota ili da se obelezi sa asterisk*. Ako tekst SL tekst sadrzi sopstvene fusnote, the remarks made by translator moraju biti obelezene na drugi nacin jasno indikovan na dnu strane.

4. Illegibility
Illegible sections in the source text should be marked in the target text with the equivalent in the target language of *illegible+. Yet, all words and all numbers etc. that are legible, even if only part of a sentence, should be translated or reproduced. e.g. ...the form of [illegible] is quite common 28 [illegible] million dollars_____________________________________________________________________________

Illegible sections u source tekstu trebaju biti obelezeni kao u target tekstu sa ekvivalentom u TL of *illegible+. Ipak, sve reci i svi brojevi koji su legible, iako samo deo recenice, trebaju biti prevedeni i reprodukovani.

5. Last-minute solutions
Most translators resort to different solutions when faced with things they do not know what to do with. The following list contains the most common problems a translator is faced with and offers some solutions._____________________________________________________

Vecina prevodioca rezortuje razlicitim resenjima kada se suoce sa stvarima sa kojima ne znaju sta da rade. The Following List sadrzi najcesce probleme sa kojima se susrece prevodilac i nudi neka resenja.

6. Shift or Transposition
This is the only translation procedure concerned with grammar. It is used when the translator faces a grammatical structure that either does not exist in the target language or does not fit the context of the translation. Comparative linguistic research is being conducted continuously so as to find all the subtle and obvious intersections between two languages. In practice, this means that the translator will have to change a singular noun into a plural form, paraphrase the emphatic 'do', substitute a modal with a finite verb phrase, use the past tense for the present perfect tense, convert a complex sentence into two or more simple sentences, avoid gender-specific lexemes, substitute a noun phrase with a clause etc.___________________________________________

Ovo je jedina prevodilacka procedura vezana za gramatiku. Koristi se kada se prevodilac suoci sa gramatickom strukturom koja ili ne postoji u TL ili se ne uklapa u kontekst prevoda. Komparativno lingvisticko istrazivanje je being conducted continuously da bi se pronasle sve suptilne i ocigledne intersekcije izmedju dva jezika. U praksi, ovo znaci da ce prevodilac morati da: 1. promeni jedninu imenice u oblik mnozine 2. parafrazira emphatic do 3. substituise modal sa finite verb phrase 4. koristi past tense da prevede present perfect tense 5. konvertuje kompleksne recenice u dve ili vise jednostavne recenice 6. avoid gender-specific lexemes 7. substituise imensku frazu with a clause

7. Sub-Text Translation
This procedure is used because there is a need to preserve accuracy of meaning and intention as expressed by the source language text. It is similar to contextual recreation with the difference that it is more applicable for the translation of literary texts and less for translations of official documents. Sometimes, in a court judgment or transcript of a procedure, as they are mainly renderings of indirect speech, that is interpretations of words detached in time and space, the translator might have to offer a limited and controlled amount of sub-text in the translation for the sake of accuracy.______________________________________________________________________________________

Ova procedura se koristi zato sto postoji potreba da se preserve tacnost znacenja i namere as expressed od strane SL teksta. Slicna je kontekstualnoj rekreaciji sa razlikom koja je vise nego aplikabilna za prevod knjizevnih tekstova a manje za prevod oficijalnih dokumenata. Ponekad u sudskoj presudi ili transkriptu procedure, as they are mainly renderings indirektnog govora, to je interpretacija reci otkacenih u prostoru i vremenu, prevodilac bi mogao da ponudi ogranicenu i kontrolisanu sumu sub teksta u prevodu za dobrobit tacnosti.

8. Contextual Recreation
- the "re-creative translation" and it is usually not recommended for an entire text - if all other types of translations prove inaccurate and insufficient, a translator will have to try contextual translation for smaller units, and find solutions which might be completely different from the SL text but unavoidable since no other procedure will make the translation comprehensible_________________________________________________________________________________________________

Rekreacioni prevod i obicno nije preporucljiv za ceo tekst. Ako se svi drugi prevodi dokazu ne tacni i ne dovoljni, prevodilac ce morati da proba kontekstualni prevod za manje junite i da nadje resenje koje bi moglo biti totalno drugacije od SL teksta, ali neizbezno since nijedna druga procedura moze da ucini prevod razumljivim.

9. Accepted Translation
- refers to some transparent institutional terms that are translated literally in several European countries and are accepted as such - the TL cultural equivalent for these terms may have a broader function and although some of these terms may be misleading, an accepted translation is still the best choice__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Odnosi se na transparentne institutional termine koji su prevedeni bukvalno u nekoliko zemalja Evrope i prihvaceni su kao takvi. The TL kulturni ekvivalent za ove termine moze imati broader funkciju i iako neki od ovih termina mogu biti misleading, prihvaceni prevod je jos uvek najbolji izbor

10. Back Translation

- this procedure may be applied in its most general sense - to validate the accuracy of our own translation (or somebody else's) - take either a complete translation, or just a part of it, and translate it back to the SL in order to see how much the TL text differs from the original - any structure that seems to deviate from the original to the extent that it borders inaccuracy, can be identified and corrected____________

Ova procedura moze biti primenjena da validira tacnost naseg sopstvenog prevoda (or somebody else's) Uzima ili kompletan prevod ili samo deo i prevede ga nazad u SL kako bi videli koliko se TL tekst razlikuje od originala

11. Additional Translation Procedures

- in some "real life" situations it is not the best choice to use the combination of semantic and communicative translation - here is the list of procedures that refers to individual units and its goal it to help the translator deliver an accurate translation to his readers_______

U nekim "real life" situacijama nije najbolji izbor koristiti kombinacije semantickih komunikativnih prevoda Postoji lista procedura koja se odnosi na individualne junite i njen je cilj da pomogne prevodiocu da deliveruje tacan prevod svojim citaocima.

12. Communicative Translation

- focused on the meaning of the context; the translator makes sure that content and language are shaped in such way that is understandable for the reader - usually accepted when translating proverbs, idioms, etc.________________________________________________________________________

Fokusirani na znacenje konteksta. Prevodilac makes sure da su sadrzaj i jezik oblikovani na takav nacin da su razumljivi za citaoca. Obicno prihvaceni kada prevode proverbs, idioms itd

13. Idiomatic Translation

- this method reproduces the "message" of the original but tends to disregard some specific nuances of the original - colloquialism or idiomatic expressions may be introduced (by the translator) that do not exist in the original, in order to make the translation sound as natural as possible__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Ova metoda reprodukuje poruku originala ali tezi da disregard neke specificne nuances originala Kolokvijalizam ili idiomatski izraz moze biti predstavljen koji ne postoji u originalu, u cilju da napravi prevod da zvuci sto prirodnije.

14. Free Translation

- "intralingual translation" - reproduction of the original (not the translation) in a form that suits the translator best by using this method the translator tries to represent both the content and the meaning of the SL, so it's better to look at this as paraphrase of SL rather than translation____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

ili intralingualni prevod Reprodukcija originala u obliku koji prevodiocu najvise odgovara Koristeci ovu metodu, prevodilac pokusava da reprezentuje i sadrzaj i znacenje SL, tako da je bolje gledati na ovo kao parafrazu SL nego prevod.

15. Adaptation
- "freest" form of translation; should not be used for translating documents - mainly used for popular literature, films... - basic intention is to make translation sound and seem as funny (sad, serious, etc.) in TL as it does in SL______________________________________

"freest" form prevoda, ne treba se koristiti za prevod dokumenata Uglavnom se koristi za popularnu literaturu, filmove... Osnovna namera je da napravi da prevod zvuci sto smesnije (tuznije, ozbiljnije) U TL nego sto zvuci u SL

16. Coding
Coding in linguistics can mean expressing the meaning of something in a foreign language. There are 2 steps of coding 1. Analyzing and understanding the source code 2. Rewriting or transforming, into source code_._______________________________________________________________________

Kodiranje u lingvistici moze znaciti izrazavanje znacenja necega u stranom jeziku Postoje dva koraka: 1. Analiziranje i razumevanje source koda 2. Prepisivanje ili transformisanje u Source Kod

17. The relationship between code and encode

The relationship between code and encode is: We decode SL, decipher/analyze/understand it and then we rewrite the deciphered meaning into TL that is to encode it in the TL. If we want to check it we decode it again:

Odnos izmedju kodiranja i enkodiranja je: Mi dekodiramo SL desifrujemo, analiziramo, razumemo ga i onda prepisemo desifrovano znacenje u TL da bi ga enkodirali u TL

18. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GENERAL AND CLOSE READING

19. Decoding in Translation

Dekodiranje u prevodu znaci analiziranje i razumevanje znacenja necega u source jeziku

Chapter 2

Decoding in translation means analyzing and understanding meaning of something in the source language._________________________________

20. Readership
The audience reached by written communications Readership Translator should determine the context and readership of the text before translating it. Context and readership go along with each other but they do not necessary have to comply with each other meaning. Translator cannot change the original intention of author or a text.______________

To je publika richovana pisanim komunikacijama. Readership Translator treba da utvrdi kontekst i readership teksta pre nego sto ga prevede. Kontekst i readership idu jedno uz drugo, ali ne moraju nuzno da comply with each other meanings. Prevodilac ne moze da promeni originalnu nameru autora teksta.

21. Context
Translator must know entire surrounding of a text, the environment in which it exists together with implied and expressed intentions of both the text and the author of the text. __________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Prevodilac mora da zna celo okruzenje teksta, okolinu u kojoj ono zajedno postoje sa impliciranim i izrazenim namerama i teksta i autora teksta

22. Understanding the Context

The translator should determine the context and the readership of the text to be translated before doing the translation itself. It involves a lot of reading. the job of the translator is even more difficult because the translation of the text has to be adjusted to the particular readership.___________________

Prevodilac mora da utvrdi kontekst i readership teksta to be preveden pre nego uradi sam prevod. To involvira mnogo citanja, a posao prevodioca je cak vise tezak jer prevod teksta mora biti prilagodjen to the particular readership. .

23. Translation Methods

Up to the nineteenth century the spirit and the general sense of the whole text was favored by translators. Later, the focus shifted and it became important to translate every single word.___________________________________________________________

Do 19. Veka duh i generalni osecaj celog teksta su bili favorizovani od strane prevodioca. Kasnije, fokus je prebacen i on je postao vazan da prevede every single word.

24. Word-for-word translation = 25. Interlinear translation

The target language is immediately below the source language words. The translator preserves the source language word order and words are translated as single units and out of context. Culture specific lexical units and similar fixed phrases are translated literally. The result can be not only grammatically incorrect but also incomprehensible to a native speaker of Serbian.___________________________________________________________________

He has never been to Australia. On ima nikada bio do Australija.

TL je odmah ispod SL reci. Prevodioc ocuvava SL red reci i reci su prevedene u singl junits i izvan konteksta. Kultiralna specificnost leksicne jedinice i slicna popravljenim frazama je prevedena bukvalno. Rezultati su gramaticki ne korektni i ne razumljivi nejtiv spikerima srpskog.

26. Literal translation

should be regarded as a pre translation procedure which is used to convert source language grammatical constructions to their nearest target language equivalents. Lexical units are translated singly and out of context. Idioms should be translated by equivalent idiomatic expressions____________________________________________________________________

Bi trebalo da se regarduju kao pre translation procedura koja se koristi da konvertuje SL gramaticke konstrukcije do njihovih najblizih TL ekvivalenta. Leksicne jedinice su prevedene singly i izvan konteksta. Idiomi treba da budu prevedeni ekvivalentom idiomatskih izraza.

27. Faithful Translation

This method is used to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original but within the constraints of the target language grammatical structures. Any other characteristic of the source language text that makes the original unique is preserved in the target language. The translation of this kind faithfully represents all the Intentions and text-realizations of the source language writer._______________________

Ova metoda se koristi da reprodukuje precizno kontekstualno znacenje originala ali unutar constraints TL gramatickih struktura. Svaka karakteristika SL teksta koja cini original unikatnim je ocuvana u TL. Ova vrsta prevoda verno reprezentuje sve namere i tekst realizacije SL pisca.
Susannah addressed her cover letter To Whom It May Concern because there was no contact person listed in the job posting. Suzana je uputila svoje pratece pismo nadleznim licima posto u oglasu za radno mesto nije bila navedena ni jedna kontakt osoba.

The translator here has to try to represent the contextual meaning rather than the meanings of the individual words.

28. Semantic Translation

- more flexible and less dogmatic - it makes certain concessions to the readership by disobeying particular grammatical or lexical rules in the source language because they are different in the target language - here, the translator is focused on the meaning, and he tries to make translation sound as natural as possible________________________________

Vise fleksibilan i manje dogmatican Pravi izvesne koncesije readership u ne poslusavajuci odredjena gramaticka i leksicka pravila u SL, tako sto su razlicita u TL Prevodilac je fokusiran na znacenje i trudi se da napravi prevod da zvuci sto je prirodnije moguce

29. REGISTER
The particular set of terms occurring in the source text is the so-called register. The translator has to find equivalents for those terms and build a register of terms in the TL. Such a register is often referred to as a glossary. The register will mostly be from the area the ST is from (for example, banking and financing, law, or maybe medicine)____________________________________________________________________________________________----

Odredjen set termina koji se desava u source tekstu je takozvani Register. Prevodilac mora da nadje ekvivalente za te termine i sagradi registar termina u TL. Obicno je referred to as glossary. it is A formal or official recording of items, names, or actions or a book for such entries. 'Register' refers to the way people use language in different situations. The term is often used as a full or partial synonym for style, speech variety or variation, field of discourse, and text type

30. Terminology
When defining terminology, we refer to the particular and specific set of vocabulary related to the area of the knowledge presented in ST.For instance; medical texts will be full of terminology related to diseases and treatments___________________________________________________________.

Kada definisemo terminologiju, odnosimo se na odredjeni i specifican set vokabulara vezan za podrucje znanja prezentovanog u ST. Npr, medicinski tekstovi ce biti puni terminologije vezano za bolesti i lecenja.

31. Machine translation vs. computer assisted translation

MT is the application of computers to task of translating texts from one natural language to another. The task is made difficult by the imprecise nature of languages, the use of sarcasms, idiomatic expressions etc.CAT is the applications of a number of tools, but with the aim of helping the translator boost his own effectiveness basically by accelerating his work. They both do not produce the same results and they are used in distinct contexts.MT is expected to feed portions of text up the SL into the program and CAT tools do not translate entire portions.__________________________________________

MT je aplikacija kompijuterskih zadataka prevodjenja teksta za jednog prirodnog jezika na drugi, Zadatak je ucinjen teskim zbog ne precizne prirode jezika, upotrebe sarkazma, idiomatskih izraza.CAT je aplikacija broja alata, ali sa ciljem da pomogne prevodiocu da bustuje sopstvenu efektivnost, zapravo ubrzavajuci svoj rad. Oba ne produciraju iste rezultate, CAT ne prevodi CEO Teksta, dok u MT moze da se ubaci ceo tekst.

Computer-assisted translation includes the application of number of tools with the aim of helping the translator boost his own effectiveness by accelerating his work. The two most important aspects of CAT are: terminology databases translation memories Machine translation is an autonomous operating system and the user is expected to feed portions of text on the source language into the program, which will then supply the translation in the target language. In some cases, for instance while using the online Google translator, the program does not recognize the grammar rule referring to word order in English: Devojcica je imala puno lutaka i mnogo je volela da se igra s njima. The girl had a lot of dolls and much loved to play with them.

32. Transcription & 33. Transliteration

Transcription is opposed to transliteration because transcription maps the sounds of the source language to the best matching script of the target language. That means that "Peter" will be "Piter" in Serbian because the Serbian language has a one- letter-one-sound correspondence In contrast to this, most systems of transliteration represent the letters of the source language by letters pronounced similarly in the target language

Transkripcije je opozovana Transliteraciji zato tanskripcija mapuje zvuke SL to the best matching script of TL. To znaci da ce Peter biti Piter u Srpskom, zato sto srpski jezik ima jedno slovo jednu zvucnu korespodenciju. U kontrastu ovoga, vecina sistema transliteracije reprezentuje slova SL slovima koja su slicno izgovorena u TL

34. The sense of anticipation in oral translation

In oral translations, the sense of anticipation is of even greater importance. To some extent, a proper discourse analysis of the opening to a speech can help the translator outline the structure of most of the speech to follow. And in case the interpreter is taking notes, the ability to analyse a discourse can improve an oral translation considerably. E.g. We are now going the examiner three different approaches to this problem... You can immediately take three different columns in your notepad, put some titles or state the announced approaches above each of it and distribute your notes into the respective column. the following analysis is based on... Obviously you have to anticipate a step by step analysis which is why you should organize your notes accordingly. Gentlemen, the figures in this case are highly indicative... Here you have to get ready for a lot of numbers, which is why a pen and piece of paper should be ready.

35. Analyzing a discourse is easier in written translation Agree? Disagree?

In written translation it is much easier to analyse a discourse because the translator has time to undo and/or redo certain parts. Of course, this does not mean that discourse analysis is of no importance in written translations. Certain indicators have to be taken into account, as the title, the tone of voice, level of seriousness etc. e.g. SL: Accident in sawmill harvested numerous victims TL: brojne zrtve posledica nesrece u strugari The emphasis in this title is on the large number of victims which is why the Serbian translation sounds much better in a reversed word order. The obvious marker is the verb harvested which indicates that the texts is reporting on a great tragedy. TL: Nesreca u strugari pokosila veliki broj radnika

36. The translator should be able to establish a certain feeling of anticipation when starting a
translation Agree? Disagree?
The translator must learn how to establish a certain feeling of anticipation when starting with a translation. This means that the beginning of a text can indicate the structure of the text, helping the translator organize the translation in advance (if seferal approaches/attitudes/solutions etc. are announced, there will be several paragraphs). Additionally, certain discourse markers (unlike that, as opposed to that, similarly, in addition, furthermore, etc.) can clearly indicate the further development of the text (whether it is going to discuss opposing attitudes, compare similar things, add further info etc.) In written translation it is much easier to analyse a discourse because the translator has time to undo and/or redo certain parts. Of course, this does not mean that discourse analysis is of no importance in written translations. Certain indicators have to be taken into account, as the title, the tone of voice, level of seriousness etc. e.g. SL: Accident in sawmill harvested numerous victims TL: brojne zrtve posledica nesrece u strugari

37. Area of expertise (agree? Disagree? Explain!)

A translator should try to develop an area of expertise, which means that one should not claim to be able to translate texts from the areas of law, finances, medicine, dentistry, astro physics and gardening equally well. Maybe you can develop proficient knowledge in all these areas, but it would be much better to grow in one, two or three areas and become professional, almost flawless, develop a good reputation for these areas and deliver excellent translations than submit amateur translations that a proofreader will have to do all over again.

38. The System of Categorization the Information about Reality

The first and most important aspect of categorization is to establish a proper relationship between the particular concept that has to be categorized and the tools that we use to categorize

39.Analyses in Translation
It is a process of breaking a complex idea or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. Analysis may be needed in case of problematic words, phrases or entire portions of text, when equivalents seem too unavailable. Two types of analysis to be applied in the process of translation, the contrastive and the component analysis.

40. Contrastive Analysis

One possible way of translating is to find the closest equivalent in TL for a certain concept in SL. Another issue is that the degree of correspondence between two equivalents will not always be the same. The particular correspondence that can be established between different equivalents may range from absolute correspondence to complete lack of correspondence. The 3 levels of correspondence are: 1. Absolute correspondence/2.Partial/ 3.Absolute Lack of Correspondence

41. Absolute Correspondence

Its area includes internationalisms and terms that are of one and same origin and are easily recognized in several different languages some lexical items that might cause confusion: 1. chemical elements 2. Trademarks 3 Technical terms 4. international organizations

42. Partial Correspondence

where the meaning of a particular lexeme in the SL has to be adjusted to the context of the TL Partial correspondence in translation is the one that the translator is most likely going to deal with. Depending on knowledge referring to more than just the language he is dealing with the translator will have to make a right choice

eg. administration can be translated into Serbian as 1.uprava 2.sprovodjenje 3.administracija 4.vlada, 5.izdavanje.

43. Absolute Lack of Correspondence

Where there is no equivalent term so that the translation has to be paraphrased or a note explaining the concept has to be introduced e.g. (sr) sljivovica, svekrva, merak; (eng) drive-in cinema, take-out meal. Sometimes the translator may find a cultural equivalent if there is one e.g. poslasticarnica - ice-cream parlor.

44. Component Analysis

It is a technique that is used to describe the meaning of the word in the SL so as to find the best equivalent in the TL by reconstructing the meaning in the TL. This stands for a partially complicated procedure which is based on the assumption that certain structural characteristics appearing on different levels of a term in the SL may appear on different levels in the TL as well. Fellow => human + young + age 18 to 25 + singe + male Ljudsko bice + mlad + od 18 do 25 god. + Neozenjen + musko => momak

45. Stamps/seals and signatures; handwritten text

The procedure with stamps signature should be as follows: a) Mark the location of stamps, logos, emblems, etc. using the equivalent phrasing in the target language e.g. [Stamp/logo...translation of any words appearing in stamp...] b) Mark the location of signatures/initials etc. as follows using the equivalent in the target language E.g. TL = English [Signature] TL = Serbian [Potpis] If the signature is illegible, add illegible, if it is written in Cyrillic, state in cyrillic. Handwritten text Mark the location of handwritten text by writing the equivalent in the target language of *handwritten text:...+. Alternatively you may indicate a section is handwritten by using italics, as long as italics are not used for other purposes in the text as this cause confusion.

E.g. TL = English [Handwritten text: (translation of text)] TL = Serbian [U rukopisu: (translation of the text)]

46. Notes and Other Additions

When a unit cannot be translated at all, the source language unit should be put between inverted commas and a note should be inserted. The translator should not underestimate his readership and offend them by offering too many explanations. What it boils down to is the translator's common sense and adequate evaluation of his readership, which will offer the best possible guidance as far as frequency and amount of additions are concerned. There are three types of common problems that can be solved by means of notes: a) Cultural The differences between source and target language cultural concepts can easily be resolved by explaining the difference in an additional note b) Technical The particular concept can be explained or documented by suggesting additional sources c) Linguistic for certain metaphors, puns, idioms, poetic devices, word-plays it is impossible to find an appropriate equivalent and, rather than sounding ridiculous with some attempted translation, it will be much better to insert an explanatory note suggesting at least the meaning if not an equivalent. Two different forms of additions in a text can be suggested: a) Additions within the text whereby the translator should: insert the additional material into the text whenever it is possible so as not to interrupt the reader's flow of attention insert round brackets to include material that is part of the translation insert square brackets to make corrections of some facts or remarks considering issues otherwise impossible to solve b) Additions in the form of notes should generally be used only if an explanation is too long to be inserted into the text. Notes can be inserted: with shorter translations at the bottom of the page with longer translations at the bottom of the page, at the end of a chapter or at the end of a book

47. Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis is a rather new concept that can be defined as the analysis of texts beyond and above the sentence the attempt to find linguistic regularities in discourse In accordance to that, two aspects of discourse are considered of crucial importance: Cohesion: the characteristics that bind the sentences together as based on grammar and vocabulary Coherence: the characteristics that are derived from the notional and logical unit of the text Various definitions may be found about the term discourse: ranging from all forms of writing and speaking to only the way talk is put together, but the various attempt at defining discourse and discourse analysis have one thing in common they all acknowledge the fact that it is the study of language beyond the level of the sentence. A more precise definition would refer to discourse analysis as being a detailed exploration of political, personal, media or academic talk and writing about a subject, designed to reveal how knowledge is organized, carried and reproduced in particular ways and through particular institutional practices. Both discourse and text apply to segments of language larger than a sentence. In that sense, there are two major approaches. On one hand, discourse analysis focuses on the structure of naturally occurring spoken language, as found in such discourses as conversations, interviews, commentaries and speeches. On the other hand, text analysis focuses on the structure of written language, as found in essays, notices, road signs, chapters. Linguists are now agreeing that language is a dynamic, social and interactive phenomenon existing between speaker and listener, or writer and reader. Discourse or text, either or both, are units of language used for communicative purposes with one feature in common they are units of language larger than a

48. Is there a uniform approach to the area of translation?

Generally speaking, a unified approach to the area of translation studies is still missing. Many authors are still seeking agreement and support for all the different points of view that may be found. Bearing in mind the fact that until a few decades ago, translation studies had no independent status, it is more than obvious that a lot of work is ahead if a unified and well-established scientific system in the study of translation is to be achieved, let alone a valid classification of sub-disciplines.

49. History of translation, different traditions in translation

There had been some translations as the practice dates far back to ancient times; there is indisputably enough proof of that. However, translations had normally been merely an element of language learning in modern language courses Different approaches to translation, to the practical aspects in particular, may be discovered in different corners of the world. Theories on translation agree that there are different traditions in translations, such as the Chinese, the African, the Japanese etc. and they all depend mainly on the subject of translation and the method.

50. The grammar-translation method and the period of its domination

From the 18th century to the 1960s the grammar-translation method dominated almost the entire language learning practice. In the 1960s, schools in the USA started introducing translation workshops, which were initiated in the 1920s but did not develop into a regular practice immediately. Parallel to that, comparative literature and contrastive analyses began evolving an engaged in some form of translation.

51. Different authors and different names of the academic discipline dealing with the study of
translation
The academic discipline dealing with the study of translation has had different names at different times. For instance, the science of translation (Nida 1969), translatology (Goffin 1979) or the most widely used one these days translation studies (Baker 2001:277). Holmes (1972/1988:70) argued for the adoption of translation studies saying it is the standard term for the discipline of a whole. Toury (1995) insists on the point of view that applied activities, such as translator training and translation criticism are not seen as essential component of a translation studies but rather as extensions of the discipline.

52. The relationship between theoretical, descriptive and applied translation

Holmes (1970) made the first attempt to chart the territory of translation studies as an academic pursuit, which is why it is referred to as a solid framework for organizing academic activities within this domain. Two major areas of the discipline are pure and applied translation studies whereby the former has the dual objective to provide the theoretical approaches, principles and rules for the study as well as to offer valid descriptions and explanations of translation phenomena. Unlike that, applied translation studies covers activities directed at specific practical applications of the discipline. The subdivisions and disciplines are focused on specific applications of the general branches such as text-type restricted partial theoretical translation studies, a sub-division of pure translation studies, being theories of literary translation or Bible translation. A very specific and important aspect of Holmes mapping is that the relationship between theoretical, descriptive and applied translation studies is dialectical rather than unidirectional, with each branch providing insights for and using insights form the other two. Holmes himself concludes that though the needs of a given moment may vary, attention to all three branches is required if the discipline is to grow and flourish. Toury suggests that the relationship between theoretic al and descriptive studies is not dialectical as is the case in Holmes presentation, but rather unidirectional.